CANDIDATE DECLARATION

I Anuj Tripathi, (University Roll Number -2110454010080) of

Academic Session 2023 -24, have carried out the work on
(THEORY OF EQUATIONS) for the Minor Project of
Mathematics in B.Sc.-VIth Semester, 2023 -24 from Department
of Mathematics, Lucknow Christian College, Lucknow. The
Matter embodied in this Minor Project has not been submitted
by me to any other University or Institute for award of any
degree.

(Signature of the Student)

(ANUJ TRIPATHI)
(College Roll No.- 51030)
B.Sc.-VIth Semester
Lucknow Christian College,
Lucknow
 TABLE OF CONTENT

EXPLORING THE THEORY OF 04-10

1. EQUATION(A MATHEMATICAL
JOURNEY)

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THEORY 11-13

2. OFEQUATIONS

3. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 14-19

4. TECHNIQUES FOR SOLVING EQUATIONS 20-24

5. SYSTEM OF EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS. 25-34

6. CHALLENGES AND UNSOLVED PROBLEMS 35-38

7. ROOTS AND ITS SOLUTION AND THE GRAPH 39-45

OFEQUATION

8. COMPLEX NUMBERS 46-51

9. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 52-57

10. SOLUTION OF NUMERICAL 58-62

EQUATION(NEWTON’S METHOD)
TOPIC
THEORY OF
EQUATION
 INTRODUCTION

The theory of equations is not only a necessity in the subsequent mathematical courses and
their applications, but furnishes an illuminating sequel to geometry, algebra and analytic
geometry. Moreover, it develops anew and in greater detail various fundamental ideas of
calculus for the simple, but important, case of polynomials. The theory of equations therefore
affords a useful supplement to differential calculus whether taken subsequently or
simultaneously. It was to meet the numerous needs of the student in regard to his earlier and
future mathematical courses that the present book was planned with great care and after wide
consultation. It differs essentially from the author’s Elementary Theory of Equations, both in
regard to omissions and additions, and since it is addressed to younger students and may be
used parallel with a course in differential calculus. Simpler and more detailed proofs are now
employed. The exercises are simpler, more numerous, of greater variety, and involve more
practical applications. This book throws important light on various elementary topics. For
example, an alert student of geometry who has learned how to bisect any angle is apt to ask if
every angle can be trisected with ruler and compasses and if not, why not. After learning how
to construct regular polygons of 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10 sides, he will be inquisitive about the
missing ones of 7 and 9 sides. The teacher will be in a comfortable position if he knows the
facts and what is involved in the simplest discussion to date of these questions, as given in
Chapter III. Other chapters throw needed light on various topics of algebra. In particular, the
theory of graphs is presented in Chapter V in a more scientific and practical manner than was
possible in algebra and analytic geometry. There is developed a method of computing a real
root of an equation with minimum and with certainty as to the accuracy of all the decimals
obtained. We first find by Horner’s method successive transformed equations whose number
is half of the desired number of significant figures of the root. The final equation is reduced
to a linear equation by applying to the constant term the correction computed from the
omitted terms of the second and higher degrees, and the work is completed by abridged
division. The method combines speed with control of accuracy. Newton’s method, which is
presented from both the graphical and the numerical standpoints, has the advantage of being
applicable also to equations which are not algebraic; it is applied in detail to various such
equations. In order to locate or isolate the real roots of an equation we may employ a graph,
provided it be constructed scientifically, or the theorems of Descartes, Sturm, and Budan,
which are usually neither stated, nor proved, correctly. The long chapter on determinants is
independent of the earlier chapters. The theory of a general system of linear equations is here
presented also from the standpoint of matrices.
The theory of equations is a foundational branch of mathematics that delves into the study of
algebraic expressions and their solutions. It encompasses a wide range of topics, including
polynomial equations, linear equations, quadratic equations, cubic equations, and quartic
equations. Central to this field is the exploration of roots and solutions, where
mathematicians analyze the relationships between the coefficients of an equation and the
values that satisfy it. Techniques such as Viète's formulas, factor theorem, and Descartes' rule
of signs are employed to manipulate equations, uncover their properties, and determine the
nature of their roots. Furthermore, the theory of equations extends beyond the realm of real
numbers to include complex solutions and roots of unity, enriching its scope and applicability
in various domains such as physics, engineering, computer science, and economics. At its
core, the theory of equations provides a systematic framework for understanding and solving
mathematical problems involving unknown quantities, laying the groundwork for more
advanced mathematical theories and practical applications.
Certainly! The theory of equations serves as a cornerstone in mathematics, facilitating the
understanding of fundamental concepts and paving the way for advanced mathematical
exploration. Beyond its foundational role, this branch of mathematics plays a crucial role in
diverse fields such as cryptography, signal processing, optimization, and cryptography. For
instance, in cryptography, the security of cryptographic protocols often relies on the difficulty
of solving certain types of equations, such as factoring large numbers or solving discrete
logarithm problems. Similarly, in signal processing, equations are used to model and analyze
various signals, enabling the development of efficient algorithms for tasks like noise
reduction and signal enhancement. Moreover, in optimization, equations are employed to
formulate and solve optimization problems, aiding in the design of algorithms for finding
optimal solutions in complex systems. The theory of equations thus permeates numerous
aspects of modern society, underpinning technological advancements and enabling the
development of sophisticated mathematical tools for tackling real-world challenges. Its
ongoing exploration and refinement continue to fuel innovation and deepen our
understanding of the mathematical principles that govern our world.
At the heart of the theory of equations lie polynomial equations, which express relationships
between variables through sums of powers. These equations are fundamental in mathematics
and have widespread applications in science, engineering, and economics. They are
extensively studied for properties such as roots, factorization, and behavior under various
operations
One of the central tasks in the theory of equations is finding the roots of polynomial
equations. Several algorithms have been developed for this purpose, ranging from classical
methods like the Newton-Raphson method and bisection method to more sophisticated
techniques such as eigenvalue methods and homotopy continuation methods. These
algorithms play a crucial role in applications such as numerical analysis, optimization, and
computational science.
Galois theory, a cornerstone of modern algebra, studies the symmetries of polynomial
equations and their solutions. It provides a deep understanding of when polynomial equations
can be solved using radicals and establishes connections between algebraic structures and
geometric objects. Galois theory has far-reaching implications in fields such as algebraic
geometry, number theory, and cryptography.
 Title:

Exploring the Theory of Equations : A Mathematical

Journey

Introduction ;
• Brief overview of the importance of the theory of equations in
mathematics.

The theory of equations stands as a cornerstone in the realm of mathematics,

serving as a powerful tool with broad applications across various disciplines. At
its essence, this theory encapsulates the study of mathematical expressions that
equate two quantities, with profound implications that resonate from algebraic
abstractions to real-world problem-solving.

Equations provide a language through which mathematicians describe

relationships between unknowns, offering a structured framework for inquiry
and discovery. Whether in the form of simple linear equations or complex
polynomial equations, they serve as the scaffolding upon which much of
mathematical thought is constructed.

Understanding equations is not merely an academic pursuit; it's a practical

necessity. In fields as diverse as physics, engineering, economics, and beyond,
equations serve as the bedrock phenomena, predicting outcomes, and devising
solutions to real-world challenges. From calculating trajectories of celestial
bodies to optimizing financial portfolios, equations offer invaluable insights into
the workings of our universe.

Moreover, the study of equations cultivates essential problem-solving skills and

logical reasoning, empowering individuals to tackle complex problems with
confidence and precision. Through the exploration of equations, mathematicians
unravel the mysteries of the unknown, uncovering elegant solutions that
illuminate the beauty and intricacy of the mathematical landscape.

In this project, we embark on a journey through the theory of equations, delving

into its historical roots, fundamental concepts, solving techniques, and practical
applications. By shedding light on this foundational pillar of mathematics, we
aim to deepen our understanding of the world around us and appreciate the
profound impact of equations on both theory and practice.

• Explanation of what constitutes an equation and why it's

essential in various mathematical fields.

An equation is a mathematical statement that asserts the equality of two

expressions. It typically consists of variables, constants, coefficients, and
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
exponentiation, and roots. The expressions on either side of the equal sign are
referred to as the left-hand side (LHS) and the right-hand side (RHS) of the
equation.
The essence of an equation lies in its ability to describe relationships between
quantities. By equating two expressions, an equation asserts that the values of
the variables that satisfy the equation make both sides equal. These values are
known as solutions or roots of the equation.

Equations serve as a fundamental tool across various mathematical fields for

several reasons:

Problem Solving: Equations provide a structured approach to solving problems

by translating real-world situations into mathematical expressions. Whether it's
determining unknown quantities, optimizing parameters, or predicting
outcomes, equations offer a systematic method for problem-solving.
Modeling : Equations serve as powerful tools for modeling complex
phenomena in diverse disciplines such as physics, engineering, biology,
economics, and more. By capturing the relationships between variables,
equations enable scientists and engineers to simulate, analyze, and understand
natural and artificial systems.

Analysis and Prediction: Equations enable rigorous analysis and prediction of

outcomes. In fields like statistics, probability theory, and operations research,
equations are used to formulate models, derive statistical relationships, and
make informed decisions based on data.

Quantitative Reasoning: Equations foster quantitative reasoning by providing

a formal language for expressing mathematical ideas and relationships. Through
the manipulation and solution of equations, mathematicians develop critical
thinking skills and logical reasoning abilities.

Foundational Concepts: Equations underpin many foundational concepts in

mathematics, including algebra, calculus, differential equations, and linear
algebra. Understanding equations is essential for mastering advanced
mathematical topics and theories.

Interdisciplinary Applications: Equations transcend disciplinary boundaries

and find applications in interdisciplinary research and innovation. From
cryptography to computer graphics, equations play a crucial role in advancing
technology and driving innovation across various fields.

In essence, equations are indispensable tools in the mathematician's toolkit,

enabling the formulation, analysis, and solution of mathematical problems
across a wide spectrum of disciplines. Their versatility and applicability
underscore their significance in advancing human knowledge and understanding
of the natural world.
 Historical Perspective
of theory of equation

• Delve into the history of equations, from ancient civilizations to

modern mathematics.

The history of equations traces back to ancient civilizations, where rudimentary

forms of algebraic thinking emerged as humans sought to solve practical
problems involving quantities and relationships. While the concept of equations
in the modern sense didn't crystallize until much later, the seeds of algebraic
reasoning were sown in antiquity.

Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt (3000 BCE - 500 BCE):

In Mesopotamia, ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians and Babylonians

developed numerical methods for solving practical problems, including linear
equations and quadratic equations.
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, dating back to around 1650 BCE in Egypt,
contains mathematical problems and solutions involving linear equations and
geometric progressions.

Ancient Greece (600 BCE - 300 BCE):

Greek mathematicians like Euclid, Pythagoras, and Diophantus made significant
contributions to algebraic thinking.
Diophantus of Alexandria is often regarded as the "Father of Algebra" for his
work on solving polynomial equations with integer solutions, known as
Diophantine equations.
Islamic Golden Age (8th - 15th century):

Scholars in the Islamic world, including Al-Khwarizmi and Omar Khayyam,

made substantial advancements in algebra.
Al-Khwarizmi's book "Al-Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabala"
("The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing")
introduced systematic methods for solving linear and quadratic equations,
laying the foundation for algebra.
Renaissance and Early Modern Europe (15th - 18th century):

European mathematicians such as François Viète, René Descartes, and Pierre de

Fermat made significant strides in algebraic notation and symbolism.
Descartes' development of Cartesian coordinates and analytic geometry
revolutionized the study of equations by geometric methods.

20th Century and Beyond:

18th and 19th Century Mathematics:

Mathematicians like Leonhard Euler, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, and Carl

Friedrich Gauss made groundbreaking discoveries in number theory, algebra,
and the theory of equations.
Gauss's work on polynomial equations, including his development of the theory
of congruences, paved the way for modern algebraic methods.

The 20th century witnessed the development of abstract algebra, with

contributions from mathematicians like Emmy Noether, Evariste Galois, and
Alexander Grothendieck.

Advances in algebraic geometry, group theory, and category theory further

enriched the theory of equations, leading to deep connections with other
branches of mathematics.
Key Points Regarding the Theory of Equations

To summarise the important concepts and ideas related to the theory of

equations,

the following list can be helpful:

• The general mathematical formula for a quadratic equation in

variable x is given by ax2+bx+c=0𝑎𝑥2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐=0.
•
• The roots of a quadratic equation are given by
x=−b±b2−4ac−−−−−−−√2a𝑥=−𝑏±𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐2𝑎
•
• If α,β𝛼,𝛽 are the two roots of the equation, then α+β=−ba𝛼+𝛽=−𝑏𝑎
and α⋅β=ca𝛼⋅𝛽=𝑐𝑎
•
• The discriminant of the quadratic equation is denoted by
D=b2−4ac𝐷=𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐.
•
• When D = 0, the equation has two equal roots.
•
• When D > 0, the equation has two distinct real roots.
• When D < 0, the roots of the equation will be complex.
•
• The quadratic equation exhibits a parabolic graph which opens
upwards if a > 0 and downwards if a < 0.
•
• At a > 0, the function f has the minimum value and when a < 0 the
function has its maximum value.
Understanding the Relationship between Roots and
Coefficients

If α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , α 4 , α 5 , α 6 ,…., α n are the roots of the quadratic equation:

a0xn+a1xn−1+a2xn–2+a3xn–3+a4xn–4+. .............. +an−1x+an=0𝑎 0𝑥 𝑛 +𝑎 1-

𝑥 𝑛 −1+𝑎 2𝑥 𝑛 –2+𝑎 3𝑥 𝑛 –3+𝑎 4𝑥 𝑛 –4+................+𝑎 𝑛 −1𝑥 +𝑎 𝑛 =0
Then, the sum of roots:
∑α1=α1+α2+α3+α4 ..... αn=−a1/a0

The sum of the product of roots taken two at a time:

∑α1α2=a2/a0

The sum of the product of roots taken three at a time:

∑α1.α2.α3=−a3/ao

The product of roots:

α1.α2.α3.α4.α5......αn = (−1)n× an / a0

Thus, for a cubic equation

ax3+bx2+cx+d=0
α1+α2+α3=−a1ao= −ba
α1.α2+α2.α3+α3.α1=a2/ao=ca
α1.α2.α3=(−1)n×a3/ao=−da
Fundamental Concepts

• Define what an equation is and its different components:

coefficients, variables, exponents, etc.

An equation is a mathematical statement that asserts the equality of two

expressions. It typically consists of various components, each serving a specific
role in defining the relationship between quantities. Let's break down the
fundamental components of an equation:

1. Variables: Variables are symbols that represent unknown quantities or

values that can vary. They are typically denoted by letters such as x, y, z,
etc. Variables allow us to express relationships between quantities without
knowing their specific values.
2. Constants: Constants are fixed values that do not change within the
context of the equation. They are typically numerical values or parameters
represented by specific symbols. For example, in the equation =+y=mx+b,
m and b are constants representing the slope and y-intercept, respectively,
in a linear equation.
3. Coefficients: Coefficients are the numerical factors that multiply variables
in an equation. They determine the scale or magnitude of the variable's
contribution to the expression. For example, in the equation
2++=0ax2+bx+c=0, a, b, and c are coefficients.
4. Exponents: Exponents represent the power to which a variable or constant
is raised. They indicate the number of times the base is multiplied by
itself. For instance, in the equation =2y=x2, 22 is the exponent indicating
that x is squared.
5. Operations: Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, exponentiation, and roots are used to manipulate the components
 of an equation. These operations establish the relationships between
variables, constants, and coefficients.
6. Equal Sign: The equal sign == is the fundamental symbol in an equation,
indicating that the expressions on both sides are equal. It signifies balance
or equivalence between the quantities represented by the expressions.
7. Left-hand Side (LHS) and Right-hand Side (RHS): In an equation, the
left-hand side (LHS) refers to the expression on the left side of the equal
sign, while the right-hand side (RHS) refers to the expression on the right
side. The LHS and RHS must be equivalent for the equation to hold true.
Equations provide a formal framework for expressing mathematical
relationships, allowing mathematicians to model, analyze, and solve a wide
range of problems across various fields. Understanding the components of an
equation is essential for effectively manipulating and interpreting mathematical
expressions.

• Introduce basic types of equations: linear, quadratic, cubic,

etc.

Solving Techniques

Methodologies for solving equations: algebraic, graphical, numerical, and

transcendental methods.
Solving equations is a fundamental aspect of mathematics, and various
methodologies exist to tackle equations of different types and complexities.

Here are some common techniques for solving equations:

Algebraic Methods:

Algebraic methods involve manipulating equations using algebraic rules to

isolate the variable and find its value.
Techniques include simplifying expressions, combining like terms, applying
inverse operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division), factoring,
completing the square, and using algebraic identities.
Algebraic methods are widely applicable and form the basis for solving
equations in algebraic structures.

Graphical Methods:

Graphical methods involve representing equations graphically on a coordinate

plane and finding the intersection points (solutions) with the axes or other
curves.
For simple equations, plotting the graphs of both sides of the equation and
identifying the points of intersection can provide approximate solutions.
Graphical methods are particularly useful for visualizing relationships between
variables and understanding the behavior of functions.

Numerical Methods:

Numerical methods involve approximating solutions to equations using iterative

algorithms and numerical techniques.
Techniques include iterative methods like Newton-Raphson method, bisection
method, secant method, and fixed-point iteration.
Numerical methods are especially useful for solving equations that cannot be
solved algebraically or graphically, such as transcendental equations or
equations with complex expressions.
Transcendental Methods:

Transcendental methods are specialized techniques for solving transcendental

equations, which involve transcendental functions like exponential, logarithmic,
trigonometric, or hyperbolic functions.
Techniques include using properties of transcendental functions, series
expansions, iterative methods tailored for specific transcendental equations, and
numerical approximation techniques.
Transcendental methods are essential in various scientific and engineering
applications where equations involve transcendental functions.
Each of these solving techniques has its advantages and limitations, and the
choice of method depends on the nature of the equation, available tools, and
desired level of precision. Mathematicians and problem solvers often employ a
combination of these techniques to efficiently and accurately find solutions to
equations in diverse mathematical contexts
 • Systems of Equations

Introduction to systems of equations and their applications.

In mathematics, a system of equations is a collection of two or more equations

involving the same set of variables. These equations describe multiple
relationships between variables, and the solution to the system consists of the
values of the variables that satisfy all the equations simultaneously. Systems of
equations play a crucial role in various fields of mathematics and have
numerous applications in real-world scenarios.

Types of Systems of Equations;

1. Linear Systems: Systems in which all equations are linear, meaning

the variables are raised to the first power and there are no products or
powers of variables.
2. Nonlinear Systems: Systems in which at least one equation is
nonlinear, meaning the variables are raised to a power other than 1 or
there are products of variables.
3. Homogeneous Systems: Systems in which all equations are equal to
zero.
 4. Non-homogeneous Systems: Systems in which at least one equation
is not equal to zero.

Representation of Systems of Equations : A system of equations can be

represented in different forms:
• Explicit Form: Each equation is written explicitly with the variables and
constants.
• Matrix Form: The system is represented using matrices, where the
coefficients of the variables form a matrix, the variables form a column
vector, and the constants form another column vector.
• Augmented Matrix Form: The coefficients of the variables and the
constants are combined into one matrix, called the augmented matrix.

Solving Systems of Equations : There are several methods for solving

systems of equations:

1. Graphical Method: Graph each equation on the coordinate plane and

find the intersection point(s).
2. Substitution Method: Solve one equation for one variable and substitute
it into the other equation(s).
3. Elimination Method: Add or subtract equations to eliminate one variable
and solve for the remaining variable(s).
4. Matrix Method (Gaussian Elimination): Represent the system as an
augmented matrix and perform row operations to transform the matrix
into row-echelon form or reduced row-echelon form.
5. Cramer's Rule: Use determinants to solve systems of linear equations.
Applications of Systems of Equations:

1. Engineering: Used in electrical circuits, structural analysis, fluid dynamics,

and control systems.
2. Economics: Modeling supply and demand, production functions, and
economic equilibrium.
3. Physics: Describing motion, forces, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.
4. Optimization: Formulating optimization problems and finding optimal
solutions.
5. Finance: Analyzing investment portfolios, risk management, and option
pricing.
6. Biology: Modeling population dynamics, biochemical reactions, and
ecological systems.
7. Computer Science: Solving systems of equations arising in algorithms and
computer simulations.

In summary, systems of equations are a fundamental mathematical concept with

wide-ranging applications in science, engineering, economics, and other fields.
Understanding and solving systems of equations enable researchers, engineers,
economists, and decision-makers to analyze complex relationships, make
predictions, and solve practical problems in diverse domains.

Advanced Topics

Discuss more complex equations like transcendental equations, differential

equations, and partial differential equations.

Certainly! Let's delve into these advanced topics in mathematics:

1. Transcendental Equations:

• Definition: Transcendental equations are equations that involve

transcendental functions, such as trigonometric, exponential,
logarithmic, or hyperbolic functions, as well as their inverses.

• Solving Techniques: Transcendental equations often do not have

algebraic solutions and may require numerical or graphical
methods for approximation. These methods include iterative
techniques like Newton's method, fixed-point iteration, or using
graphical analysis to find intersection points.
• Applications: Transcendental equations arise in various scientific
and engineering contexts, including physics (quantum mechanics,
wave functions), chemistry (chemical reactions), biology
(population growth models), and finance (compound interest,
option pricing models).

2. Differential Equations:
 • Definition: Differential equations are equations that involve
derivatives of one or more unknown functions with respect to one
or more independent variables.

• Types:
• Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs): Equations
involving derivatives of a single variable.
• Partial Differential Equations (PDEs): Equations
involving derivatives of multivariable functions.

• Solving Techniques: Differential equations can be solved

analytically or numerically.
• Analytical methods include separation of variables,
integrating factors, series solutions, and Laplace transforms.
• Numerical methods include Euler's method, Runge-Kutta
methods, finite difference methods, finite element methods,
and spectral methods.

• Applications: Differential equations are ubiquitous in physics,

engineering, biology, economics, and other sciences. They are used
to model dynamic systems, such as motion of particles, population
dynamics, heat transfer, fluid flow, electrical circuits, and many
more.
3. Partial Differential Equations (PDEs):
• Definition: Partial differential equations are differential equations
involving partial derivatives of multivariable functions.
• Classification:
• Elliptic PDEs: Equations where solutions are smooth and
have no singularities, such as Laplace's equation.
• Parabolic PDEs: Equations that describe diffusion-like
processes over time, such as the heat equation.
 • Hyperbolic PDEs: Equations that describe wave-like
phenomena, such as the wave equation.

• Solving Techniques: Similar to ODEs, PDEs can be solved

analytically or numerically using various methods tailored to their
specific types and boundary/initial conditions.

• Applications: PDEs are essential in modeling many physical

phenomena, such as heat conduction, fluid dynamics,
electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, and general relativity. They
are also used in engineering for designing structures, optimizing
processes, and simulating real-world scenarios.

Advanced equations like transcendental equations, differential equations, and

partial differential equations are at the forefront of mathematical research and
find wide applications in diverse fields of science, engineering, and technology.
Understanding these equations and their solutions is crucial for advancing
knowledge and solving complex problems in various domains.

Applications
• Real-world applications of equations in various fields such as physics,
engineering, economics, etc.

Equations are fundamental tools in various fields, providing a mathematical

framework for describing and analyzing relationships, making predictions, and
solving practical problems. Here are real-world applications of equations in
different fields:
1. Physics:

• Newton's Laws of Motion: Equations such as F=ma (Newton's

second law) and (Newton's law of universal gravitation) are used to
describe the motion of objects and the forces acting upon them.
• Maxwell's Equations: Maxwell's equations describe the behavior
of electromagnetic fields and are foundational in electromagnetism,
optics, and telecommunications.
• Schrodinger Equation: In quantum mechanics, the Schrodinger
equation describes how the quantum state of a physical system
changes over time and is crucial for understanding atomic and
subatomic phenomena.
• Einstein's Field Equations: These equations describe the
curvature of spacetime caused by matter and energy, providing the
basis for Einstein's theory of general relativity and our
understanding of gravity

2. Engineering:

• Circuit Analysis: Equations such as Ohm's law (V=IR) and

Kirchhoff's laws are used to analyze electrical circuits, design
electronic devices, and optimize power distribution systems.
• Structural Analysis: Equations from mechanics, such as stress-
strain relationships and equilibrium equations, are used to design
and analyze structures like bridges, buildings, and aircraft, ensuring they can
withstand loads and maintain stability.

• Fluid Dynamics: Equations like the Navier-Stokes equations

describe the motion of fluids, enabling engineers to design pumps,
turbines, and pipes for efficient fluid flow in applications ranging
from aerospace to plumbing.
• Control Systems: Equations from control theory, such as
differential equations and transfer functions, are used to design
feedback control systems for regulating processes and optimizing
 performance in industries like manufacturing, robotics, and
automation.

3. Economics:

• Supply and Demand Equations: Equations modeling supply and

demand relationships are used to analyze markets, set prices,
forecast trends, and optimize resource allocation in industries such
as agriculture, finance, and retail.
• Production Functions: Equations describing the relationship
between inputs (e.g., labor, capital) and outputs (e.g., goods,
services) are used to optimize production processes, minimize
costs, and maximize profits in manufacturing and service
industries.
• Econometric Models: Equations from econometrics are used to
estimate parameters, test hypotheses, and make forecasts based on
economic data, guiding policy-making and decision-making in
areas like fiscal policy, monetary policy, and international trade.

4. Biology and Medicine:

• Population Dynamics: Equations such as logistic growth models

and predator-prey models are used to study population dynamics,
predict population sizes, and understand ecological systems.
• Biochemical Reactions: Equations from biochemistry describe the
kinetics of biochemical reactions, enzyme-substrate interactions,
and metabolic pathways, guiding drug development and medical
research.
• Medical Imaging: Equations from physics, such as the equations
governing X-ray attenuation and magnetic resonance, are used in
medical imaging techniques like X-ray, MRI, CT scans, and PET
scans for diagnosis and treatment planning.
 5. Computer Science:

• Algorithms: Equations are used to model and analyze algorithms,

predict their performance, and optimize their efficiency in various
applications such as data processing, optimization problems,
machine learning, and artificial intelligence.
• Computer Graphics: Equations describe geometric transformations,
lighting models, and rendering algorithms used in computer
graphics for generating realistic images and animations in video
games, movies, virtual reality, and simulations.

In summary, equations are indispensable tools in science, engineering,

economics, medicine, and computer science, enabling researchers, engineers,
analysts, and decision-makers to model complex systems, analyze data, make
predictions, and solve practical problems in diverse fields.
 Challenges and Unsolved Problems

• Discuss some of the remaining challenges in the theory of equations.

While the theory of equations has made significant advancements over the
centuries, there are still several challenges and unsolved problems that
researchers continue to grapple with. Some of these challenges include:

Solving High-Degree Polynomial Equations: While methods exist for solving

polynomial equations up to the fourth degree (quartic equations) using algebraic
methods, there is no general algebraic solution for polynomial equations of
degree five or higher (quintic equations and beyond). The lack of a general
solution to higher-degree polynomial equations poses a significant challenge in
algebra and number theory.

Transcendental Equations:
Many transcendental equations, involving functions like exponential,
logarithmic, trigonometric, or hyperbolic functions, do not have closed-form
algebraic solutions. Developing efficient and accurate numerical methods for
approximating solutions to transcendental equations remains a challenge,
particularly for equations with multiple solutions or complex behavior.

Systems of Nonlinear Equations:

Solving systems of nonlinear equations, where equations involve nonlinear
relationships between variables, is often computationally intensive and may lead
to multiple solutions or no solutions at all. Developing robust algorithms for
efficiently solving such systems, especially in high-dimensional spaces, is an
ongoing challenge in optimization, control theory, and computational
mathematics.
Differential Equations:
While many methods exist for solving ordinary and partial differential equations
under certain conditions, finding general solutions to nonlinear differential
equations or equations with irregular boundary conditions remains challenging.
Additionally, understanding the behavior of solutions to nonlinear differential
equations, such as stability, bifurcations, and chaos, poses significant challenges
in dynamical systems theory and mathematical physics.

Inverse Problems:
Inverse problems involve determining unknown parameters or functions from
observed data or measurements. These problems arise in various fields, such as
medical imaging, geophysics, and signal processing. Solving inverse problems
often requires solving ill-posed or underdetermined systems of equations, where
multiple solutions may exist, and noise or uncertainty in the data can lead to
inaccuracies or instability.

Computational Complexity:
Analyzing the computational complexity of solving equations, particularly for
large-scale systems or in high-dimensional spaces, is an ongoing challenge in
computer science and numerical analysis. Developing efficient algorithms for
solving equations and understanding their scalability and robustness in practical
applications remains an active area of research.

Quantum Equations:
Understanding and solving equations arising in quantum mechanics, quantum
field theory, and quantum information theory pose significant challenges due to
the complex nature of quantum systems, entanglement, and nonlocality.
Developing mathematical frameworks and computational methods for solving
quantum equations and simulating quantum systems is essential for advancing
quantum technologies and understanding fundamental aspects of quantum
mechanics.

In summary, while the theory of equations has made remarkable progress, there
are still many challenges and unsolved problems that require further research
and innovation. Addressing these challenges will not only deepen our
understanding of mathematical structures but also have profound implications
for science, engineering, and technology .

Roots and Solutions

• Define roots and solutions of an equation.

Certainly! Let's explore the concepts of roots and solutions in the context of
equations:
•

Roots
Definition:
In mathematics, the roots of an equation are the values of the variable(s) that
make the equation true. For polynomial equations, the roots are the values of the
variable(s) at which the polynomial evaluates to zero.

• Types of Roots:
• Real Roots: Roots that belong to the set of real numbers.
• Complex Roots: Roots that belong to the set of complex
numbers.
• Repeated Roots: Roots that occur more than once in a
polynomial equation. For example, in the equation is
repeated.
•

• Multiplicity of Roots: The multiplicity of a root is the number of

times it appears as a solution to the equation. For example, a root
with multiplicity 2 means that it occurs twice in the equation.
• Graphical Interpretation: In graphical terms, the roots of an
equation correspond to the points where the graph of the equation
intersects the x-axis.
2 Solutions:
• Definition: Solutions of an equation are the values of the
variable(s) that satisfy the equation and make it true. The number
of solutions of an equation can vary depending on the type of
equation and its degree.

• Types of Solutions:
• Unique Solution: An equation has a unique solution if there
is only one value of the variable that satisfies the equation.
• Multiple Solutions: An equation may have multiple
solutions, meaning there are more than one value(s) of the
variable(s) that satisfy the equation.
• No Solution: An equation has no solution if there are no
values of the variable(s) that satisfy the equation.

• Algebraic Interpretation: In algebraic terms, finding the solutions

of an equation involves solving for the variable(s) using various
techniques such as algebraic manipulation, factoring, or applying
specific solution methods tailored to the type of equation.

In summary, roots and solutions are fundamental concepts in mathematics,

particularly in the study of equations. Roots represent the values of the
variable(s) that make the equation true, while solutions are the values of the
variable(s) that satisfy the equation. Understanding roots and solutions is
essential for solving equations and analyzing their properties in various
mathematical contexts .
 The graph of equation

Certainly! The graph of an equation is a visual representation of the relationship

between the variables involved in the equation. It provides valuable insights into
the behavior, properties, and solutions of the equation. Let's explore the
components and characteristics of the graph of an equation in detail:

1. Coordinate Plane:
The graph of an equation is typically plotted on a coordinate plane, which
consists of two perpendicular axes: the horizontal x-axis and the vertical y-axis.
Each point on the plane is represented by an ordered pair (x, y), where x is the
horizontal coordinate and y is the vertical coordinate.

2. Dependent and Independent Variables:

In an equation, one variable is typically dependent on the other variable(s),
which are considered independent. In the context of a graph, the dependent
variable is usually represented on the y-axis, while the independent variable(s)
are represented on the x-axis.

3. Plotting Points:
To graph an equation, we typically start by choosing values for the independent
variable(s) (usually x) and then calculate the corresponding values of the
dependent variable(s) (usually y) using the equation. These ordered pairs (x, y)
represent points on the graph, which we then plot on the coordinate plane.

4. Types of Equations and Their Graphs:

• Linear Equations: The graph of a linear equation forms a straight

line. The equation is typically in the form y = mx + b, where m is
the slope (rate of change) and b is the y-intercept (the value of y
when x = 0).
 • Quadratic Equations: The graph of a quadratic equation forms a
parabola. The equation is typically in the form y = ax^2 + bx + c,
where a determines the direction and width of the parabola, and the
vertex is at the point (-b/2a, f(-b/2a)).
• Exponential Equations: The graph of an exponential equation
forms a curve that either grows or decays exponentially. The
equation is typically in the form y = ab^x, where a is the initial
value, b is the base, and x is the exponent.
• Trigonometric Equations: The graph of a trigonometric equation
represents periodic behavior. Common trigonometric functions
include sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan), each with its own
unique graph pattern.
• Piecewise Equations: Some equations are defined differently for
different intervals of the independent variable. The graph of a
piecewise equation consists of multiple segments, each
representing a different portion of the equation's domain

5. Characteristics of the Graph:

• Intercepts: The x-intercepts are the points where the graph

intersects the x-axis (y = 0), and the y-intercepts are the points
where the graph intersects the y-axis (x = 0).
• Slope and Rate of Change: The slope of a line represents the rate
of change between two points on the graph. It is calculated as the
change in y divided by the change in x (rise over run).
• Symmetry: Some graphs exhibit symmetry, such as symmetry
about the x-axis, y-axis, or origin. Symmetry can provide insights
into the properties of the equation.
• Domain and Range: The domain of the equation represents the
possible values of the independent variable(s) for which the
equation is defined, while the range represents the possible values
of the dependent variable(s) that result from the equation.
In summary, the graph of an equation provides a visual representation of the
relationship between variables and allows us to analyze the behavior, properties,
and solutions of the equation. Understanding the characteristics and patterns of
the graph is essential for interpreting and solving equations in various maths .
To find geometrically the real roots of a real equation f(x) = 0, we construct a
graph of y = f(x) and measure the distances from the origin O to the
intersections of the graph and the x-axis, whose equation is y = 0.

Graphs play a crucial role in the theory of equations by providing visual

representations of mathematical relationships, aiding in understanding, analysis,
and solving equations. Here's how graphs are used in the theory of equations:

1. Visualizing Solutions:
Graphs help visualize the solutions of equations by showing the points where
the equation intersects the x-axis, representing the roots or solutions of the
equation. This visual representation makes it easier to understand the behavior
of the equation and identify its solutions, especially for nonlinear equations or
equations with multiple solutions.
 2. Analyzing Properties:
• Domain and Range: Graphs help determine the domain and range
of equations by identifying the intervals of the independent and
dependent variables for which the equation is defined and takes on
values, respectively.
• Symmetry: Graphs reveal symmetry properties of equations, such
as symmetry about the x-axis, y-axis, or origin, which provide
insights into the structure and behavior of the equation.
• Asymptotes: Graphs show asymptotic behavior, indicating the
behavior of the equation as the independent variable(s) approach
certain values or infinity, helping analyze limits and singularities of
the equation.
3. Understanding Function Behavior:
Graphs of functions provide a visual representation of their behavior, including
monotonicity (increasing or decreasing), concavity (convex or concave), and
points of inflection. This understanding is essential for analyzing the behavior
of functions and solving equations involving those functions.
4. Finding Intersections:
Graphical methods, such as graphical iteration or root-finding algorithms, use
graphs to find intersections between equations or curves, which correspond to
solutions of the equations. This approach is particularly useful for nonlinear
equations or systems of equations with no analytical solutions.
5. Optimization:
Graphs help visualize optimization problems by representing objective
functions and constraint functions, enabling the identification of maximum or
minimum points and optimal solutions. This visualization aids in solving
optimization problems involving equations.
6. Parametric Equations:
Graphs of parametric equations represent curves in the plane traced by varying
parameters. These graphs provide insights into the behavior and shape of curves
described by parametric equations, facilitating the analysis and interpretation of
parametric equations.
 7. Modeling Real-World Phenomena:
Graphs are used to model and analyze real-world phenomena described by
mathematical equations, such as motion, population dynamics, growth and
decay processes, electrical circuits, and physical systems. By visualizing these
phenomena, graphs aid in understanding and predicting their behavior.
In summary, graphs are indispensable tools in the theory of equations, providing
visual representations of mathematical relationships, aiding in analysis,
interpretation, and solution of equations, and facilitating the understanding of
complex mathematical concepts and real-world phenomena.
Complex Numbers

Square Roots.

If p is a positive real number, the symbol p is used to denote the positive square
root of p. It is most easily computed by logarithm.
We shall express the square roots of negative numbers in terms of the symbol i
such that the relation i2 = 1 holds.
Consequently we denote the roots of x2 = 1 by i and i. The roots of x2 = 4 are
written in the form +2i in preference to 4. In general, if p is positive, the roots of
x2 = p are written in the form pi in preference to p . The square of either root is
thus ( p)2i2 = p. Had we used the less desirable notation p for the roots of x2 =
p, we might be tempted to find the square of either root by multiplying together
the values under the radical sign and conclude erroneously that .

To prevent such errors we use pi and not .

2. Complex Numbers.

If a and b are any two real numbers and i2 = 1, a +bi is called a complex
number1 and a bi its conjugate. Either is said to be zero if a = b = 0. Two
complex numbers a+bi and c+di are said to be equal if and only if a = c and b =
d. In particular, a + bi = 0 if and only if a =b=0. If b= 0, a+bi is said to be
imaginary. In particular, bi is called a pure imaginary .
1Complex numbers are essentially couples of real numbers. For a treatment
from this standpoint and a treatment based upon vectors, see the author’s
Elementary Theory of Equations, p. 21, p. 18.
Addition of complex numbers is defined by
(a +bi) +(c+di) = (a+c)+(b+d)i
The inverse operation to addition is called subtraction, and consists in finding a
complex number z such that
 (c +di) +z = a+bi
In notation and value, z is
(a +bi) (c+di) = (a c)+(b d)i
Multiplication is defined by
(a +bi)(c +di) = ac bd+(ad+bc)i

and hence is performed as in formal algebra with a subsequent reduction by

means of i2 = 1.
For example,
(a +bi)(a bi) = a2 b2i2 = a2+b2
Division is defined as the operation which is inverse to multiplication, and
consists in finding a complex number q such that (a+bi)q = e+fi. Multiplying
each member by a bi, we find that q is, in notation and value,

Since a2 + b2 = 0 implies a = b = 0 when a and b are real, we conclude that

division except by zero is possible and unique .

4. Cube Roots of Unity.

Any complex number x whose cube is equal to unity is called a cube root of
unity.
Since
x3- 1=(x -1)(x2+x+1)

the roots of x3 = 1 are 1 and the two numbers x for which

x2 +x+1=0

Hence there are three cube roots of unity, viz.,

In view of the origin of , we have the important relation .

5. Geometrical Representation of Complex Numbers.

Using rect angular axes of coördinates, OX and OY, we represent the complex
number a +bi by the point A having the coördinates a, b (Fig. 1)

The positive number r = a2 +b2 giving the length of OA is called the modulus
(or absolute value) of a+bi. The angle = XOA, measured counter-clockwise
from OX to OA, is called the amplitude (or argument) of a+ bi. Thus cos = a r,
sin = b r, whence
a +bi =r(cos +isin )
The second member is called the trigonometric form of a+bi. For the amplitude
we may select, instead of , any of the angles
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their moduli are equal and an
amplitude of the one is equal to an amplitude of the other. For example, the
cube roots of unity are 1 and
and are represented by the points marked 1, , 2 at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle inscribed in a circle of radius unity and center at the ori gin O (Fig. 2).
The indicated amplitudes of and 2 are 120 and 240 respectively, while the
modulus of each is 1. The modulus of 3 is 3 and its amplitude is 180 or 180 plus
or minus the product of 360 by any positive whole number .

6. Product of Complex Numbers.

7. Quotient of Complex Numbers.

Taking = in (2) and di viding the members of the resulting equation by cos +isin
, we get

Hence the amplitude of the quotient of R(cos +isin ) by r(cos +isin ) is equal to
the difference of their amplitudes, while the modulus of the quotient is equal to
the quotient R r of their moduli. The case =0 gives the useful formula

8. De Moivre’s Theorem
If n is any positive whole number,

This relation is evidently true when n = 1, and when n = 2 it follows from

formula (2) with = . To proceed by mathematical induction, suppose that our
relation has been established for the values 12 m of n. We can then prove that it
holds also for the next value m+1 of n. For, by hypothesis, we have

Multiply each member by cos +isin , and for the product on the right sub stitute
its value from (2) with = m. Thus
which proves (3) when n = m+1. Hence the induction is complete. Examples are
furnished by the results at the end of §5

9. Cube Roots.

To find the cube roots of a complex number, we first express the number in
its trigonometric form. For example

3 2+4 2i=8(cos45 +isin45 )

The moduli r3 and 8 must be equal, so that the positive real number r is equal to
2. Furthermore, 3 and 45 have equal cosines and equal sines, and hence differ
by an integral multiple of 360 . Hence 3 = 45 + k 360 , or =15 +k 120 , where k
is an integer.2 Substituting this value of and the value 2 of r in (4), we get the
desired cube roots. The values 0, 1, 2 of k give the distinct results

Each new integral value of k leads to a result which is equal to R1, R2 or R3. In
fact, from k = 3 we obtain R1, from k = 4 we obtain R2, from k = 5 we obtain
R3, from k = 6 we obtain R1 again, and so on periodically.
Primitive nth Roots of Unity

An nth root of unity is called primitive if n is the smallest positive integral

exponent of a power of it that is equal to unity. Thus is a primitive nth root of
unity if and only if n = 1 and l=1 for all positive integers l < n. Since only the
last one of the numbers (8) is equal to unity, the number R, defined by (7), is a
primitive nth root of unity. We have shown that the powers (8) of R give all of
the nth roots of unity. Which of these powers of R are primitive nth roots of
unity? For n = 4, the powers (8) of R = i were seen to be
The first and third are primitive fourth roots of unity, and their exponents 1 and
3 are relatively prime to 4, i.e., each has no divisor > 1 in common with 4. But
the second and fourth are not primitive fourth roots of unity (since the square of
1 and the first power of 1 are equal to unity), and their exponents 2 and 4 have
the
divisor 2 in common with n = 4. These facts illustrate and prove the next
theorem for the case n = 4.

Theorem The primitive nth roots of unity are those of the numbers (8) whose
exponents are relatively prime to n. Proof. If k and n have a common divisor d
(d > 1), Rk is not a primitive nth root of unity, since and the exponent nd is a
positive integer less than n.

But if k and n are relatively prime, i.e., have no common divisor > 1, Rk is a
primitive nth root of unity. To prove this, we must show that (Rk)l= 1 if l is a
positive integer < n.
By De Moivre’s theorem
If this were equal to unity, 2kl n would be a multiple of 2 , and hence kl a
multiple of n. Since k is relatively prime to n, the second factor l would be a
multiple of n, whereas 0 < l < n.

Equation and its Types

A mathematical statement containing an ‘equal to’ sign between two algebraic

expressions with equal values is known as an equation.

The degree of an equation is the highest power of variables in a term in an

equation. Based on the degree of the equation, equations can be classified as
1. Linear equation, whose degree is 1
2. Quadratic equation, whose degree is 2
3. Cubic equation, whose degree is 3 .
Elementary Theorems on the Roots of an Equation

Quadratic Equation.

If a, b, c are given numbers, a= 0,

ax2 +bx+c =0 (a=0)
; theis called a quadratic equation or equation of the second degree. The reader
is familiar with the following method of solution by “completing the square.”
Multiply the terms of the equation by 4a, and transpose the constant term
Then ,
4a2x2 +4abx = 4ac
Adding b2 to complete the square, we get

By addition and multiplication, we find that

x1 +x2 = b 2a a x1x2= c
Hence for all values of the variable x
a(x x1)(x x2) ax2 a(x1+x2)x+ax1x2 ax2+bx+c
the sign a(x x1)(x x2) ax2 a(x1+x2)x+ax1x2 ax2+bx+c being used instead of =
since these functions of x are identically equal, i.e., the coefficients of like
powers of x are the same. We speak of a(x x1)(x x2) as the factored form of the
quadratic function ax2 + bx +c, and of x x1 and x x2 as its linear factors. In (4)
we assign to x the values x1 and x2 in turn, and see that
In (4) we assign to x the values x1 and x2 in turn, and see that
0 =ax2 1 +bx1 +c
, 0 =ax2 2 +bx2 +c
We call = b2 4ac the discriminant of the function ax2 + bx + c or of the
corresponding equation (1). If = 0, the roots (2) are evidently equal, so that, by
(4), ax2 + bx + c is the square of a(x x1), and conversely. We thus obtain the
useful result that ax2 + bx + c is a perfect square (of a linear function of x) if
and only if b2 = 4ac (i.e., if its discriminant is zero). Consider a real quadratic
equation, i.e., one whose coefficients a, b, c are all real numbers. Then if is
positive, the two roots (2) are real. But if is negative, the roots are conjugate
imaginaries (§2). When the coefficients of a quadratic equation (1) are any
complex numbers, has two complex square roots (§9), so that the roots (2) of (1)
are complex numbers, which need not be conjugate. For example, the
discriminant of x2 2x+c is = 4(1 c). If c = 1, then = 0 and x2 2x+1 (x 1)2 is a
perfect square, and the roots 1, 1 of x2 2x+1 = 0 are equal. If c = 0, = 4 is
positive and the roots 0 and 2 of x2 2x x(x 2) = 0 are real. If c = 2, = 4 is
negative and the roots 1 1 of x2 2x+2=0 are conjugate complex numbers. The
roots of x2 x+1+i = 0 are i and 1 i, and are not conjugate .

. Integral Rational Function, Polynomial.

If n is a positive integer and c0, c1 cn are constants (real or imaginary),

f(x)= c0xn +c1xn 1+ +cn 1x+cn
is called a polynomial in x of degree n, or also an integral rational function of x
of degree n. It is given the abbreviated notation f(x), just as the logarithm of x+2
is written log(x+2). If c0= 0, f(x) = 0 is an equation of degree n. If n = 3, it is
often called a cubic equation; and, if n = 4, a quartic equation. For brevity, we
often speak of an equation all of whose coefficients are real as a real equation
The Remainder Theorem

If a polynomial f(x) be divided by x c until a remainder independent of x is

obtained, this remainder is equal to f(c), which is the value of f(x) when x = c.
Denote the remainder by r and the quotient by q(x). Since the dividend is f(x)
and the divisor is x c, we have
f(x) (x c)q(x)+r
identically in x.
Taking x = c, we obtain f(c) = r. If r = 0,
the division is exact. Hence we have proved also the following useful theorem.

The Factor Theorem.

If f(c) is zero, the polynomial f(x) has the factor x c. In other words, if c is a
root of f(x) = 0, x c is a factor of f(x). For example, 2 is a root of x3 8 = 0, so
that x 2 is a factor of x3 8. Another illustration is furnished by formula (4).

Synthetic Division.

The labour of computing the value of a polynomial in x for an assigned value of

x may be shortened by a simple device. To find the value of
x4 +3x3- 2x- 5
for x = 2, note that x4 = x x3 = 2x3, so that the sum of the first two terms of the
polynomial is 5x3. To 5x3 = 5 22x we add the next term 2x and obtain 18x or
36. Combining 36 with the final term 5, we obtain the desired value 31.
This computation may be arranged systematically as follows. After sup plying
zero coefficients of missing powers of x, we write the coefficients in a line,
ignoring the powers of x.
First we bring down the first coefficient 1. Then we multiply it by the given
value 2 and enter the product 2 directly under the second coefficient 3, add and
write the sum 5 below. Similarly, we enter the product of 5 by 2 under the third
coefficient 0, add and write the sum 10 below; etc. The final number 31 in the
third line is the value of the polynomial when x = 2. The remaining numbers in
this third line are the coefficients, in their proper order, of the quotient.
x3 +5x2 +10x+18
which would be obtained by the ordinary long division of the given polynomial
by x 2.
We shall now prove that this process, called synthetic division, enables us to
find the quotient and remainder when any polynomial f(x) is divided by x c.
Write ,
f(x) a0xn+a1xn 1+ +an
and let the constant remainder be r and the quotient be
q(x) b0xn 1+b1xn 2+ +bn-1
By comparing the coefficients of f(x) with those in
(x c)q(x)+r b0xn+(b1-cb0)xn-1 =
(b2- cb1)xn 2 +(bn- 1- cbn- 2)x+r- cb
we obtain relations which become, after transposition of terms,
In the second space below a0 we write b0 (which is equal to a0). We multiply
b0 by c and enter the product directly under a1, add and write the sum b1 below
it. Next we multiply b1 by c and enter the product directly under a2, add and
write the sum b2 below it; etc.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every algebraic equation with complex coefficients has a complex (real or
imaginary) root. This theorem, which is proved in the Appendix, implies that
every equation of degree n has exactly n roots if a root of multiplicity m be
counted as m roots. In other words, every integral rational function of degree n
is a product of each n linear factors. For, in §16, equations f(x) = 0, Q(x) = 0,
Q1(x) = 0 has a root, so that (5) and (6) hold.

Newton’s Method for Integral Root

In §24 we proved that an integral root x of equation (12) having integral

coefficients must be an exact divisor of an. Similarly, if we transpose all but the
last two terms of (12), we see that an 1x+an must be divisible by x2, and hence
an 1 +an x divisible by x. By transposing all but the last three terms of (12), we
see that their sum must be divisible by x3, and hence an 2 +(an 1 +an x) x
divisible by x. We thus obtain a series of conditions of divisibility which an
integral root must satisfy. The final sum a0 +a1 x + must not merely be divisible
by x, but be actually zero, since it is the quotient of the function (12) by xn. In
practice, we must test in turn the various divisors x of an. If a chosen x is not a
root, that fact will be disclosed by one of the conditions mentioned. Newton’s
method is quicker than synthetic division since it usually detects early and
throws out wrong guesses as to a root, whereas in synthetic division the decision
comes only at the final step.
For example,
the divisor 3 of the constant term of
f(x)= x4 -9x3+24x2- 23x+15=0
is not a root since 23+15 ( 3) = 28 is not divisible by 3.
Number of Real Roots of a Cubic Equation.

A cubic equation with real coefficients has three distinct real roots if its
discriminant is positive, a single real root and two conjugate imaginary roots if
is negative, and at least two equal real roots if is zero. If the roots x1, x2, x3 are
all real and distinct, the square of the difference of any two is positive and hence
is positive. If x1 and x2 are conjugate imaginaries and hence x3 is real (§21),
(x1 x2)2 is negative. Since x1 x3 and x2 x3 are conjugate imaginaries, their
product is positive. Hence is negative. If x1 = x2, is zero.
If x2 were imaginary, its conjugate would be equal to x3 by §21, and x2, x3
would be the roots of a real quadratic equation. The remaining factor x x1 of the
cubic would have real coefficients, whereas x1 =x2 is imaginary.
Hence the equal roots must be real. Our theorem now follows from these three
results by formal logic. For example, if is positive, the roots are all real and
distinct, since otherwise either two would be imaginary and would be negative,
or two would be equal and would be zero
.
 Solution of Numerical Equations

Newton’s Method.

Prior to 1676, Newton2 had already found the root between 2 and 3 of equation
(1). He replaced x by 2+p and obtained (2). Since p is a decimal, he neglected
the terms in p3 and p2, and hence obtained p =01, approximately. Replacing p
by 01+q in (2), he obtained
q3 +63q2 +1123q +0061 = 0
Dividing 0061 by 1123, he obtained 00054 as the approximate value of q.
Neglecting q3 and replacing q by 00054+r, he obtained
63r2 +1116196r +0000541708 = 0
Dropping 63r2, he found r and hence
x =2+01 00054 000004853=209455147
of which all figures but the last are correct (§74). But the method will not often
lead so quickly to so accurate a value of the root. Newton used the close
approximation 01 to p, in spite of the fact that this value exceeds the root p and
hence led to a negative correction at the next step. This is in contrast with
Horner’s method in which each correction is positive, so that each
approximation must be chosen less than the root, as 009 for p.
Newton’s method may be presented in the following general form, which is
applicable to any equation f(x) = 0, whether f(x) is a polynomial or not. Given
an approximate value a of a real root, we can usually find a closer
approximation a + h to the root by neglecting the powers h2, h3 small number h
in Taylor’s formula (§56).
f(a +h) = f(a)+f(a)h+f (a) h2/2 +…..
and hence by taking
f(a) +f(a)h = 0
We then repeat the process with a1 = a+h in place of the former a. Thus in
Newton’s example, f(x) = x3 2x 5, we have, for a = 2.
 Graphical Discussion of Newton’s Method.
Using rectangular coördinates, consider the graph of y = f(x) and the point P on
it with the abscissa OQ = a (Fig. 22). Let the tangent at P meet the x-axis at T
and let

the graph meet the x-axis at S. Take h = QT, the subtangent. Then
QP =f(a)
f(a) = tanXTP
In the graph in Fig. 22, OT = a+h is a better approximation to the root OS than
OQ = a. The next step (indicated by dotted lines) gives a still better
approximation OT1.
near a bend point, the subtangent would be very large and the method would
probably fail to give a better approximation. Failure is certain if we use a point
P2 such that a single bend point lies between it and S. We are concerned with
the approximation to a root previously isolated as the only real root between
two given numbers and . These should be chosen so nearly equal that f(x) = 0
has no real root between and , and hence f(x) = y has no bend point between and
. Further, if f (x) = 0 has a root between our limits, our graph will have an
inflexion point with an abscissa between and , and the method will likely fail
(Fig. 23). Let, therefore, neither f(x) nor f (x) vanish between and . Since f
preserves its sign in the interval from to , while f changes in sign, f and f will
have the same sign for one end point. According as the abscissa of this point is
or , we take a = or a= for the first step of Newton’s process. In fact, the tangent
at one of the end points meets the x-axis at a point T with an abscissa within the
interval from to . If f(x) is positive in the interval, so that the tangent makes an
acute angle with the x-axis, we have Fig. 24 or Fig. 25; if f is negative, Fig. 26
or Fig. 22
In Newton’s example, the graph between the points with the abscissas = 2 and
=3 is of the type in Fig. 24, but more nearly like a vertical straight line. In view
of this feature of the graph, we may safely take a = , as did Newton, although
our general procedure would be to take a = . The next step, however, accords
with our present process; we have = 2, = 21 in Fig. 24 and hence we now take a
= , getting.
0061/1123 = 00054
as the subtangent, and hence 21 00054 as the approximate root. If we have
secured (as in Fig. 24 or Fig. 26) a better upper limit to the root than , we may
take the abscissa c of the intersection of the chord AB with the x-axis as a better
lower limit than . By similar triangles.
This method of finding the value of c intermediate to and is called the method
of interpolation (regula falsi).
The advantage of having c at each step is that we know a close limit of the error
made in the approximation to the root.
We may combine the various possible cases discussed into one: If f(x) = 0 has a
single real root between and , and f(x) = 0, f (x) = 0 have no real root between
and , and if we designate by that one of the numbers and for which f( ) and f ( )
have the same sign, then the root lies in the narrower interval from c to f( ) f( ),
where c is given by (3).
 Every equation of the nth degree has a total ‘n’ real or imaginary roots. If α is
the root of Equation f (x) = 0, then the polynomial f (x) is exactly divisible by (x
– α), i.e., (x – α) is the factor of the given polynomial f (x).
In algebra, the study of algebraic equations, which are equations defined by a
polynomial, is called the theory of equations. A polynomial is an expression
consisting of one or more terms. The main difficulty of the theory of equations
was to know when an algebraic equation has an algebraic solution. In this
article, we will learn about the theory of equations and examples of solving
equations.

Important Points to Remember

The important concepts in the theory of equations are given below:

1. The general form of a quadratic equation in x is given by ax 2 + bx + c =
0
2. The roots are given by x = (-b±√(b2 – 4ac))/2a
3. If α and β are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0, then the
sum of roots, α + β = -b/a.
Product of roots, αβ = c/a
4. If the sum and product of roots are known, then the quadratic equation is
given by x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
5. For a quadratic equation, b2 – 4ac is known as the discriminant denoted
by D.
6. If D = 0, the equation will have two equal real roots.
7. If D > 0, then the equation will have two distinct real roots.
8. If D < 0, then the equation has no real roots.
9. The graph of a quadratic equation is a parabola. The parabola will open
upwards if a >0, and open downwards if a < 0.
10.If a > 0, when x = -b/2a, f(x) attains its minimum value.
11.If a < 0, when x = -b/2a, f(x) attains its maximum value.
 Types of equations

There are various types of equations studied within the theory of equations.
Here are some common types:

1. Linear Equations: Equations where each term is either a constant or the

product of a constant and a variable raised to the first power (degree 1).
They can be written in the form 𝑎 𝑥 +𝑏 =0ax+b=0, where 𝑎 a and 𝑏 b are
constants.

2. Quadratic Equations: Equations of degree 2, meaning the highest power

of the variable is 2. They can be written in the form
𝑎 𝑥 2+𝑏 𝑥 +𝑐 =0ax2+bx+c=0, where 𝑎 a, 𝑏 b, and 𝑐 c are constants and
𝑎 ≠0a 0.

3. Cubic Equations: Equations of degree 3, where the highest power of the

variable is 3. They have the general form
𝑎 𝑥 3+𝑏 𝑥 2+𝑐 𝑥 +𝑑 =0ax3+bx2+cx+d=0, where 𝑎 a, 𝑏 b, 𝑐 c, and 𝑑 d are
constants and 𝑎 ≠0a 0.

4. Quartic Equations: Equations of degree 4, where the highest power of the

variable is 4. They can be written in the form
𝑎 𝑥 4+𝑏 𝑥 3+𝑐 𝑥 2+𝑑 𝑥 +𝑒 =0ax4+bx3+cx2+dx+e=0, where 𝑎 a, 𝑏 b, 𝑐 c,
𝑑 d, and 𝑒 e are constants and 𝑎 ≠0a 0.
.

5. Polynomial Equations: Equations involving polynomials, which are

expressions consisting of variables and coefficients, combined using
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and exponentiation.
6. Rational Equations: Equations where one or both sides are rational
expressions, i.e., fractions where the numerator and denominator are
polynomials.
 7. Exponential Equations: Equations involving exponential functions, such
as 𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏 ax=b, where 𝑎 a and 𝑏 b are constants.
8. Logarithmic Equations: Equations involving logarithmic functions, such
as log𝑎 (𝑥 )=𝑏 loga(x)=b, where 𝑎 a and 𝑏 b are constants.
9. Trigonometric Equations: Equations involving trigonometric functions,
such as sin(𝑥 )=𝑎 sin(x)=a or cos(𝑥 )=𝑏 cos(x)=b, where 𝑎 a and 𝑏 b are
constants.
10.Systems of Equations: Sets of equations with multiple variables, where
solutions must satisfy all equations simultaneously. These can be linear or
nonlinear.

These are just a few examples of the types of equations encountered in the
theory of equations. Each type has its own properties, methods for solution, and
applications in various fields of mathematics and science.
 Certainly! Let's expand on the conclusion of the theory of
equationswith additional points:
1. Universal Language: Equations serve as a universal language that
transcends cultural and linguistic barriers, providing a common
framework for communication and collaboration among mathematicians,
scientists, and engineers worldwide.
2. Innovative Technologies: The theory of equations underpins the
development of innovative technologies and computational methods,
driving advancements in fields such as artificial intelligence,
cryptography, data science, and quantum computing.
3. Predictive Power: Equations empower us to make accurate predictions
about the behavior of systems, from predicting the trajectory of celestial
bodies to forecasting economic trends and predicting the spread of
infectious diseases.
4. Educational Foundation: The study of equations forms an essential part
of mathematics education, cultivating critical thinking skills, problem-
solving abilities, and mathematical literacy among students of all ages.
5. Historical Significance: Equations have played a pivotal role throughout
history, from ancient civilizations' mathematical treatises to modern
scientific revolutions, shaping our understanding of the universe and
driving progress in human civilization.
6. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: The theory of equations fosters
interdisciplinary collaboration, bringing together experts from diverse
fields to tackle complex challenges such as climate change, renewable
energy, healthcare, and urban planning.
7. Philosophical Implications: Equations raise profound philosophical
questions about the nature of reality, the limits of human knowledge, and
the relationship between mathematics and the physical world, sparking
debates that continue to inspire philosophical inquiry.
In summary, the theory of equations embodies the essence of mathematical
inquiry, offering a pathway to understanding the universe, driving progress in
science and technology, and shaping the course of human civilization. With each
equation we encounter, we embark on a journey of discovery, unlocking new
realms of knowledge and ushering in a brighter future for generations to come.
 Conculsion

In conclusion, the theory of equations serves as a foundational pillar in

mathematics, encompassing a broad spectrum of concepts, techniques, and
applications. From simple linear equations to complex systems of nonlinear
equations, the theory of equations provides powerful tools for modeling,
analyzing, and solving mathematical problems across diverse fields. Through
algebraic manipulation, graphical representation, numerical methods, and
advanced mathematical techniques, equations enable us to describe
relationships between variables, predict outcomes, optimize processes, and
understand the fundamental laws governing natural phenomena. The study of
equations is not only essential for theoretical mathematics but also finds
widespread applications in science, engineering, economics, computer science,
and many other disciplines. By delving into the theory of equations, we gain
deeper insights into the nature of mathematical structures, enhance problem-
solving skills, and unlock new avenues for innovation and discovery. As
mathematics continues to evolve, the theory of equations remains a cornerstone
of mathematical inquiry, driving advancements in research, technology, and
human understanding.

In the vast realm of mathematics, the theory of equations stands as a

cornerstone, providing a framework for understanding the intricate relationships
between variables and uncovering solutions to complex problems. Spanning
from elementary algebraic equations to sophisticated systems of differential
equations, this theory permeates virtually every branch of mathematics and
extends its influence into countless practical applications across diverse fields.
At its core, the theory of equations elucidates fundamental concepts such as
roots, solutions, and equations' graphical representations, empowering
mathematicians and scientists alike to probe the depths of mathematical
structures. Through rigorous analysis and innovative methodologies, researchers
explore the properties, symmetries, and behaviors inherent in equations,
uncovering profound insights into the fabric of mathematical reality.
The theory of equations serves as a linchpin in scientific inquiry, offering
indispensable tools for modeling physical phenomena, predicting natural
behaviors, and engineering innovative solutions to real-world challenges. From
the elegant simplicity of linear equations describing motion to the intricate
complexities of nonlinear systems governing chaotic dynamics, equations serve
as powerful instruments for unraveling the mysteries of the universe.
Moreover, the theory of equations fosters interdisciplinary collaboration,
bridging the gap between mathematics and other fields such as physics,
engineering, economics, and biology. By harnessing the expressive power of
equations, researchers transcend disciplinary boundaries, forging new pathways
for innovation and discovery.
As we journey through the theory of equations, we encounter not merely a
collection of abstract symbols and formulas but a rich tapestry of mathematical
ideas that shape our understanding of the world. With each equation we
encounter, we embark on a voyage of exploration, seeking to unravel its secrets,
unlock its potential, and harness its transformative power for the betterment of
society.
In essence, the theory of equations embodies the essence of mathematical
inquiry—unraveling the mysteries of the universe, illuminating the pathways of
discovery, and inspiring generations of thinkers to push the boundaries of
human knowledge ever further. As we continue to delve into the depths of this
timeless theory, we embark on a journey of infinite possibilities, driven by the
inexhaustible quest for truth, beauty, and understanding in the wondrous world
of mathematics.
 References

Here are some references for the topic of the theory of equations in
mathematics.

Theory of Equations by Vedantu: This article provides a comprehensive

overview of the theory of equations, including its definition, mathematical
theory, key points, solved problems, and conclusion.

Theory of Equations by Wikipedia: This article discusses the history of the

theory of equations, including the contributions of mathematicians . It also
mentions the further problems in the theory of equations.

Theory of Equations by Sathyabama: This article provides detailed

explanations of reciprocal equations, including the general form of a quadratic
equation in x, the roots of the equation, and solved examples