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Acids and Bases, Salts]]

Recall:
Acids Alkalis (Soluble Bases)
– Sodium hydroxide, NaOH (Na+, OH– in 1:1 ratio)
Hydrochloric acid, HCl (H , Cl in 1:1 ratio)
+

Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 (H+, SO42– in 2:1 ratio) Potassium hydroxide, KOH (K+, OH– in 1:1 ratio)
Nitric acid, HNO3 (H+, NO3– in 1:1 ratio) Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (Ca2+, OH– in 1:2 ratio)

Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH (H+, CH3COO– in 1:1 ratio) Aqueous ammonia, NH3 (NH4+, OH–)
NH3(g) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH–(aq)
Definition of an acid: Definition of an alkali:
Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions Alkalis are substances that produce hydroxide ions
(H+ ions) in solution. (OH- ions) in solution.
- sour taste - taste bitter
- feel slippery and soapy
- dissolve in water to form solutions that - dissolve in water to form solutions that
conduct electricity via mobile ions conduct electricity via mobile ions
- turn blue litmus paper red - turn red litmus paper blue
(no need the words ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ as the alkali (no need the words ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ as the alkali
itself contains water. The word ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ is itself contains water. The word ‘moist’ or ‘damp’ is
needed when testing for acidic gases) needed when testing for alkaline gases)
Both acids and alkalis can be corrosive at high concentrations.

pH Indicators

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
acidic neu- alkaline
tral
Methyl
orange

Litmus
paper

Litmus
solution

Universal
Indicator
The shades used above are approximate and can become paler/deeper depending on concentration of the
indicator. There will not be clear-cut boundaries between the colours as well.

Bases
Definition:
Bases are metal oxides and metal hydroxides that react with acids to
produce a salt and water.
Acids Alkalis (Soluble Bases) Insoluble Bases
Definition: Definition:
Acids are substances that Alkalis are substances that
produce hydrogen ions (H+ ions) produce hydroxide ions (OH-
in solution. ions) in solution.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sodium hydroxide, NaOH Most metallic oxides, e.g.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Potassium hydroxide, KOH Magnesium oxide, MgO
Nitric acid, HNO3 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 Calcium oxide, CaO
Zinc oxide, ZnO
Lead(II) oxide, PbO
etc
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH Aqueous ammonia, NH3
Types of Oxides

Acidic Oxides Basic Oxides

react with alkalis react with acids
to form salt and water to form salt and water

Acidic oxides dissolve in water Soluble basic oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis
to form acids e.g. HNO3, H2SO4 e.g. NaOH, KOH

Non-metal oxides e.g. Metal oxides e.g.

NS Sodium oxide, Na2O2
Potassium oxide, K2O
Neutral Oxides Amphoteric Oxides
are neither acidic nor basic react with both acids and alkalis
to form salt and water

“Non-metal (acidic) oxides “Metal (basic) oxides

that are not acidic” that also react with alkalis”

3 typical examples - “monoxides” 3 typical examples - “LAZy”

Carbon monoxide CO, Lead(II) oxide PbO,
Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide) NO, Aluminium oxide Al2O3,
Water (dihydrogen monoxide), H2O Zinc oxide, ZnO

Strength of Acids

Strong Acids Strong Alkalis

Definition: Definition:
Strong acids are substances that Strong alkalis are substances
fully ionise/dissociate in solution that fully ionise/dissociate in
to produce hydrogen ions (H+ solution to produce hydroxide
ions). ions (OH- ions).
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
HCl(aq) → H+(aq)+Cl–(aq) NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq)+OH–(aq)
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq)+SO4–(aq) KOH(aq) → K+(aq)+OH–(aq)
Nitric acid, HNO3 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq)+NO3–(aq) Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq)+2OH–(aq)

Weak Acids Weak Alkalis

Definition: Definition:
Weak acids are substances that Weak alkalis are substances that
partially ionise/dissociate in partially ionise/dissociate in
solution to produce hydrogen solution to produce hydroxide
ions (H+ ions). ions (OH- ions).
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH Aqueous ammonia, NH3
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq)+CH3COO–(aq) NH3(g)+H2O ⇌ NH4+(aq)+OH–(aq)
Basicity of Acids and Alkalis

Monobasic Acids Monobasic Alkalis

Definition: (not in syllabus)
Monobasic acids are substances Monobasic alkalis are
that produce hydrogen ions (H+ substances that produce
ions) in a 1:1 ratio. hydroxide ions (OH- ions) in a 1:1
ratio.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
__HCl(aq) → __H+(aq)+Cl–(aq) __NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq)+__OH–(aq)
Nitric acid, HNO3 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
__HNO3(aq) → __H+(aq)+NO3–(aq) __KOH(aq) → K+(aq)+__OH–(aq)

Ratio of acid:H+ = 1:1 Ratio of alkali:OH- = 1:1

Dibasic Acids Dibasic Alkalis
Definition: (not in syllabus)
Dibasic acids are substances that Dibasic alkalis are substances
produce hydrogen ions (H+ ions) that produce hydroxide ions (OH-
in a 1:2 ratio. ions) in a 1:2 ratio.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
__H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq)+SO4–(aq) __Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq)+2OH–(aq)

Ratio of acid:H+ = 1:2 Ratio of alkali:OH- = 1:2

Reactions of Acids

Acids react with:

reactive metals metal carbonates bases

(metal oxides and
metal hydroxides)

acid+metal acid+metal carbonate acid+base/alkali

→salt+hydrogen gas →salt+water+carbon dioxide gas →salt+water

2HCl(aq) + Ca(s) → CaCl2(aq)+H2(g) 2HCl(aq)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(aq)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+CaO(s)→CaCl2(aq)+H2O

very reactive metal explosive reaction +CO2(g)

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g) 2HCl(aq)+ZnCO3(s)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+ZnO(s)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O

+CO2(g)

2HCl(aq) + Pb(s) → PbCl2(s)+H2(g) 2HCl(aq) + PbCO3(s) → PbCl2(s)+H2O 2HCl(aq) + PbO(s) → PbCl2(s)+H2O

insoluble reactant insoluble salt insoluble reactant insoluble salt
reaction stops after a short while
+CO2(g)
insoluble reactant insoluble salt reaction stops after a short while
reaction stops after a short while

2HCl(aq) + Cu(s) → no reaction 2HCl(aq)+CuCO3(s)→CuCl2(aq)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+CuO(s)→CuCl2(aq)+H2O

unreactive metal +CO2(g)

2HCl(aq) + Ag(s) → no reaction 2HCl(aq)+Ag2CO3(s)→2AgCl(s)+H2O 2HCl(aq)+Ag2O(s)→2AgCl(s)+H2O

unreactive metal +CO2(g) insoluble reactant insoluble salt
insoluble reactant insoluble salt reaction stops after a short while
reaction stops after a short while

Considerations: Considerations: Considerations:

● Reactivity Series of Metals ● Solubility Rules ● Solubility Rules
● Solubility Rules
Forming equations for the reactions of acids:

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)

HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) HCl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + H+(aq)
ZnCO3(s) eventually forms Zn2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) Na2CO3(s) dissolves in water to form Na2CO3(aq)
ZnCO3 is insoluble in water. Na2CO3(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
The aqueous ions are formed due to the acid-carbonate reaction.

2HCl(aq) + ZnCO3(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) H2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)

ZnO(s) eventually forms Zn2+(aq) + O2-(aq) NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
ZnO is insoluble in water. NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The aqueous ions are formed due to the acid-base reaction.

H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Forming IONIC equations for the reactions of acids:

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Working: Working:
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Zn2+(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Mg2+(aq) Cl-(aq)
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

2H+(aq) + Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) 2H+(aq) + Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

2HCl(aq) + ZnCO3(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Working: Working:
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Zn2+(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)
H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq) H+(aq) Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) Cl-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

2H+(aq) + ZnCO3(s) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2H+(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2Na+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Working: Working:
H+(aq) SO42-(aq) Zn2+(aq) SO42-(aq) H+(aq) SO42-(aq) Na+(aq) SO42-(aq)
H+(aq) H+(aq) Na+(aq)
Na+(aq) OH-(aq)
Na+(aq) OH-(aq)

Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l)

2H+(aq) + ZnO(s) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l) Ionic equation (simplest ratio):
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
Reactions of Bases

Bases (metal oxides and metal hydroxides) react with ammonium salts to form a new salt, ammonia gas
and water.

base/alkali + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water

Forming equations for the reaction of bases/alkalis with ammonium salts:

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) NH4NO3(aq) → NO3-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) KOH(aq)+NH4NO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Slaked lime and quicklime are liming agents limewater

used by farmers to treat acidic soil. These metal Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
(NH4)2SO4(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2NH4+(aq)
hydroxides / metal oxides are basic in nature and
will neutralise the acids in the soil, forming salt Ca(OH)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq)
and water. + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

However, if liming agents and fertilisers Note:

containing ammonium salts are used at the The term ‘lime’ is used to refer to calcium containing
same time on soil, they will react together and: compounds, e.g.
1) the acidic soil will not be neutralised by the
liming agent. ● CaO(s) is quicklime
2) the soil will not be fertilised as the escape of ● Ca(OH)2(aq) is limewater OR
slaked lime, Ca(OH)2(s)
ammonia gas also results in a loss of N(nitrogen)
● CaCO3(s) is limestone or limescale
from the fertiliser.

slaked lime quicklime

Ca(OH)2(s) dissolves in water to form Ca(OH)2(aq) CaO(s) dissolves in water to form CaO(aq)

Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) CaO(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + O2-(aq)

NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq)
NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) NH4Cl(aq) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

+ 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Forming IONIC equations for the reactions of bases/alkalis with ammonium salts:

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) KOH(aq) + NH4NO3(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Working: Working:
Na+(aq) OH-(aq) Na+(aq) Cl-(aq) K+(aq) OH-(aq) K+(aq) NO3-(aq)
NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) NH4+(aq) NO3-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g) OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq)

+ 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Working:
Ca2+(aq) OH-(aq) Ca2+(aq) SO42-(aq)
OH-(aq)
NH4 (aq) SO42-(aq)
+

NH4+(aq)

2OH-(aq) + 2NH4+(aq) → 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Ionic equation (simplest ratio):
OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Ca(OH)2(s)+2NH4Cl(aq)→CaCl2(aq)+2H2O(l)+2NH3(g) CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

Working: Working:
NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Ca2+(aq) Cl-(aq) NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Ca2+(aq) Cl-(aq)
NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq) NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq) Cl-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) +2H2O(l)+2NH3(g) CaO(s) + 2NH4+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Definition of a salt:
A salt is an ionic compound that consists of a cation (positive ion) and an anion (negative ion).

Concept:
● A salt is formed from all the reactions of acids with other substances.
● The anion of the salt is from the acid.
The cation of the salt is from the reactant that reacts with the acid.

Salts Preparation Methods

Precipitation Excess Insoluble Reactant Titration

To prepare insoluble salts Soluble salts (not Group 1 or To prepare Group 1 and
(AgCl,PbCl2, ammonium salts) using ammonium soluble salts using
AgBr,PbBr2, acid-reactive metal reaction OR acid-alkali reaction
AgI,PbI2, acid-metal carbonate* reaction
BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4) acid-metal oxide* reaction Alkalis:
using a solution containing the *metal carbonate and metal oxide must ● NaOH
aqueous cation and a solution be insoluble so that they can be ● KOH
removed as residue using filtration
containing the aqueous anion ● NH3(aq)

Rough description (not Rough description (not Rough description (not

procedure; see textbook for procedure; see textbook for procedure; see textbook for
detailed procedure): detailed procedure): detailed procedure):

Mix a solution containing the Add excess insoluble reactant Use titration with methyl orange
salt’s anion* with a solution to acid that contains the salt’s indicator to determine the exact
containing the salt’s cation to anion to prepare a soluble salt. volumes of alkali containing the
prepare an insoluble salt. The acid is used up in the salt’s cation needed to react
reaction. with 25.0 cm3 of acid that
*easiest choice: contains the salt’s anion to
sodium or potassium cation with prepare a soluble salt.
the salt’s anion (or can use the
acid with the salt’s anion)

*easiest choice:
nitrate anion with the salt’s cation

Filter to obtain the salt as Filter to obtain the salt solution Repeat the titration without
residue. as filtrate. indicator to obtain a largely pure
salt solution.

Wash with distilled water and pat Heat the filtrate to saturation. Heat the solution to saturation.
dry between pieces of filter Allow to cool. Crystals will form. Allow to cool. Crystals will form.
paper. Filter to obtain crystals of the Filter to obtain crystals of the
salt as residue. Wash the salt as residue. Wash the
crystals with cold distilled water crystals with cold distilled water
and pat dry between pieces of and pat dry between pieces of
filter paper. filter paper.
Forming IONIC equations for precipitation reactions:

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Working: Working:
Na+(aq) Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq) Na+(aq) SO42-(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
Ag+(aq) NO3-(aq) Na+(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
Ba2+(aq) NO3-(aq)
NO3-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) → AgCl(s) SO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) → BaSO4(s)

2KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq) K2SO4(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) → CaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Working: Working:
K+(aq) Cl-(aq) K+(aq) NO3-(aq) K+(aq) SO42-(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
K+(aq) Cl-(aq) K+(aq) NO3-(aq) K+(aq) Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
Pb2+(aq) NO3-(aq) Ca2+(aq) NO3-(aq)
NO3-(aq) NO3-(aq)

Ionic equation: Ionic equation:

2Cl-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbCl2(s) SO42-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → CaSO4(s)

Acids MUST be used as the source for the salt’s H2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
anions for:
● “Excess Insoluble Reactant” method Working:
because it makes use of the acid-metal, H+(aq) SO42-(aq) H+(aq) NO3-(aq)
acid-metal carbonate or acid-metal oxide H+(aq) H+(aq) NO3-(aq)
reactions. Pb2+(aq) NO3-(aq)
● “Titration” method NO3-(aq)
because there must be a change in pH to
signal when the reactants are added in
stoichiometric proportions (exact mole ratio).
This change in pH will be indicated by the
indicator’s colour change.

For “Precipitation” method, the source of the salt’s Ionic equation:

anions can be an acid but it is not a must. It can also SO42-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbSO4(s)
be another aqueous salt.