Light Metals

Q1) a. What are the three major hardening mechanism in light alloys?
b. How the alloying elements in solid solution can influence deformation behavior?
Explain briefly in three points.
ANS:- The three major hardening mechanisms in light alloys are:

❖ Solid solution hardening: This is the process of adding solute atoms to a metal
matrix, which increases the resistance to dislocation motion and thus increases the
strength of the alloy. The degree of solid solution hardening depends on the size,
concentration, and valence of the solute atoms. For example, adding magnesium or
silicon to aluminum can increase its strength through solid solution hardening.
 ❖ Precipitation hardening: This is the process of forming fine particles of a second
phase within a metal matrix, which act as obstacles to dislocation motion and thus
increase the strength of the alloy. The precipitation hardening involves three steps:
■ solution treatment:- T above Solvus T, hold for 1-20 hrs
■ Quenching:- in water, water-air mixture, Supersaturation solid sol
■ Ageing :- Artificial ageing- below solvus T, 2-20 hrs

Natural ageing- room T, long period

For example, Al-Cu alloys can be strengthened by precipitation hardening due to the
formation of Al2Cu precipitates during ageing.

❖ Work hardening: This is the process of increasing the strength of a metal by plastic
deformation, which increases the density and interaction of dislocations and thus
increases the resistance to further deformation. For example, cold rolling or drawing
can increase the strength of copper or titanium by work hardening.

These hardening mechanisms can be combined to achieve optimal properties in light alloys.
For example, Al-Sc alloys can benefit from both solid solution and precipitation hardening
due to the presence of scandium atoms and Al3Sc precipitates. High-entropy alloys can also
utilize multiple hardening mechanisms such as grain refinement, solid solution, precipitation,
and dynamic Hall-Petch effect.

b) The alloying elements in solid solution can influence deformation behavior in the following
ways:

● They can increase or decrease the elastic modulus of the material, which affects the
stress required to initiate plastic deformation. For example, adding tungsten to nickel
increases the elastic modulus and the strength of the alloy1.
● They can create local stress fields due to size mismatch with the solvent atoms,
which interact with the stress fields of dislocations and impede their motion. For
example, adding magnesium or silicon to aluminum creates tensile or compressive
strain in the lattice, respectively, and increases the resistance to dislocation glide2.
● They can alter the grain boundary structure and energy, which affects the grain
boundary deformation mechanisms such as sliding, diffusion, or migration. For
example, adding scandium to aluminum forms fine Al3Sc precipitates at the grain
boundaries, which pin them and prevent grain growth and coarsening3.

Q2) a. What are the steps involved in age hardening process of duralumin and how
the microstructure changes during these steps (draw schematically)? (2)

b. Draw the effect of time and temperature (take three different temperatures 20, 160
and 200 C) of precipitation treatment on 1.strength and 2. hardness of duralumin. (2)
c. Why the higher aging temperature reduces strength of the alloy? (1)
Ans:- a) Duralumin (Al-3.5Cu-0.5Mg-0.9Si-0.8Mn) is a type of aluminum alloy that was
developed in the early 20th century. It is known for its strength, light weight, and resistance
to corrosion, making it a popular material for use in aircraft construction, among other
applications. Duralumin is unique in that it can be hardened quite appreciably by quenching
at a temperature slightly below its melting point followed by aging, merely allowing the
material to stand at ordinary room temperatures or at temperatures slightly higher. The
composition of the alloy typically includes copper, magnesium, manganese, iron, and silicon
derived from the commercial aluminum ingot. The age-hardening process of duralumin
involves heating the material to a specific temperature, holding it at that temperature for a
certain amount of time, and then cooling it rapidly to room temperature. This process causes
the material to become harder and stronger over time.

(Bing-Chat4 ANS):- The steps involved in age hardening process of duralumin and how the
microstructure changes during these steps are as follows:

● Solution treatment: The alloy is heated to a high temperature (around 500°C) where
the copper and magnesium atoms dissolve into the aluminium matrix, forming a
single-phase solid solution. The alloy is then rapidly quenched in water or oil to
preserve this supersaturated state. The microstructure at this stage consists of a
homogeneous and ductile aluminium matrix with a high solute content12.
● Natural ageing: The alloy is left at room temperature for several days, during which
the solute atoms gradually diffuse out of the aluminium matrix and form small clusters
of a second phase. These clusters are coherent with the matrix, meaning they have
the same crystal structure and lattice parameter, but they have a different
composition. The clusters act as obstacles to the movement of dislocations, which
are linear defects in the crystal structure that enable plastic deformation. The
microstructure at this stage consists of a fine dispersion of coherent clusters within
the aluminium matrix, which increases the strength and hardness of the alloy123.
● Artificial ageing: The alloy is heated to a moderate temperature (around 150°C) for
a few hours, during which the clusters grow into larger and more stable particles of a
second phase. These particles are semi-coherent or incoherent with the matrix,
meaning they have a different crystal structure and/or lattice parameter than the
matrix. The particles further impede the movement of dislocations, but also introduce
local stresses and strains in the matrix due to the lattice mismatch. The
microstructure at this stage consists of a coarse dispersion of semi-coherent or
incoherent particles within the aluminium matrix, which further increases the strength
and hardness of the alloy123.

The schematic diagram below shows how the microstructure changes during these steps:
b)

Duralumin is an aluminum alloy that often contains copper and other elements to enhance its
mechanical properties.

1. Effect on Strength:
Time: The strength of duralumin typically increases with time during a precipitation treatment
process. This is due to the formation and growth of fine precipitate particles within the alloy.
Initially, the strength may increase slowly, but as time progresses, the precipitates become
larger and more dispersed, leading to a significant improvement in strength.

Temperature:
20°C: At lower temperatures (e.g., 20°C), the strengthening process is slow, and it may take
a longer time to reach the desired strength level.
160°C: A temperature of 160°C is typically within the range for most precipitation treatments
of duralumin. At this temperature, the strength improvement occurs at a moderate rate.
200°C: A higher temperature like 200°C can accelerate the precipitation process, leading to
a faster increase in strength. However, excessive temperature can also lead to coarsening of
the precipitates, which may have a negative impact on strength.

2.Effect on Hardness:

Time: Similar to strength, hardness increases with time during precipitation treatment. As
precipitates form and grow, they hinder dislocation movement within the crystal lattice of the
alloy, making it harder. The rate of hardness increase depends on the specific alloy
composition and treatment parameters.

Temperature:
20°C: At lower temperatures, the increase in hardness is slow, and it may take a longer time
to achieve the desired hardness level.
160°C: This temperature is commonly used for precipitation hardening of duralumin. It
provides a good balance between hardness improvement and avoiding excessive
coarsening of precipitates.
200°C: A higher temperature like 200°C can lead to a rapid increase in hardness. However,
it's important to monitor the process closely to prevent over-aging, which can result in a
decrease in hardness.

In summary, the effect of time and temperature on the strength and hardness of duralumin
during precipitation treatment varies. Higher temperatures generally accelerate the process
but can lead to over-aging if not controlled properly. The choice of specific time and
temperature parameters depends on the desired mechanical properties and the alloy
composition. A careful balance must be struck to achieve the desired strength and hardness
without compromising other properties of the material.

c) The higher aging temperature reduces the strength of the alloy because it causes the
precipitate particles that form during the aging process to grow larger and coarser, which
reduces their effectiveness in impeding the dislocation motion. The precipitate particles are
responsible for the hardening of the alloy, and their size, distribution, and coherency with the
matrix affect their strengthening effect. Smaller and finer particles have a higher surface area
to volume ratio, which increases the lattice strain and the resistance to plastic deformation.
Larger and coarser particles have a lower surface area to volume ratio, which decreases the
lattice strain and the resistance to plastic deformation. Moreover, larger and coarser particles
tend to lose their coherency with the matrix, which reduces the local stress fields and the
interaction with dislocations. Therefore, a higher aging temperature leads to lower strength
of the alloy, but higher ductility.

PRECIPITATION HARDENING VERY IMPORTANT

Q3) a. What is the correlation between shear strength and precipitate radius. (draw
schematically)
b. Differentiate between (i) coherent, (ii) semicoherent, and (iii) incoherent precipitates
by neat sketch.
c. Among these precipitates, which would be more effective in blocking slip and why?

Ans:- a) As the precipitate radius (represented on the x-axis) increases, the shear strength of
the material (represented on the y-axis) generally increases. This relationship is often
observed in materials science and metallurgy, particularly in the context of strengthening
mechanisms such as precipitation hardening. When precipitates are finely dispersed and
have a significant volume fraction, they can impede the motion of dislocations within the
material, thus increasing its shear strength. (diagram pura rato+the points in image)
b) (i) Coherent Precipitates:
Coherent precipitates are those that have a perfect lattice match with the matrix material.
This means that the crystal planes of the precipitate align perfectly with those of the matrix,
and there is no dislocation at the precipitate-matrix interface.
(ii) Semicoherent Precipitates:
Semicoherent precipitates have a partial lattice match with the matrix. There may be some
lattice dislocations at the precipitate-matrix interface.
(iii) Incoherent Precipitates:
Incoherent precipitates have no lattice match with the matrix and do not share a common
crystallographic orientation. The interface between the precipitate and matrix is highly
disordered

c) Among these precipitates, coherent ones would be more effective in blocking slip because
they have the highest interfacial energy and the lowest mobility. Incoherent precipitates have
the lowest interfacial energy and the highest mobility, which means they can be easily
bypassed by dislocations. Semicoherent precipitates have intermediate properties between
coherent and incoherent ones.

Q.4) What is Orowan stress and in what kind of precipitates this is applicable? How is
it related to the shear modulus of the matrix and inter-precipitation distance? (draw
neat sketch and mathematical expressions)

Ans:- Orowan stress is the critical resolved shear stress required to move a dislocation past
a row of precipitates in the matrix. It is related to the shear modulus of the matrix and the
inter-precipitation distance by the following equation:
where G is the shear modulus of the matrix, b is the magnitude of the Burgers vector of the
dislocation, v is the Poisson's ratio of the matrix, and L is the inter-precipitation distance. The
figure below shows a neat sketch of a dislocation moving past a row of precipitates by
Orowan looping.

Orowan strengthening is a mechanism by which the presence of precipitates in a material

increases its strength. The Orowan mechanism is applicable when the precipitates are
strong and large enough to prevent dislocation cutting.

Q.5) a. Draw the antiphase boundary.

b. What are the mechanisms involved in strengthening by coherent precipitates? (2) c.
What is the role of different alloying elements (Mg and Mn) addition in Al.

Ans:- a) An antiphase boundary is a type of defect in a crystal structure that occurs when
two regions of the same ordered phase are shifted relative to each other. This means that
the atoms in one region are in the opposite position to the atoms in the other region. For
example, in an ordered AB alloy, if an A atom is in the place where a B atom should be, and
vice versa, then an antiphase boundary is formed. The figure below shows a schematic
diagram of an antiphase boundary.
b) The mechanisms involved in strengthening by coherent precipitates are as follows:

● Coherency strain hardening: This is the process of increasing the strength of a

metal by creating local stress fields due to the lattice mismatch between the coherent
precipitates and the matrix. The lattice mismatch produces a strain field around the
precipitate, which hinders dislocation movement and leads todislocation bending.
The degree of coherency strain hardening depends on the size, shape, volume
fraction, and misfit of the precipitates.
● Order hardening: This is the process of increasing the strength of a metal by
forming ordered phases within the matrix, which have lower symmetry and higher
energy than the disordered phases. The ordered phases create antiphase
boundaries (APBs) when they are cut by dislocations, which increase the resistance
to dislocation glide. The degree of order hardening depends on the degree of order,
the APB energy, and the stacking fault energy of the ordered phases34.
● Precipitate shearing: This is the process of increasing the strength of a metal by
forcing dislocations to cut through the precipitates, which requires a higher stress
than bypassing them. The precipitate shearing occurs when the precipitates are
coherent or semi-coherent with the matrix, and when they are large enough to
prevent dislocation looping or bowing. The degree of precipitate shearing depends on
the shear modulus, the shear strength, and the coherency of the precipitates35.

c) Alloy element addition in Al

Magnesium-Mg (up to 10%)

● Strengthens and hardens the alloys by solid solution hardening mechanism without
considerable decrease of ductility
● (Wrought aluminum-magnesium alloys (5xxx), Cast aluminum alloy 518.0.

● In a combination with silicon or zinc allows to strengthen the alloys by precipitation

hardening heat treatment

● (Wrought aluminum-magnesium-silico alloys (6xxx), Wrought aluminum zinc

magnesium alloys (7xxx), Cast aluminum alloy 356.0, Cast aluminum alloy 713.0)
 Manganese-Mn (up to 1.5%)

● Strengthens and hardens the alloys (Wrought aluminum-manganese Alloys (3xxx))

by solid solution hardening and dispersion hardening

● Improves low cycle fatigue resistance

● Increases corrosion resistance.

● Improves ductility of aluminum alloys containing iron and silicon due to modification
of Al3FeSi intermetallic Inclusions from platelet to cubic form Al15(MnFe)3Si2.

Extra hai ab ye (rona mat bc)

Silicon, Si (up to 17%) Cu (up to 6.5%)

● Improves castability of aluminum ● increases tensile strength, fatigue

alloys due to a better fluidity and strength and hardness of the alloys
lower shrinkage of molten aluminum due to the effect of solid salution
silicon alloys. hardening
● Improves castability of aluminum ● Allows to strengthen the alloys by
alloys due to a better fluidity and precipitation hardening heat
lower shrinkage of molten treatment
aluminum-silicon alloys. ● Decreases the ductility of the alloys
● Increases strength of the alloys. ● Inreases corrosion resistance
● Improves resistance to abrasive (Wrought aluminum-copper alloys (2xxx),
wear. Cast aluminum alloy 201.0)
(Wrought_Al-magnesium- silicon alloys
(6xxx), Cast aluminum alloy 3560)

Zinc, Zn (up to 8%) Chromium, Or (up to 0.3%)

● In a combination with magnesium or ● Suppresses the grain growth at

magnesium-copper allows to elevated temperatures (e.g. during
strengthen the alloys by precipitation heat treatment).
hardening heat treatment (Wrought ● Improves ductility and toughness of
aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloys aluminum alloys containing iron and
(7xxxx), Cast aluminum alloy 713.0). silicon due to modification of Al,FeSi
● Increases susceptibility of the alloys intermetallic inclusions 4 from
to Stress corrosion cracking platelet to cubic form (similar to the
effect of manganese).
● Reduces susceptibility of the alloys
to Stress corrosion cracking.

Nickel, Ni (up to 2%) Lithium, Li (up to 2.6%)

● Increases hardness and strength of ● Increases strength by the

aluminum-copper (Wrought precipitation hardening heat
aluminum-copper alloys (200) and treatment.
aluminum-silicon (Wrought ● Increases Modulus of Elasticity
aluminum-silicon alloy 4032) at ● Reduces density.
 elevated temperatures.
● Reduces the Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion

Titanium, TI (up to 0.35%) Boron: B (up to 0.03%)

● Refines primary aluminum grains • Boron in a combination with titanium

(grains formed during the refines primary aluminum grains (grains
Solidification) due to formation of formed during the Solidification) due to
fine nuclei Al3 Ti formation of nuclei TiB
● Titanium is commonly added to
aluminum alloys together with boron
due to their synergistic grain refining
effect

Q6) a. What is the major advantage and drawback of having Si in Al-Si alloys?
b. Draw the Al-Si binary phase diagram and show the effect of 0.01% sodium addition.

Ans:- a) Advantage:
● Si improves the fluidity, feeding, and hot tear resistance of Al-Si alloys, which
makes them suitable for casting applications. Si also forms hard particles
that improve the wear resistance, tensile strength, and hardness of Al-Si
alloys. Moreover, by adding Mg, Al-Si alloys become age hardenable through
the precipitation of Mg2Si particles, which further increase the strength and
hardness
● Improves castability of aluminum alloys due to a better fluidity and lower shrinkage of
molten aluminum silicon alloys.
● Improves castability of aluminum alloys due to a better fluidity and lower shrinkage of
molten aluminum-silicon alloys.
● Increases strength of the alloys.
● Improves resistance to abrasive wear.

Drawback:
Si reduces the ductility, elongation, and machinability of Al-Si alloys due to the
presence of large and irregular Si particles. Si also increases the coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) of Al-Si alloys, which can cause thermal stresses and
distortion during service. Furthermore, Si can react with other alloying elements such
as Cu and Ni to form intermetallic compounds that can degrade the corrosion
resistance and fracture toughness of Al-Si alloys.
b)

b) Adding 0.01% of sodium to Al-Si alloy can modify the microstructure of the eutectic silicon
phase from coarse, plate-like flakes to fine fibrous structures. This can improve the
mechanical properties of the alloy, such as fracture toughness and elongation. The sodium
addition also suppresses the nucleation of silicon on aluminum phosphide particles, which
are present in the melt as impurities The sodium modification can be achieved quickly and
does not cause an obvious effect of porosity or fading.
Aluminium has zero solid solubility in silicon at any temperature. This means that there is no
beta phase Al-Si alloys, the eutectic composition is a structure of a-Al+Si rather than
alpha+beta.

Consider two Al-Si alloys, both of composition 13wt%Si.

The second alloy, though, will be "doped" with a very small amount of Sodium (0.01%Na).
Two alloys are:
(1) Al-13wt%Si
(2) Al-13wt% Si-0.01% Na
Al-13wt% Si alloy is hypereutectic
Eutectic in phase diagram contains much more a-Al than Si and eutectic mixture (a-Al+Si) to
be mainly alpha.
As this alloy is hypereutectic, primary Si forms first, depleting the liquid of Si until it reaches
the eutectic composition where the remaining solidification follows the eutectic reaction.
The primary Si has a cuboidal form.
The autectic mixture, though, is non- lamellar in form and appears, in section, to consist of
separate flakes. These coarse flakes of Si in the eutectic promote brittleness within these
alloys. Most Al-Si alloys used have a near-eutectic composition since this gives a lower
melting point and makes them cheaper to cast.
Adding a small quantity of a ternary element, here Sodium, causes modification of the
microstructure.
This addition effectively moves the eutectic point to a higher silicon concentration and lower
temperature.
This modifies the growth of the eutectic silicon to produce an irregular fibrous form rather
than the usual flakes.
The eutectic point has moved far enough to make the alloy, at this composition electic
hyper-eutectic Primary alpha forms, rather than primary Si
Adding a very small impurity of 0.01%Na the microstructure of the alloy is changed and its
properties are greatly improved
Q2.) A. To determine which alloy is likely to exhibit higher brittleness, we can look at the composition of the alloys,
specifically the presence of impurities like oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and carbon (C) since these impurities can significantly
affect the mechanical properties of titanium alloys.

Alloy 1 has higher percentages of oxygen (0.05%), nitrogen (0.05%), and carbon (0.05%) compared to Alloy 2, which has
lower percentages of these impurities (oxygen: 0.01%, nitrogen: 0.02%, carbon: 0.03%). Oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon are
known to be detrimental to the mechanical properties of titanium alloys, especially brittleness.

Therefore, Alloy 1, with its higher impurity content, is more likely to exhibit higher brittleness compared to Alloy 2.

B. When the %Al equivalent in a titanium alloy exceeds approximately 9%, the alloy undergoes a transition from being
primarily an α-phase alloy to a β-phase alloy. This transition has several effects on the mechanical properties of the alloy:

1. Increased Ductility: β-phase titanium alloys tend to be more ductile than α-phase alloys. This means that they are less
prone to brittle failure and are more capable of deforming plastically before fracture.

2. Reduced Strength: In general, β-phase titanium alloys have lower strength compared to α-phase alloys. This is because
the β-phase has a higher stacking fault energy, which makes it less favorable for slip deformation and results in lower yield
and ultimate strengths.

3. Improved Toughness: While the strength may decrease, the toughness of the alloy often improves. Toughness is the
ability of a material to absorb energy before fracturing, and β-phase alloys can exhibit better toughness due to their ductile
nature.

4. Altered Microstructure: The transition to a β-phase microstructure can lead to changes in the alloy's microstructure,
including grain size and the distribution of phases, which can further influence mechanical properties.

In summary, when the %Al equivalent in a titanium alloy exceeds 9%, it typically transitions to a β-phase alloy, leading to
increased ductility, reduced strength, improved toughness, and changes in microstructure. These changes may be
advantageous or disadvantageous depending on the specific application and requirements of the alloy.

Another answer ->

A. Alloy 1 must exhibit higher brittleness than alloy 2, because it has higher amounts of Sn, Zr, O, N, and C, which are all
elements that increase the alpha phase stability and decrease the ductility of titanium alloys. According to one source¹, the
brittleness of titanium alloys can be evaluated by the aluminium equivalent (Al eq), which is calculated as:

$$Al_{eq} = Al + Sn + 2Zr + 4O + 4N + 4C$$

Using this formula, we can find that alloy 1 has an Al eq of 34.2%, while alloy 2 has an Al eq of 14.1%. The higher the Al eq,
the more brittle the alloy is.

B. When the Al eq goes beyond 9%, the mechanical properties of the alloy change significantly. According to another
source, the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increase rapidly with increasing Al eq, reaching a maximum at
around 12%. However, the elongation and reduction of area decrease sharply with increasing Al eq, indicating a loss of
ductility and toughness. Therefore, the alloy becomes stronger but more brittle when the Al eq goes beyond 9%
Q1 .)

Elements that dissolve preferentially in the α phase expand the α phase field thereby raising the α/β-
transus (Fig. 7.1A). There are only five elements that behave in this way, namely aluminium, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon, and gallium, known as α-stabilizing elements. Aluminium and oxygen are the two
most important α-stabilizers. Tin, and silicon, do not strongly affect the stability of either the α or β
phase at low addition levels and are often regarded as neutral

zirconium should be treated as a β-stabilizer as the β-transus decreases with increasing zirconium on
the titaniumrich side. Elements which depress the α/β-transus and stabilize the β phase may be
classified into two groups: those which form binary alloys of the β-isomorphous type (Fig. 7.1B), and
those which favor the formation of a eutectoid alloy (β→α+γ, Fig. 7.1C). The latter group includes
chromium, iron, copper, nickel, manganese, cobalt, hydrogen, and palladium, which have low or
negligible solubility in the α phase.

Q1(C) At 882.5°C, pure titanium undergoes an allotropic transformation from a hexagonal close-
packed (hcp) structure (α) to a body-centered cubic (bcc) phase (β) that remains stable up to the M.P.
Q3.)

The crystal structure and coherency change as a result of the differences in atomic arrangement and
lattice parameters between the precipitate and the aluminum matrix. The formation of these
intermediate precipitates is driven by thermodynamic and kinetic factors, such as the solubility of Cu
in Al at different temperatures and the diffusion of atoms.
Q4.) Formation of Titanium Tetrachloride (TiCl4):
TiO2 + 2Cl2 + C (carbon) → TiCl4 + CO2 .In this reaction, titanium dioxide is chlorinated with chlorine gas and carbon to
produce titanium tetrachloride and carbon dioxide.

Purification of Titanium Tetrachloride:

The titanium tetrachloride produced in the previous step is often impure and contains various other chlorides. It is purified
by fractional distillation.

Reduction of Titanium Tetrachloride:

TiCl4 + 2Mg (magnesium) → Ti (titanium) + 2MgCl2 In the reduction step, titanium tetrachloride is reacted with
magnesium metal to form metallic titanium and magnesium chloride. This is the key step where titanium is extracted in its
metallic form.

Removal of Magnesium Chloride:

The magnesium chloride (MgCl2) formed in the reduction step is removed from the reaction mixture, typically through a
distillation or sublimation process.

Thermodynamic feasibility: Titanium metal production in an aqueous solution is thermodynamically not feasible because
the standard redox potentials of Ti/Ti 2+ and Ti 2+ /Ti 3+ are significantly less noble and are outside the electrochemical
window of water1.

Environmental impact: The extraction of titanium from ilmenite mineral requires high temperatures and pressures, which
can generate large amounts of heat and greenhouse gases. The leaching process also produces wastewater that may
contain heavy metals and other pollutants2.

Capital cost and labour force: The extraction of titanium from ilmenite mineral requires a large plant with a complex multi-
step flowchart. It also requires a significant labour force to operate and maintain the plant3.

Product quality and purity: The extraction of titanium from ilmenite mineral produces a product that requires vacuum
melting, which can cause defects and impurities in the final product. The product also needs to be further refined by
electrolysis or metallothermic reduction to achieve high purity and mechanical properties

V and Al are two elements that affect the microstructure and properties of Ti-6Al-4v alloy. Ti-6Al-4v is an alpha-beta
titanium alloy with a high specific strength and excellent corrosion resistance. It is one of the most commonly used titanium
alloys and is applied in a wide range of applications where low density and excellent corrosion resistance are necessary
such as e.g. aerospace industry and biomechanical applications (implants and prostheses)1

V stabilizes the beta phase, which is the hard and brittle phase in Ti-6Al-4v. V also improves the strength, hardness, wear
resistance and fatigue resistance of the alloy. However, too much V can cause precipitation of V-rich phases that reduce the
ductility and toughness of the alloy

Al stabilizes the alpha phase, which is the ductile and malleable phase in Ti-6Al-4v. Al also increases the density, thermal
conductivity, electrical resistivity and coefficient of thermal expansion of the alloy. However, too much Al can cause
precipitation of Al-rich phases that increase the porosity and reduce the strength of the alloy

The optimal balance of V and Al in Ti-6Al-4v depends on the heat treatment condition of the alloy and can vary based on
properties. The typical ranges for well-processed Ti-6Al-4v are shown below12

Element Min (%) Max (%)

V 3.5 4.5

Al 5.5 6.75
Ti-6Al-4V is an alpha-beta titanium alloy with a high specific strength and excellent corrosion resistance. It is one of the
most commonly used titanium alloys and is applied in a wide range of applications where low density and excellent
corrosion resistance are necessary such as e.g. aerospace industry and biomechanical applications (implants and
prostheses)1

Some of the applications of Ti-6Al-4V are:

Medical equipment and surgical devices like needles, tweezers, forceps, clamps, scissors, drills etc.

Orthopaedic and dental implants for bone replacement due to its advantageous mechanical properties and
biocompatibility, which enhances the adhesion between native tissue and the implanted material

Aerospace components such as engine parts, turbine blades, landing gear components, etc. due to its high strength-to-
weight ratio, low thermal expansion coefficient, good fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance.

Petroleum industry such as drill bits, valves, fittings, etc. due to its high wear resistance, good machinability and weldability.