CN Unit 3 Part 2
CN Unit 3 Part 2
CN Unit 3 Part 2
What is congestion?
A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it
slows down network response time.
Effects of Congestion
• As delay increases, performance decreases.
• If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.
Imagine a bucket with a small hole in the bottom.No matter at what rate water
enters the bucket, the outflow is at constant rate.When the bucket is full with
water additional water entering spills over the sides and is lost.
Similarly, each network interface contains a leaky bucket and the
following steps are involved in leaky bucket algorithm:
1. When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.
2. The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface
transmits packets at a constant rate.
3. Bursty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.
4. In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.
The leaky bucket algorithm enforces output pattern at the average rate, no
matter how bursty the traffic is. So in order to deal with the bursty traffic we
need a flexible algorithm so that the data is not lost. One such algorithm is
token bucket algorithm.
In figure (A) we see a bucket holding three tokens, with five packets waiting to
be transmitted. For a packet to be transmitted, it must capture and destroy
one token. In figure (B) We see that three of the five packets have gotten
through, but the other two are stuck waiting for more tokens to be generated.
Ways in which token bucket is superior to leaky bucket: The leaky bucket
algorithm controls the rate at which the packets are introduced in the
network, but it is very conservative in nature. Some flexibility is introduced in
the token bucket algorithm. In the token bucket, algorithm tokens are
generated at each tick (up to a certain limit). For an incoming packet to be
transmitted, it must capture a token and the transmission takes place at the
same rate. Hence some of the busty packets are transmitted at the same rate if
tokens are available and thus introduces some amount of flexibility in the
system.
IPv6 packet may contain zero, one or more extension headers but these
should be present in their recommended order:
Rule: Hop-by-Hop options header(if present) should always be placed
after the IPv6 base header.
Conventions :
1. Any extension header can appear at most once except
Destination Header because Destination Header is present two
times in the above list itself.
2. If Destination Header is present before Routing Header then it
will be examined by all intermediate nodes specified in the
routing header.
3. If Destination Header is present just above the Upper layer then
it will be examined only by the Destination node.
Given order in which all extension header should be chained in IPv6
packet and working of each extension header :
What is IPv6?
•
The•• most common version of the Internet Protocol currently in use, IPv4, will
soon be replaced by IPv6, a new version of the protocol. The well-known IPv6
protocol is being used and deployed more often, especially in mobile phone
markets. IP address determines who and where you are in the network of
billions of digital devices that are connected to the Internet.
IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows
communication to take place over the network. IPv6 was designed by Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) in December 1998 with the purpose of
superseding the IPv4 due to the global exponentially growing internet users.
The next generation Internet Protocol (IP) address standard, known as IPv6, is
meant to work in tandem with IPv4, which is still in widespread use today, and
eventually replace it. To communicate with other devices, a computer, smartphone,
home automation component, Internet of Things sensor, or any other Internet-
connected device needs a numerical IP address. Because so many connected
devices are being used, the original IP address scheme, known as IPv4, is running
out of addresses.
IPv4 vs IPv6
The common type of IP address (is known as IPv4, for “version 4”). Here’s an
example of what an IP address might look like:
25.59.209.224
An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of which contains one to
three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each number or set of digits.
This group of separated numbers creates the addresses that let you and
everyone around the globe to send and retrieve data over our Internet
connections. The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store
2^32 addresses which is more than 4 billion addresses. To date, it is
considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet
traffic. Initially, it was assumed it would never run out of addresses but
the present situation paves a new way to IPv6, let’s see why? An IPv6
address consists of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits. Here’s an
example IPv6 address:
3001:0da8:75a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfil the need for more
Internet addresses. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340
undecillion unique address space.
IPv6 support a theoretical maximum of 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463,
463, 374, 607, 431, 768, 211, 456. To keep it straightforward, we will
never run out of IP addresses again.
The next iteration of the IP standard is known as Internet Protocol
version 6 (IPv6). Although IPv4 and IPv6 will coexist for a while, IPv6 is
meant to work in tandem with IPv4 before eventually taking its place.
We need to implement IPv6 in order to proceed and keep bringing new
gadgets and services to the Internet. We can only move forward with an
innovative and open Internet if we implement it, which was created with
the needs of a global commercial Internet in mind.
Types of IPv6 Address
Now that we know about what is IPv6 address let’s take a look at its
different types.
• Unicast addresses : Only one interface is specified by the
unicast address. A packet moves from one host to the
destination host when it is sent to a unicast address destination.
• Multicast addresses It represents a group of IP devices and can
only be used as the destination of a datagram.
• Anycast addresses The multicast address and the anycast
address are the same. The way the anycast address varies from
other addresses is that it can deliver the same IP address to
several servers or devices. Keep in mind that the hosts do not
receive the IP address. Stated differently, multiple interfaces or a
collection of interfaces are assigned an anycast address.
Advantages of IPv6
• Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in
IPv4.This feature allows bandwidth-intensive packet flows (like
multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple destinations all at
once.
• Stronger Security: IPSecurity, which provides confidentiality,
and data integrity, is embedded into IPv6.
• Routing efficiency
• Reliability
• Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in
Global-network.
• The device allocates addresses on its own.
• Internet protocol security is used to support security.
• Enable simple aggregation of prefixes allocated to IP networks;
this saves bandwidth by enabling the simultaneous transmission
of large data packages.
Disadvantages of IPv6
• Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will
take a long period to completely shift to IPv6.
• Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate
directly with each other.
• Not going backward Compatibility: IPv6 cannot be executed on
IPv4-capable computers because it is not available on IPv4
systems.
• Conversion Time: One significant drawback of IPv6 is its
inability to uniquely identify each device on the network, which
makes the conversion to IPV4 extremely time-consuming.
• Cross-protocol communication is forbidden since there is no way
for IPv4 and IPv6 to communicate with each other.
Differenece Between IPv6 and IPv4
IPv6 IPv4
IPv6 has a 128-bit address length IPv4 has a 32-bit address length
IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.
Hardware type: This is 16 bits field defining the type of the network on
which ARP is running. Ethernet is given type 1.
Protocol type: This is 16 bits field defining the protocol. The value of this
field for the IPv4 protocol is 0800H.
Hardware length: This is an 8 bits field defining the length of the physical
address in bytes. Ethernet is the value 6.
Protocol length: This is an 8 bits field defining the length of the logical
address in bytes. For the IPv4 protocol, the value is 4.
Operation (request or reply): This is a 16 bits field defining the type of
packet. Packet types are ARP request (1), and ARP reply (2).
Sender hardware address: This is a variable length field defining the
physical address of the sender. For example, for Ethernet, this field is 6
bytes long.
Sender protocol address: This is also a variable length field defining the
logical address of the sender For the IP protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
Target hardware address: This is a variable length field defining the
physical address of the target. For Ethernet, this field is 6 bytes long. For
the ARP request messages, this field is all Os because the sender does not
know the physical address of the target.
Target protocol address: This is also a variable length field defining the
logical address of the target. For the IPv4 protocol, this field is 4 bytes
long.
Client IP address
Your IP address
Server IP address
Gateway IP address
Server name
(64 bytes)
Options
( Variable length)
Now the server will make an entry of the client host with the offered IP
address and lease time. This IP address will not be provided by the server
to any other host. The destination MAC address is FFFFFFFFFFFF and the
destination IP address is 255.255.255.255 and the source IP address is
172.16.32.12 and the source MAC address is 00AA00123456 (server
MAC address).
5. DHCP negative acknowledgment message: Whenever a DHCP server
receives a request for an IP address that is invalid according to the scopes
that are configured, it sends a DHCP Nak message to the client. Eg-when
the server has no IP address unused or the pool is empty, then this
message is sent by the server to the client.
6. DHCP decline: If the DHCP client determines the offered configuration
parameters are different or invalid, it sends a DHCP decline message to
the server. When there is a reply to the gratuitous ARP by any host to the
client, the client sends a DHCP decline message to the server showing the
offered IP address is already in use.
7. DHCP release: A DHCP client sends a DHCP release packet to the
server to release the IP address and cancel any remaining lease time.
8. DHCP inform: If a client address has obtained an IP address manually
then the client uses DHCP information to obtain other local configuration
parameters, such as domain name. In reply to the DHCP inform message,
the DHCP server generates a DHCP ack message with a local
configuration suitable for the client without allocating a new IP address.
This DHCP ack message is unicast to the client.
Note – All the messages can be unicast also by the DHCP relay agent if
the server is present in a different network.
Advantages of DHCP
The advantages of using DHCP include:
• Centralized management of IP addresses.
• Centralized and automated TCP/IP configuration.
• Ease of adding new clients to a network.
• Reuse of IP addresses reduces the total number of IP addresses
that are required.
• The efficient handling of IP address changes for clients that must
be updated frequently, such as those for portable devices that
move to different locations on a wireless network.
• Simple reconfiguration of the IP address space on the DHCP
server without needing to reconfigure each client.
• The DHCP protocol gives the network administrator a method to
configure the network from a centralized area.
• With the help of DHCP, easy handling of new users and the reuse
of IP addresses can be achieved.
Disadvantages of DHCP
The disadvantage of using DHCP is:
• IP conflict can occur.
• The problem with DHCP is that clients accept any server.
Accordingly, when another server is in the vicinity, the client may
connect with this server, and this server may possibly send invalid
data to the client.
• The client is not able to access the network in absence of a DHCP
Server.
• The name of the machine will not be changed in a case when a
new IP Address is assigned.