©The Pakistan Development Review

46 : 4 Part II (Winter 2007) pp. 997-1009

Water Resources and Conservation

Strategy of Pakistan

Ayaz Ahmed, Henna Iftikhar, and G. M. Chaudhry

1. INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the basic necessities of life. God has gifted Pakistan with abun
water resources, with rivers flowing down the Himalayas and Karakoram heights
the world's largest glaciers and free and unique bounty for this land. Pakistan is ba
an agrarian economy. Out of its total geographical area of 79.61 million he
cultivated area is 22.05 million hectares. The total area under irrigation is 19.02 m
hectares [Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan (2005-06)]. Irrigated land supplies mor
90 percent of agricultural production and most of the country's food. Agriculture s
regarded as the backbone of Pakistan's economy. It contributes 25 percent of the
About more than 50 percent labour force is employed in this sector. Agriculture se
also the major user of water and its consumption will continue to dominate
requirement. Similarly, for industrial development main source of energy is hydro
which is generated by dint of water stored in big dams and reservoirs. Therefore
importance of the water for the survival of our economy cannot be denied.
The objective of this paper is to analyse in-depth the water resources
conservation strategies for Pakistan. Some scholars have recognised the inte
effects of partition on water resource governance in Pakistan. In Pakistan, Water
Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was established to build and operate
dams and canal constructed by Indus Basin Development Programme. To coor
large-scale infrastructure investment, the World Bank Commission on Water and
Resources of West Pakistan carried out a study in Sector Planning [Lieftinck
(1968)]. This study provided general guidance for coordinating inter-sub se
investments in groundwater development, drainage, hydroelectric power, agricul
inputs and economic sector planning. 1970s witnessed tension related to econ
environmental and institutional performance in water sector, which led to new par
for water management. Concern began to grow when national water sector expen
were not yielding expected agricultural and economic benefits; and they failed to s
local water institutions. In the International Drinking Water Supply and San
Decade (1981-90), improvement in domestic water supply and sanitation has been
slowly and largely independently from other sub sectors. Programmes have encou
appropriate technology; participatory approaches; and local financing, operat
maintenance [Pasha and McGarry (1989); Altaf, et al (1993)]. Vision for Water for

Ayaz Ahmed <[email protected]> is Senior Research Economist, Henna If

<[email protected]> is Staff Economist, and G. M. Chaudhry <[email protected]
Research Economist at the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad.
998 Ahmed, Ifiikhar, and Chaudhry

21st Century [Pakistan Water Partnership (1999)] lays out a bol

transformation of water resources governance, economics and env
According to National Water Vision, by 2025, Pakistan would
available through conservation, development and good gover
would be of good quality, equitably distributed and meet the needs
efficient and integrated management. Institutional and legal syste
sustainable utilisation of water resources and support economic an
with due consideration to the environment, quality of life, econom
ability to pay and participation of all stakeholders [Pakistan's Wat
The remaining portion of the study is organised as follo
highlights the water resources in Pakistan, while the Section 3 discu
and availability in Pakistan. The conservation of water resources is
4. The final section presents the conclusion of the study.

2. WATER RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN

There are two types of major water resources in Pakistan, natural and art
Natural resources include rainfall, rivers, glaciers, ponds, lakes, streams, karez
etc. whereas artificial resources consist of the surface water from rainfall and
which is in excess of the requirements for irrigation and other uses, is stored in
reservoirs. The water from these dams and reservoirs is not only used for irri
supplying water for daily consumption, but also used for hydroelectric power ge

Rainfall

There are two major sources of rainfall in Pakistan i.e. the Monsoons and the
Western Disturbances. There is about 70 percent of the annual Monsoon rainfall from
July to September. Pakistan has both arid and semi-arid zones. The entire Indus plain
receives an average seasonal rainfall of 212mm and 53mm in the Kharif and Rabi
seasons respectively. The rainfall varies as we move from the north and northeast to the
south of the country. It is only the canal command areas in the NWFP and the northern-
most canal commands of the Punjab Province that receive some appreciable amount of
rainfall during summer as wall as in winter season.
Based on 10- Year average (1996-2006), data of annual rainfall in some of the
major cities is depicted in the following graph.

RAILFALL DATA OF MAJOR CITIES

10 years average (1996-2006)
1400 -,
í 1300 - 968 п™ 1084
S íooo - D P
с
=3
800 - 621
600 и
647
D
D fl 1]
455
S 400 - 148 1 188 I п 174 263
"gin "п° » I В n ft И
<ф ф '* ^ ^ "v
Cities

Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan (Various Issues).

 Water Resources and Conservation Strategy 999

Glaciers

There are more glaciers in Pakistan than any other land, except North and South
Poles. The glacier area of Pakistan is about 13,680 sq km and on the average is 3 percent
of mountainous region of upper Indus Basin and accounts for most of the river turnoff in
summer. Pakistan has greatest mass and collection of glaciers on the earth. In Karakoram
Range, the total length of glaciers is 160 km. About 37 percent of the Karakoram area is
under its glacier, Himalayas has 17 percent and European Alps has 22 percent.
It was estimated the total area of glacier of the upper Indus catchments is about
2,250 sq km, which is mainly from most of the river runoff in the summer season. The
snow fed Kabul river starts from Unal Pass in southern Hindukash is at an elevation of
3,000 meters above the sea level. After flowing in eastern Afghanistan, it enters Pakistan
from north of Khyber Pass. The Jhelum River originates from Kashmir at lower elevation
than that of Indus River (Pakistan Water Strategy Report).

Rivers and Dams

Pakistan has been blessed with a number of rivers which are tributaries to the
Indus. The five main rivers which join Indus from eastern side are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi,
Beas and Sutlej, beside three minor rivers are the Haro, Soan and Siran. There are
number of small rivers which join the River Indus from the west side, in which biggest
river is Kabul and others are Kunar, Punj, Kora. The Gomal Kurram, Tai, Kohat Tank
and several other small streams join the Indus River from the right side.
The Table 1 transpires that maximum flow in Indus River during the Kharif season
(April to September) was 55 .087 MAF (million acre feet) and at minimum was 42.208
MAF and on the average was 51.3 MAF during the period 2002-07.
The overall maximum flows during kharif season of six rivers including Indus,
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlaj and Kabul was 118.9 MAF in 2005-06 and minimum flow
was 80.226 in 2004-05 and on the average, it was 101.9 MAF during the period 2002-
07. Similarly, for the Rabi season (October to Mach) the maximum flow in case of Indus
River was 10.0 MAF in 2006-07 and minimum flow was 8.5 MAF in 2003-04. On
average it was 9.1 MAF during 2002-07. Whereas, overall maximum flow for the Rabi
season for all the major rivers was 29.2 MAF and minimum was 21.6 MAF in 2002
and on the average, was 25.1 MAF during 2002-07.

Table 1

Annual Flow (MAF)

Sr. Name of 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07
No. River Kharif Rabi Kharif Rabi Kharif Rabi Kharif Rabi Kharif Rabi

1. Indus 48.28 7.944 55.087 8.540 42.063 9.511 56.00 9.535 55.066 9.975

2. Jhelum 12.307 5.097 17.659 5.008 11.739 6.717 17.725 5.468 16.437 6.777

3. Chenab 17.984 5.465 21.504 4.360 14.903 6.415 21.112 4.019 21.382 6.328
4. Ravi 0.413 0.452 0.854 0.093 0.391 0.405 0.702 0.142 1.164 0.352

5. Sutlej 0 0.027 0.022 0.094 0 0.043 0.311 0.044 0.070 0.08

6. Kabul 12.015 2.565 15.668 3.235 11.130 5.939 23.006 4.972 14.357 5.696

Source: IRSA, Islamabad.

1000 Ahmed, Ifiikliar, and Chaudhry

The historical background of dams in Pakistan is relatively shor

independence, there were only three dams in Pakistan. The Khush
and Spin Karazi.1945 was located in water scare area of Balochistan. In
only Nomai Dam, 1913 which was located in the Mianwali district.
In Pakistan, the construction of dams was started in 1955 when the c
acute shortage of power and Warsak Dam was constructed on the Kabul
Later on India stopped water supply for Pakistan which affected
cannel system. It became very important to build the large storage o
water for affected canal system. Two large dams were constructed; o
the gross storage capacity of 5.88 MAF and other is Terbala with
11.62 MAF, as part of its Indus Basin Replacement Works. There are
supply dams and relatively smaller schemes of irrigation were also un

Table 2

Storage Loss of Reservoirs

Original Gross Storage Loss by the Storage Loss by
Storage Capacity Year 2003 Year 2010
Reservoir

Terbela 11.62 (1974) 3.14 (27%) 3.95 (34%)

Chashma 0.87(1971) 0.37(43%) 0.48(55%)
Mangia 5.88 (1967) 1.18 (20%) 1.60 (27%)
Total

Source: MTDF (200

The above Tab

reservoirs estim
MAF, that is 2
According to M
percent of the g

Surface Water

The resource of surface water is the Indus System based on the river inflow
measured at the rim station. In the context of Indus Basin System a rim station is defined
as a control structure (barrages, reservoirs etc.) on river just when the river system enters
into the Pakistan territory or upstream of the canal irrigated Indus plain of Sindh and
Punjab provinces.
The rim stations for the Indus System Rivers are the Kalabagh Barrage for the
main Indus River, Marala Berage for the Chenab River, Marala Reservoir for the Jehlum
River, and Sulemanki and Ballkoi barrages for the Sutlej and Ravi rivers.
The Indus System and its tributaries bring on an average 154 MAF of water
annually. Three Western rivers contain 144.91 MAF of water and Eastern rivers contain
9. 14 MAF of water. From total of this water, 104.73 MAF is utilised for irrigation, 39.4
MAF flows to sea and about 9.9 MAF is consumed by the system losses which include
seepage, evaporation and spill during floods. The flow of the Indus Rivers varies from
year to year and within the year.
 Water Resources and Conservation Strategy 1 00 1

The water of Indus Basin Rivers is diverted to main canals through

reservoirs/barrages. These canals distribute the irrigation water through a network
branch canals into the command area.

The Indus Basin Irrigation System is the world one of the best net work consisting
of 16 barrages, 3 major reservoirs, 2 head-works, 2 siphons across major rivers, 44 canal
systems, (23 in Punjab, 14 in Sindh, 5 in NWFP and 2 in Balochistan)12 inter river link
canals and more than 107,000 water courses. The total length of canals is about 56,073
km. With the addition to canal supply, the system utilises 41.6 MAF of ground water
pumped through more than 500,000 tube wells (Pakistan Water Strategy Report).

Groundwater in Pakistan

Other important source of water is groundwater which consists 99 percent of

freshwater and easily accessible for the world. In Pakistan the volume of ground water is
immeasurable. In last four year its availability has been increased from 3 percent to the
40 percent of total water available at the farm gate. The Government of Punjab has
underlain unconfined aquifer covering about 79 percent of area, whereas the Government
of Sindh has underlain about 28 percent of area of fresh ground water.
The water is used for irrigation purposes and pumped through tube wells.
Whenever groundwater is saline is put into drains. Water which cannot be cleaned is
utilised for the irrigation proposes, after diluting with the fresh canal water. In the last 25
to 30 years, especially in the Upper Indus plain the ground water is utilised for the canal
supplies where the quality of groundwater is good. The irrigation of land has been started
though tube wells in early sixties. For the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) 500,000
tube wells has been installed. It has been estimated that the pumpage in all command area
is 50 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM). The total potential of groundwater in Pakistan is 55
MAF (Pakistan Water Strategy Report).

3. WATER DEMAND AND AVAILABILITY

The level of agricultural production is directly related to the availab

effective use of water as a major input. The demand for water is increasing rap
the opportunities for further development of water resources are diminishing.
Several reasons for growing water strategies could be attributed to expan
irrigation activities for boosting food and non-food production to meet the in
demand of growing population and growth in civic population needing large s
water. Salinity is another severe problem to be tackled. Salinity mainly occurs
irrigated land rocking water in the soil which absorbs mineral salts from the ear
evaporation of water, such salts dry out on the soil surface and deplete its fert
estimated that salinity has damaged about 25 percent of cultivated land. Recla
salined land is too much expensive. In Pakistan half of the run water (it is wate
the country, is collected in river, lakes and dams) is drawn about as much gain
under ground spin aquifer. By 2025 water demand would be 92 percent of ent
It is estimated that 25 percent about has been destroyed due to salinity. For ir
purpose, only one third of water is used. Efficient use of water is enrolment
Both over watering a poor drainage system are compounding the salinity
[Kaleem (2007)].
1002 Ahmed, Iftikhar, and Chaudhry

"Managing the Indus River Basin the Light of Climate Chang

falling behind agricultural and urban demand particularly in Kar
growth exceeds the physical institutional capacity of the pub
(2004)].
Allocation of water among the provinces used to be made on
March 1991, when there was mutual consensus in the form of
accord. Unfortunately, due to drought of the late 1990s continue
resultantly the accord remained unworkable. This has made impe
efficient and equitable management strategy about Indus Basin. T
realisation to economise water through using best cultivation tech
management.

Table 3

Overall Water Availability

Surface Water

At Canal At Farm Public Private SCRAP Water

Year

1997-98 Kharif 67.50 51.30 0.96 19.11 0.00 71.37

Rabi 35.64 0.65 0.97 19.16 0.00 50.78
Total 103.14 81.95 1.93 38.27 0.00 122.15
1998-99 Kharif 72.79 51.73 0.96 19.25 5.25 77.19
Rabi 37.91 30.98 0.97 19.38 5.25 55.59
Total 110.70 82.71 1.93 38.63 10.51 133.78
1999-00 Kharif 74.71 51.97 0.96 19.11 4.86 76.90
Rabi 31.99 31.40 0.97 19.16 4.85 56.38
Total 106.70 83.37 1.93 38.27 9.71 133.28
2000-01 Kharif 62.85 52.57 0.96 19.53 4.63 77.69
Rabi 23.32 31.65 0.97 19.62 4.64 57.08
Total 86.17 84.22 1.93 39.35 9.27 134.77
2001-02 Kharif 58.11 52.62 0.96 19.67 4.32 77.57
Rabi 21.50 31.72 0.97 20.04 4.33 57.06
Total 79.61 84.34 1.93 39.71 8.65 134.63
2002-03 Kharif 68.19 52.68 0.96 19.81 4.00 77.45
Rabi 28.22 31.78 0.97 20.27 4.01 57.03
Total 96.41 84.46 1.93 40.08 8.01 134.48
2003:04 Kharif 69.59 52.86 0.96 19.81 4.0 77.60
Rabi 33.56 31.90 0.97 20.27 4.01 57.15
Total 103.15 84.76 1.93 40.08 8.01 134.78
2004-05 Kharif 61.39 59.96 0.96 19.81 4.0 84.73
Rabi 24.53 25.70 0.97 20.27 4.01 50.95
Total 85.92 85.66 1.93 40.08 8.01 135.68
2005-06 Kharif 73.02 60.94 0.96 19.70 4.00 85.60
Rabi 31.51 26.12 0.97 20.28 4.01 51.38
Total 104.53 87.06 1.93 39.98 8.01 136.98
2006-07 Kharif 70.78 57.60 0.96 19.70 4.00 82.26
Rabi 31.18 29.88 0.97 20.68 4.01 55.54

Source: Water
 Water Resources and Conservation Strategy ' 003

The above Table 3 depicts the total water availability for the last 10 years fro
1997-98 to 2006-07. It is in a matrix form, showing the water position during Khari
Rabi seasons of each year with a bifurcation of surface water and ground wate
surface water is both at canal head and farm gate level. Whereas the ground water
form of public, private and scrap tube wells. The total surface water at farm gate le
showing a rising trend right from 1997-98 to 2006-07 and similarly, is the positio
surface water at farm gate during the Kharif season. This is due to increasing deman
water in irrigation with the passage of time. However, in case of Rabi season s
water at farm gate level shows somewhat a mixed trend. The water availability at
head has always been more than that of farm gate level.
So far as ground water is concerned, the water availability both during Kharif
Rabi seasons remained stagnant throughout the period 1997-98 to 2006-07. How
water availability through private tube wells both during Kharif and Rabi seasons m
less has been increasing throughout the last 10 year period.
Per capita water availability has been declining at an alarming rate, from
cubic meters in 1951 to about 1200 cubic meters in 2000. The per capita wat
availability during the various years is given in Table 4.

Table 4

Per Capita Water Availability

Year Population (Million) Per Capita Availability (m3)
1951 34 53ÕÕ
1961 46 3950
1971 65 2700
1981 84 2100
1991 115 1600
2000 148 1200
2013 207 850

2025

Source: D

Accor
estima
harves
hazard
deman
at 168.
expect
Accor
percen
rural p
to incr
increa
Table 5.
1004 Ahmed, Ißikhar, and Chaudhry

Table 5

Pakistan 's Water Scenario

Year

Availability 104 MAF 104 MAF

Requirement (including Drinking Water) 115 MAF 135 MAF
Overall Shortfall
Source: Ten Year Perspective Developme

The Irrigation System of Pakis

The irrigation system of Pakist
world, serving 42 million acres o
Indus River and its tributaries.
the following Table 6.

Tableó

Salient Features of Irrigation System of Pakistan

Structure No.
Major Storage Reservoirs 3
Small Dams (Appox. 3.00 MAF) 80
Barrages 19
Inter-River Link Canals 12
Independent Irrigation Canal Commands 45
Source: Pakistan's Vision of Water Resource Management.

The major storage reservoirs include Tarbela, Chashma on I

Mangia on Jhelum River. The total length of main canals and distrib
km. whereas watercourses comprise another 1,621,000 km. The divers
into off taking canals is made through barrages, which are gated div
main canals in turn deliver water to branch canals, distributaries
watercourses get their share of water through outlets in the' i
Distribution of water from watercourses is effected through a t
"Warabandi" '.

4. CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN

Scarcity of water and drought has compelled the countries to ad

conservation measures. In the scare water situation, Islam do not permits unnec
utilisation of water. Scrolling the pages of Islamic history, we witness the stru
Hazrat Haj ira for water under blazing sun in the burning desert and sprouting
spring from the rocky soil as a gift from Allah. The efforts for search of wat
much liked by the Almighty Allah that it has become a fundamental part of H
Day of Judgment. Moreover, cessation of water with stones to avoid its w
stocking it for long time besides saying "Zam Zam "means "stop" was the f
towards water storage, which led to concept for construction of dams.
 Water Resources and Conservation Strategy ' 005

The construction of dams in Pakistan is imperative, as only two major dams

been constructed after 1947, whereas, India and Turkey have constructed 24 and 6
respectively during the same period. The sedimentation in reservoirs is incr
drastically not just scuttled resources for irrigation but also lower energy produc
which also effects on industrial sector's expansion and efficiency of agricultu
government is working on prospect projects for raising the storage in order to me
future water and energy consumption of our country. The details of the prospect
storage projects are given in Table 7.

Table 7

Prospective Storage Projects

Storage Capacity (MAF) Installed Capacity
Name of Project Live Gross (MW) Status
Bastia Dam 6.4 7.30 4500 Engineering Design (Under Preparation)
KalabaghDam 6.10 7.90 3600 Ready for Implementation
Škardu Dam - - 4000 Under Feasibility Study
AkhoriDam 3.60 7.00 600 -do-
Munda Dam 0.56 1 .00 660 Engineering Design (Under Preparation)
Source: Monthly Progress Report, WAPDA House, Lahore.

The critical issue in water sector is to resolve the scarcity of water

augmentation and conservation. The augmentation of water supplies by implem
high priority projects like raising of Mangia Dam, construction of Gomal
Greater Thai Canal, Rainée Canal, Kachhi Canal, Mirani Dam, Sat Para Dam,
Dam, Kurram Tangi Dam, Diamer Basha Dam, Munda Dam and other med
small reservoirs. Priority will be given to the completion of ongoing schemes
stages. It is estimated that on completion of these projects an area of 3,239,882 a
be irrigated. The complete details of water projects under implementation are
Table 8.

Water Conservation Strategy

To work out a sound and cogent water conservation strategy is the need of the
time, as demand for water continues to rise because of increasing use of water in
agriculture and industry for the purpose of economic development and due to rapid
growth of population, whereas there is limited supply of water. Water management is the
biggest challenge of 21st century confronted by the country, as irrigated agriculture is 24
percent of GDP, the livelihood for the majority of country and input of agro-based
industry/exports. It has been made known that a considerable amount of water is lost
during its conveyance for the seepage in the lengthy canals. Proper lining of the canal
system could reduce these losses. According to a WAPDA Report more than 5 MAF of
irrigation could be saved by lining of minor canals and addition 3.6 MAF could be saved
by improvement of water courses. It is heartening to note that Government of the Punjab
has introduced modern telemetery system to check and control water theft by the farmers.
In order to overcome the menacing of water shortage and its losses, it has become
imperative to work on the lines of "Blue Revolution" which is threshold of the strategy
meant for making use of more effective techniques and obtaining optimum results for
' 006 Ahmed, Iftikhar, and Chaudhry

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 Water Resources and Conservation Strategy ' 007

reduction in water losses. The definition of "Blue Revolution" has been coined as a
system of drip irrigation that delivers water directly to the roots of crops by cutting use of
water by 30 to 70 percent and raising crop yield on the average by 20 to 90 percent.
The Medium Term Development Framework (MTDF) 2005-10 proposes a water
conservation strategy with the aim to improve the performance and utilisation of water
supply and sanitation system and reducing financial dependence on the Federal and
Provincial Governments pertains to (i) adoption of integrated approach, rational resource
use, and the introduction of water efficient techniques; (ii) containment of environment
degradation; (iii) institutional strengthening, capacity building and human resource
development (HRD); (iv) improving performance and utilisation of local systems through
better planning, management and community participation; (v) improving quality of life
and easy access to water supply, especially for women, (vi) improving sanitation through
sewerage and drainage schemes; (vii) promoting increased take up of household
sanitation; and (viii) improving the understanding of the linkages between hygiene and
health through community education campaigns, especially among the women and
children.

Apart from MTDF strategy following recommendations are proposed in the

contest of water conservation and management;

• Crash programme for cleaning of water channels including canals/water courses

and distributaries.

• Participatory water management at secondary tertiary level in collaboration with

provincial irrigation departments.
• Regulating ground water pumpage by issuance of licenses to check overdraft of
aquifer.
• Better water management for increasing cropping intensity with riverine area.
• Technical land levelling, surge irrigation, high irrigation efficiency technology
including drip and sprinkler.
• Strengthening of institutional capacity building by improving financial
sustainability.
• Better and more efficient use of funds.

• To harness the uncultivated lands for irrigation purpose, storage of flood water
during Monsoon season by construction of a series of small dams/reservoirs on
the barren lands and Barani areas of Northern Punjab, NWFP and Balochistan.
• Attracting more foreign investment by making an environment lucrative to it.
• Launching of incentive based upon public campaign emphasising conservation
of water at all levels.

5. CONCLUSION

The paper analyses the various aspects of water resources of Pakistan and p
a water conservation strategy. The importance of water cannot be laid aside while
for economic growth and development of Pakistan as it serves as a life bloo
economy. With the rapid growth of population and increased use of water, its s
not meeting its demand over the time. Besides the menaces of water shortages an
crisis, global warming is another serious challenge daunting the policy-makers o
1 008 Ahmed, Iftikhar, and Chaudhry

country. Water use practices in the country are not in accordance w

and quality requirements. Most of the water is polluted and unh
purpose both for human and animals. There is a need to analys
resources and recommending comprehensive conservation and man
view of catering the planning requirements for the future. In ord
burning issue confronted with water requirements for agriculture
pressing need to construct some new mega dams which could serve
the people of Pakistan and their coming generations for accruing t
the basis of equity and justice.
Every year due to floods a lot of water flows down towards se
causes huge and irreparable losses to human lives, property and
private sectors. For overcoming such menaces, small and flood dam
should be constructed.

Last, but not least, there is a need to switch the irrigation from traditional system
to the directions of "Blue Revolution" which could meet the challenge of water shortages
and water losses to a greater extent. The proper lining of the canal system could also
reduce water losses and in this way water could be economised and used for alternative
purposes.

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Kaleem, Omar (2007) Pakistan Now Faces the Prospect of Worsening Water Shortages.
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 Water Resources and Conservation Strategy ' 009

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