Ma Geography P 201 Eng
Ma Geography P 201 Eng
Ma Geography P 201 Eng
M.A. GEOGRAPHY
SEMESTER II (CBCS)
SUBJECT CODE:92123
© UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Prof. Suhas Pednekar
Vice-Chancellor,
University of Mumbai,
: Ms.Rupanjai Dasgupta
Assistant Professor,
TISS, Mumbai
: Dr.H.M.Pednekar
Former Principal
Ondhe College, Vikramgad, Dist Palghar
: Astha Smarth
Dept. of Geography, University of Mumbai
Mumbai
Published by : Director,
Institute of Distance and Open Learning ,
University of Mumbai,
Vidyanagari, Mumbai - 400 098.
MA GEOGRAPHY
Paper no. 201, Semester II
Oceanography and Hydrology
No. of Credits: 4
3. Introduction to Hydrology
3.1 Hydrological cycle, Factors affecting movement of water, Patterns of
movement
3.2 Water Budget, World water Resources,
3.3 World Water Balance, Global Freshwater Resources,
3.4 History of Hydrology
References:
1. Agarwal A. and Narain, S. (1997), “Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and
Potential of India’s Traditional Water Harvesting System”, CSE, New
Delhi.
2. Andre Musy (2011) Hydrology a Science of Nature, Science
Publishers, NewHampshire.
I
2. Centre for Science and Environment (2002), “Citizens Report”, New
Delhi.
3. Charlu, T.G.K. and Dutt, D. K. (1982), “Ground Water Development
in India”Rural Electrification Corporation, New Delhi.
4. Chorley, R. J. (1967), “Water, Earth and Man”, Methuen, London.
5. Chorley, R. J. (1969), “Introduction to Physical Hydrology”, Methuen,
London.
6. Elizabeth M. Shaw (1994) Hydrology in Practice, Taylor & Francis e-
LibraryPublication New Hampshire.
7. Jones, J. A. (1997), “Global Hydrology : Processes, Resources and
WaterManagement”, Longman, London.
8. Lvovich, M.I., (2010), Climatology, Hydrology, Glaciology, John Wiley and
Sons, London
9. Mather, J. R. (1984), “Water Resources : Distribution, Use and
Management”,John Wiley, Maryland.
10. Singh, R. A. and Singh, S. R. (1972), “Water Management:
Principles andPractices”, Tara Publication, Varanasi.
11. Subramanya K (2014) Engineering Hydrology, Mc Graw Hill
Publication,New Delhi.
12. Todd, D. K. ((1959), “Ground Water Hydrology”, John Wiley, New
York.
13. Stewart, R. H. (2008). Introduction to Physical Oceanography.
14. Garrison, T. (2012). Essentials of Oceanography (Sixth Edit).
Brooks/Cole, CengageLearning.
15. Singh, S. (2014). Oceanography. Allahabad: Pravalika Publications.
16. Rao, K. L. (1979), “India’s Water Wealth”, Orient Longman, New
Delhi.
II
1
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN
OCEANOGRAPHY
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the
following
Unit Structure
1.1. Objectives
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Subject Discussion
1.4. Definition, nature, and scope of oceanography
1.5. History of Oceanography
1.6. Origin of oceans
1.7. Ocean morphology
1.8. Distribution of temperature, salinity,and density of oceans.
1.9. Summary
1.10. Check Your Progress or Exercise
1.11. Answers to the Self-learning questions
1.12. Technical Words and their meaning
1.13. Task
1.14. References for further study
1.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to -
1.2. INTRODUCTION
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properties of seawater (temperature, density, pressure, and so on), Fundamental Concepts in
causes and characteristics of its movement (waves, currents, and tides) Oceanography
Marine meteorology is “the study ofheat transfer, water cycles, and air-
sea interactions. It is often included in the discipline of physical
oceanography.
The harvest of fish and other living organisms from the ocean is a
principal source of protein for billions of people worldwide.
Ocean and sea waters contain several valuable minerals. The most
utilized and exploited minerals are – oil, gas, and sulphur.
Oceans and the sea are the major highways for domestic and
international transportation of heavy or bulky materials.
4
Fundamental Concepts in
Oceanography
5
Oceanography and Hydrology Map 2 - The routes of Christopher Columbus’s first voyage,
Bartholomeu Dias and
Vasco da Gama
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Map 3 - First circumnavigation of the globe by Portuguese navigator Fundamental Concepts in
Ferdinand Magellan Oceanography
Source: Britannica
The latter half of the 16th century saw many Portuguese, Chinese, and
Spanish explorers expeditions, mostly exploring the Atlantic Coast of
North America, Central America, and South America. In 1577, Sir Francis
Drake landed off the coast of present California and sailed north along the
coast to the current United States–Canadian border (map 4). Then, he
turned southwest and crossed the Pacific Ocean. In 1582, the present-day
“Drake Passage,” which is between South America and Antarctica, was
discovered by him.
7
Oceanography and Hydrology The Importance of Charts and Navigational Information
The establishment of colonies played an essential role in developing
accurate charts and navigational techniques. In 1530, Flemish astronomer
Gemma Frisius proposed the relationship between time and longitude.
Yorkshire-based clockmaker, John Harrison, built his first chronometer in
1735. From 1798 to 1779, Captain James Cook made three great voyages
(map 5) to chart the Pacific Ocean. He also charted many islands to
explore the Antarctic Ocean further. During the last phase of the
expedition, Cook discovered the Hawaiian Islands. These voyages made
Cook one of history’s greatest navigators, scientists, and seamen. His
valuable information made him one of the founders of oceanography.
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Map 6 - The Franklin-Folger map of the Gulf Stream Fundamental Concepts in
Oceanography
1807 - The Survey of the Coast under the Treasury Department, later
named the Coast and Geodetic Survey and presently the National
Ocean Survey, was formed under President Thomas Jefferson.
1830 - The U.S. Naval Hydrographic Office was set up,now the U.S.
Naval Oceanographic Office.
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Oceanography and Hydrology In the last part of the 19th-century, governments started financing
expeditions and studies about oceans. The introduction of transatlantic
telegraph cables better understood the deep sea, where engineers needed to
know about seafloor conditions, including bottom topography, currents,
and organisms. The British slowly began a series of deep-sea studies.
When brought to the surface, the transatlantic telegraph cable was covered
with many never seen organisms.An expedition was funded to study the
“erratic fish catches in European waters.” The Fishery Board of Scotland
undertook this study in 1882 to study the fish migration patterns. In 1902,
the members of the International Council for the Exploration of the sea, or
ICES as famously known, held the first-ever meeting in Copenhagen. This
meeting was a historic event in the discipline of oceanography. The ICES
is the oldest inter-governmental marine organization in the world.
The Voyage of the Fram – The late 19th and the early 20th centuries
witnessed the transition of oceanographyfrom a descriptive science to a
quantitativeone. The cruises now had the goal of gathering data.
Development of theoretical models of ocean circulationand water
movement happened. The Scandinavianoceanographers were active in this
study of water movement. Fridtjof Nansen, one of the most incredible
minds, was an explorer and zoologist interested in the currentsof the polar
seas. He studied the direction of ice drift in the Arctic by freezinga vessel
into the polar ice pack and driftingit to reachthe North Pole. For executing
this, he had to design a uniquecraft – a wooded Fram of 128 ft (“to push
forward) to survive the tremendous pressure from the ice.
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), 1983 - The DSDP became ODP and
was managed by an international partnership of 14 science
organizationsin the U.S. and 21 international organizations called the
Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES).
Certain theories believe that most of the atoms that make up Earth and its
inhabitants were formed within stars. Stars form in the dusty spiral arms of
galaxies and spend their lives changing hydrogen and helium to heavier
elements. As and when they die, some stars eject these elements into space
by cataclysmic explosions. The sun and the planets, including Earth,
probably condensed from a cloud of dust and gas enriched by the recycled
remnants of exploded stars. The Nebular Hypothesis which was
propounded by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1755, believed
that the earth and our solar system have condensed from a rotating cloud
of primordial matter of dust and gas. However, Laplace disagreed with the
theory. He assumed the sun as a rotating disc. The continuous cooling and
contraction led to an increase in the speed of rotation. This in turn
increased the centrifugal force which caused the separation of rings and
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ultimately formed the planets. The same process led to the formation of Fundamental Concepts in
the moon. In course of time, the earth and the moon cooled down resulting Oceanography
in a rocky crust. The superficial layer, cooled more rapidly than the
internal layers, thus leaving the upper crust unsupported. The lower layers
sank. The higher areas thus became continents and lower areas gave birth
to oceanic depressions. The ocean formed later, as water vapor trapped in
Earth’s outerlayers escaped to the surface through volcanic activity or
rain. Comets may also have brought some water to Earth. Life originated
in the ocean very soon after its formation.
The most accepted regarding the origin of oceans is that of Alfred
Wegener, a German meteorologist, and polar explorer. In 1912, he
proposed a theory called continental drift or Displacement Hypothesis.
Wegener suggested that the entire Earth’s land had once been joined into a
single supercontinent surrounded by an ocean. The landmass was called
Pangaea (pan - “all”; Gaea - “Earth, land”) and thesurrounding ocean
Panthalassa (pan - “all”; Thalassa - “ocean”). Pangaea had broken into
pieces about 200 million years ago. Since then, the pieces had moved to
their present positions and were still moving. Wegener’s evidence
included the shoreline fit of continents across the North and South
Atlantic, the alignment of mountain ranges, their similar age, composition,
and structure, and fossils on both sides of the Atlantic. He believed that
the heavy continents were slung toward the equator by a centrifugal effect.
Wegener postulated 2 main directions of movement –
Continental Shelf
The continental shelf is the shallow, submerged extension of a continent.
These shelves are underlain by granitic continental crust.Taken together,
the area of the continental shelves is 7.4% of the earth’s ocean area.
The width of a continental shelf is usually determined by its proximity to a
plate boundary.Continental shelves are flat borders of varying widths,
from a few kilometers to as much as 1500kms.The average width of the
continental shelves is about 80 km. This variation can be seen even in the
context of the Indian peninsula.The continental shelf of the eastern coast
of India is much wider than the western coast.Similar variations are seen
all over the world. For example, the shelves are almost absent or very
narrow along margins like the coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra,
etc. On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in
the world, stretches up to 1,500 km inwidth. Even the depth of the shelves
varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some regions, while in some it is as
deep as 600 m.Shelves along the margin of the Atlantic Ocean often reach
350 kilometers in width and end at a depth of about 140 meters.
There are various types of shelve based on different sediments of
terrestrial origin:
1. Glaciated shelf (surrounding Greenland),
2. Coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
3. Shelf of a large river (around Nile Delta),
4. Shelf with dendritic valleys (at the Mouth of Hudson River)
5. Shelf along with young mountain ranges (shelves between the Hawaiian
Islands).
Previously, the shelves have been covered and uncovered by fluctuations
in sea level. Today, continental shelves are covered with thick deposits of
silt, sand, and mud sediments derived from the land, river, glaciers,
etc.The shelves have been the focus of intenseexploration for natural
resources by humans. Because these shelves are sources of oil, minerals,
and petroleum. A large quantity of the world’s petroleum is obtained from
these shelves. For example – the Bombay High.
14
The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break. In Fundamental Concepts in
other words, the continental shelf break is an abrupt change in the slope of Oceanography
the seafloor that occurs at the outer edge of the continental shelf. This
marks the point at which there is a rapid increase in depth with distance
from the coast.
Fig 1. Cross-section of continental margin depicting the particular
elements
Continental Slope
The transition between the gently descending continental shelf and the
deep-ocean floor is known as the continental slope. The gradient of the
slope varies between 20 and 50. The average inclination of a typical
continental slope is about 4°. Generally, continental slopes at active
margins are steeper than those at passive margins. The depth of the slope
varies between 200 and 3,000 m. The Continental slope boundary
indicates the end of the continents. Mainly due to their steepness and
increasing distance from the land, slopes have very few deposits of
sediments on them. Sealife is far less here than on the shelf.There are 5
types of slopes –
Continental Rise
Along the base of the continental slope liesa deposit of sediments. This
belt of sedimentary deposits forms the continental rise. Continental rise
begins from the end of the continental slope. The average slope of
continental rise ranges between 0.50 and 10. Its general relief is low. In
some regions, the rise is very narrow but in others, it may extend up to
1,000 kilometersin width. With increasing depth, the rise becomes
15
Oceanography and Hydrology virtually flat and it merges with the abyssal plain. One of the widest and
thickest continentalsrises has formed in the Bay of Bengal at the mouths of
the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Deep-ocean currents are an
importantfactor in shaping continental rises, especially along the
westernboundaries of most ocean basins.
Fig 2. Diagrammatic cross-section of an ocean basin, showing the
various geographic features
Submarine Canyons
The most outstanding features of the continental slopes are submarine
canyons. They are formed at the junction between Continental Shelf and
Continental Slope. Submarine canyons sometimes extend up, into, and
across the continental shelf. It is steep-sided and has a V-shaped cross-
section. The canyons generally trend at right angles to the shoreline.
However, at times it begins very close to shore and can be quite large.For
example - Congo Canyon extends into the African continent as a deep
estuary at the mouth of the Congo River. Submarine canyons similar in
size and profile to the Grand Canyon have been discovered! Another
example is the Hudson Canyon, located just offshore of the mouth of the
HudsonRiver in New York. Locallandslides triggered by earth quakes
some times cause an underwater avalanche of sediments, known as
turbiditycurrents. Geologists believe that the canyons have been formed by
abrasive turbidity currents plunging down the canyons.
Away from the margins ofcontinents the structure of the ocean floor/basin
is different. The deep-ocean floor mainly consists of sediment-covered
plains made of basaltic rocks. These deep ocean basins constitute more
than half of Earth’s surface.Flat expanses of the basins are interrupted by
16
islands, hills, active and extinct volcanoes, and active zones of seafloor Fundamental Concepts in
spreading. Oceanography
Oceanic Ridges
An oceanic ridge refers to a mountainous chain of young basaltic rock at
the active spreading center of an ocean. Stretching around 65,000
kilometers of oceanic ridges encircles the globe (map 7). The rugged
ridges often rise about 2 km above the seafloor. In a few places on the
earth, they project above the surface to form islands such as Iceland, the
Azores, and Easter Island. Oceanic ridges along with their associated
structures account for 22% of the world’s solid surface area. These
features are often called mid-ocean ridges. A mid-oceanic ridge, in
simpler terms, is explained to be composed of two chains of mountains
separated by a large depression. Iceland is a part of the Mid- Atlantic
Ridge.These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide
evidence in support of the Plate Tectonics theory.For example, the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge does not run in a straight line. It is offset at more or
lessregular intervals by transform faults.
Map 7- The oceanic ridge system (in red*) stretches some 65,000
kilometers (40,000 miles) around Earth.
Seamounts
Ocean floors are dotted with thousands of volcanic projections that do not
rise above the sea surface. These projections are called seamounts. They
are circular or elliptical, more than 1 km in height, with relatively steep
slopes of 20° to 25°. Seamounts are volcanic in origin and may be found
alone or in groups. Most of them are submerged inactive volcanoes. There
are more than 10,000 seamounts in the Pacific, which is about half the
world's total. The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian
Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is an example.
Guyots
Guyots are flat-topped seamounts that wereonce tall enough to penetrate
the sea surface. They show evidence of gradual subsidence through stages
to become plateau-like topped submerged mountains. Guyots are confined
to the west-central Pacific.
Atoll
Atolls are ring-shaped low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting
of coral reefs surrounding a central depression. It may be a part of the sea
(lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish, or highly
saline water.Sometimes, atolls and lagoons protect a central island. Atolls
develop with seamounts.
.Fig.3 – Relief of Ocean Basin
Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/
18
Trenches Fundamental Concepts in
Oceanography
Ocean trenches are long, arc-shaped narrow depressions on the deep-ocean
floor. These are the deepest parts of the ocean and often the deepest
natural spots on Earth. Ocean trenches are a result of tectonic activity.
Precisely they are features of convergent plate boundaries, where dense
lithosphere melts or slides beneath less-dense lithosphere in a process
called subductio, creating a trench. Trenches are among the most active
geological features on Earth, as great earthquakes and tsunamis often
originate in them. They are curving chains of V-shaped indentations.
Ocean trenches are found in every ocean basin. For example, the Mariana
Trench is about 70 km wide and 2,550 km long. The Mariana Trench
depth is 36,163 feet. The Peru-Chile Trench off the west coast of South
America is formed by the oceanic crust of the Nazca plate subducting
beneath the continental crust of the South American plate. The Ryukyu
Trench, stretching out from southern Japan, is formed as the oceanic crust
of the Philippine plate subducts beneath the continental crust of the
Eurasian plate. The deepest ocean trenches ring the Pacific as part of the
so-called “Ring of Fire” which also includes active volcanoes and
earthquake zones.
Island Arcs
Island arcs are chains of oceanic islands formed by volcanoes located
along the subduction zone.Island arcs are associated with intense volcanic
and seismic activity and orogenic processes. An island arc typically has a
landmass or a partially enclosed, shallow sea on its concave side. Along
the convex side, there exists a long, narrow deep-sea trench.
Most island arcs consist of two parallel rows of islands. The inner row is
composed of a string of explosive volcanoes, while the outer row is made
up of non-volcanic islands. Destructive earthquakes occur frequently at the
site of island arcs. The majority of island arcs occur along the western
margin of the Pacific Basin. The Ring of Fire is an island arc.
Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/
19
Oceanography and Hydrology
20
Latitude – The temperature of surface water decreases from the Fundamental Concepts in
equator towards the poles because the sun's rays keep slanting, Oceanography
causing a decrease in insolation polewards.
Prevailing wind – winds blowing from land towards the oceans drive
warm surface water away from coasts, thus resulting in the upwelling
of cold water from the bottom (offshore winds). Sometimes wind pile
up warm water near the coast causing temperature rise (onshore
winds).
The ocean's location and shape – the extensive latitudinal seas of low
latitudes have warmer surface water than vast longitudinal seas.
21
Oceanography and Hydrology temperature of the Pacific Ocean is slightly higher than the Atlantic Ocean
(16.90C) and the Indian Ocean (170C).
Map 9–Isothermal lines showing Horizontal Distribution of
Temperature in the Northern and Southern Atlantic Ocean
(February and August)
22
Fundamental Concepts in
Oceanography
Aphotic zones -extend from 200 m to the ocean bottom. This zone
does not receive adequate solar rays.
Vertically, based on the temperature structure of the oceans, in the
middle and lower latitudes, the oceans are divided into three layers –
The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water,which is
about 500m thick. Here temperatures range between 20° and 25° C.
This layer develops only during summer in mid-latitudes, while it is
present throughout the year in the tropical region.
The third layer is icy and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Here the
temperature becomes almost stagnant.
23
Oceanography and Hydrology Fig. 4 - Thermocline
Source: Wikipedia
The characteristics feature of the vertical distribution of ocean water are –
Annual and diurnal temperature ranges cease after 600 feet and 30
feet, respectively.
The sinking of cold water and its movement towards lower latitudes is
observed in the Arctic and the Antarctic regions
In both the higher and lower latitudes, enclosed seas record higher
temperatures at the bottom (for example - the Sargasso Sea, the
Mediterranean Sea, and the Red Sea) due to increased insolation
throughout the year and lesser mixing of the warm and cold waters.
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The Salinity of the Ocean Water Fundamental Concepts in
Oceanography
Salinity is defined as ‘the total amount of solid material in grams
contained in one kilogram of seawater and is expressed as part per
thousand.’ In simpler words, salinity is the term used to define the total
content of dissolved salts in seawater. Salinity is calculated as the amount
of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) seawater. It is usually
expressed as parts per thousand or ppt. For example, 40o/oo salinity means
40 grams of salt in 1000 grams of seawater. Ocean’s salinity affects
marine organisms. Even the freezing point of ocean water depends on
salinity. Salinity increases water density, and variation in the salinity
causes ocean currents.
Salinity determines temperature, density, evaporation, compressibility,
thermal expansion, absorption of insolation, and humidity. It also
influences the composition and movement of the ocean, water, and the
distribution of fish and other marine resources. While salinity of 24.7
(24.7 o/oo) has been considered the upper limit to demarcate ‘brackish
water,’ the average salinity in the sea and ocean is 35 o/oo. However, the
rate of salinity varies spatially and temporally. Isohalines, defined as lines
joining places having an equal degree of saltiness, are used on maps to
show the salinity of different areas.
The land is the primary source of oceanic salinity. Rivers from the
continental areas bring Salts in solution form. There is a lot of variation in
the composite of sea salt. Both ocean and sea waters contain a complex
solution of several minerals in dilute form, as it is an active solvent. The
total amount of salt in the ocean and seawater gradually increases as it is
brought from the land every year. The different types of salt present in
ocean water are represented in the table. These salts are of terrestrial
origin. If all the significant salts are removed from the oceans and seas, the
sea level will fall by 100ft. Besides, numerous salts, gold, silver, and
radium are also in minute quantities.
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Oceanography and Hydrology Fig. 5 - Levels of Salinity in Water Bodies
Source:https://lotusarise.com/
The oceans into which huge rivers like Amazon, Congo, Ganges,
etc., drain have lower salinity. Because the rivers carry voluminous water
and pour them into the ocean/sea, thus, salinity reduces at the mouth of
the river. The influx of river water effect is more pronounced in the
enclosed seas like the Danube, and other rivers reduce salinity in the Black
sea (18 o/oo). Moreover, an increase in salinity also increases at a place
where the evaporation rate exceeds the influx of fresh river water: the
Mediterranean sea (40 o/oo).
Regional Distribution
Pacific Ocean – The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is due to its
shape and larger areal extent. Salinity remains 34 o/oo near the equator.
It increases to 35 o/oo between 150-200 in the northern hemisphere and
around 36 o/oo in the southern hemisphere.
Indian Ocean - The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 o/oo. But
it gradually decreases towards the Bay of Bengal. The low salinity is
observed in the Bay of Bengal due to the influx of river water by the
28
Ganges. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea has higher salinity due to Fundamental Concepts in
high evaporation and a low influx of freshwater. Oceanography
Marginal seas - The North Sea, despite its location in higher latitudes,
records higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North
Atlantic Drift. The Baltic Sea records low salinity due to the influx of
river waters in large quantities. The Mediterranean Sea records higher
salinity (37 o/oo – 39 o/oo) due to high evaporation. In the Black Sea,
salinity is very low due to the enormous freshwater influx by rivers.
Inland seas and lakes – The amount of salt in the inland seas and lakes
is controlled by the high rate of temperature, evaporation, the influx of
river water, and the presence and absence of outlets. Whenever a river
comes out of a lake, its salinity is reduced. For example, the northern
part of the Caspian Sea records 14 o/oo, due to the influx of voluminous
water from river Volga, Ural, etc. The highest salinity in water bodies
is recorded in - the Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea, and
the Lake Van in Turkey, with 220 o/oo, 240 o/oo, and 330 o/oo,
respectively.
Cold and warm water mixing zones - Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo to
31 o/ooin the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of the
influx of melted water from the Arctic region.
Vertical Distribution
Salinity also varies according to the depth of oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,
and other water bodies. However, even this variation again is subject to
latitudinal differences. The decrease is also influenced by cold and warm
currents. In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. While in the
middle latitudes, it increases up to 35m and then decreases. At the equator,
surface salinity is lower.
Salinity changes with depth, but the changes depend upon the location
of the ocean.
Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water due to the
formation of ice or evaporation or decreases by the input of
freshwaters, such as the rivers.
Salinity at depth is fixed because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or
the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity between
the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans. For example,
salinity in the southern boundary of the Atlantic Ocean is 33 o/oo at the
surface. But it increases to 34.5 o/oo at the depth of 1200 ft.
The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
Generally, the salinity increases with depth and there is a distinct zone
called the halocline (fig) where salinity increases sharply.
The increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to increase.
29
Oceanography and Hydrology Map 12 – Surface Salinity of the World’s Oceans
Source: https://www.pmfias.com/
Fig 6 - Halocline
Source: https://www.windows2universe.org/
32
Fig. 8 - Relationship between ocean water temperature and density Fundamental Concepts in
(3); Relationship between ocean depth, ocean water salinity, density, Oceanography
and halocline (4)
Source: https://www.sciencelearn.org.
33
Oceanography and Hydrology The surface layer of the lowest density
Pycnocline layer of sharp density gradient
Deep or bottom layer of highest but the uniform density
Surface layer
This layer represents the top thinnest layer of the oceans ranging in
thickness from 100 to 200m. The surface layer is also called a photic zone
where solar radiation directly penetrates and illuminates it. This layer
carries 2% of the total volume of ocean water. Due to thermal expansion,
density minimizes in this layer in the tropical oceans. Density rises in the
same layer in sub-tropical regions due to evaporation. The surface layer is
extremely significant for marine plants (phytoplankton) due to the
presence of photosynthesis. Extremely low temperature due to the least
insolation of sea surface water in the polar region causes a higher density
of water, resulting in the dense water sinking in the polar oceans.
Pycnocline layer
This layer represents a transition zone of rapidly changing ocean water
density, between the low-density upper surface water layer and the high-
density deep ocean water below. The pycnocline layer carries 18% of the
total volume of ocean water.
Deep layer
This layer represents high-density water mass which extends from 1000m
depth to the ocean floor. The layer carries 80% of the total volume of
ocean water. Low to extremely low temperatures in the polar areas are
responsible for the contraction of water, causing an increase in seawater
density. This causes the sinking of high-density water mass of polar
regions which in turn causes the undersea flow of water towards low
latitudes.
1.9. SUMMARY
Earth is a water planet. The ocean covers 71% of its surface and has
greatly influenced its rocky crust and atmosphere. The average depth of
the ocean is about 41⁄2 times the average height of the continents above
sea level. Life on Earth almost certainly evolved in the ocean.
Oceanography or Marine science applies the scientific method to study the
ocean, and the living organisms dependent on it. Various hypotheses and
theories have tried to explain the origin of the ocean. The earth is
composed of concentric spherical layers. The layers may be classified by
chemical composition into crust, mantle, and core or by physical
properties into the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mantle, and core.
Geologists have confirmed the existence of the layers by analysis of
seismic waves, generated by the forces causingearthquakes. The theory of
plate tectonics explains the curious jigsawpuzzle fit of the continents and
the formation of oceans. While the continents are old; the ocean floors, are
young. Seafloor features are a result of a combination of tectonic activity
and the processes of erosion and deposition.The ocean floor can be
34
divided into two - the continental margins and deep-ocean basins.The Fundamental Concepts in
continental margin is the shallow ocean floor nearest the shore, and it Oceanography
consists of the continental shelf and the continental slope.The deep-ocean
floor which is away from land has a much different origin and history.
Prominent features of the deep-ocean basins include rugged flat abyssal
plains,oceanic ridges,deep trenches, and curving chains of volcanic
islands. The temperature, salinity, and density of ocean water vary both
spatially and temporally. The density of seawater and temperature is
inversely proportional. The density of seawater increases with increasing
depth.
Voyaging for necessity evolved into voyaging for scientific and
geographical discovery. The rise of the great oceanographic institutions,
today marked the path into the future.
36
3.1. b Fundamental Concepts in
Oceanography
3.2. b
3.3. a
3.4. b
3.5. d
1.13. TASK
With the help of an atlas, mark the ocean floor reliefs on an outline map of
India.
37
2
OCEAN CURRENTS AND RESOURCES
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Global Distribution of Ocean Currents
2.3 Oceanic waves
2.4 Tsunamis
2.5 Tides
2.6 Marine Sediments and Deposits
2.7 Food and mineral resources of the sea
2.8 Sample Questions
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Learning Outcomes: After the study of this module learners will be able to
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Oceans occupy almost three fourth of the total earth surface. Oceanic
dynamics play significant role in various oceanic processes continuously
operating in oceans. Sea waves, tides, ocean currents, tsunami, coastal
dynamics etc. are some of the important oceanic movements. Different
kinds of oceanic movements give rise to formation of different landforms
both in the ocean floor and coastal areas. Ocean water dynamics also play
significant role in socio-economic progress of human being. This is
mainly due to the fact that various human activities such as fishing,
tourism, water transport, mining, power plants etc. are associated with
oceans. Hence it is important to understand the ocean water dynamics and
its role in shaping economic activities and also the geomorphic landforms
resulted from such movements. This module aims at discussing the ocean
water dynamics from the view point of landform generation and socio-
economic implications of these dynamics.
38
2.1.1. Ocean currents: meaning Ocean Currents and Resources
Movement of ocean water is an important form ocean water dynamics.
Oceans are never static. Different kinds of movements take place in ocean
continuously. Sea waves, tides and ocean currents are important
movements of sea water. Ocean currents refer to as the general movement
of mass of surface water in a fairly defined direction. Ocean currents may
be defined as any persistent and dominantly horizontal flow of ocean
water. Unlike oceanic waves, ocean currents comprise not only surface
waters but also the movement of water up to the depth of 1000 meters.
Hence ocean currents are considered to the most extensive type of ocean
water movements.
Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of
seawater driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density.
Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes
are called upwellings or downwellings. This abiotic system is responsible
for the transfer of heat, variations in biodiversity, and Earth’s climate
system (National Geographic). Ocean Current is a horizontal movement of
seawater that is produced by gravity, wind, and water density. Ocean
currents play an important role in the determination of climates of coastal
regions. The streams of water that flow constantly on the ocean surface in
definite directions are called ocean currents.
Ocean currents are one of the factors that affect the temperature of ocean
water. The magnitude of the ocean currents ranges from a few centimeters
per second to as much as 4 meters (about 13 feet) per second. The
intensity of the ocean currents generally decreases with increasing depth.
The speed of ocean currents is more than that of upwelling or
downwelling which are the vertical movements of ocean water.
Wind
The ocean currents at or near the ocean surface are driven by wind forces.
The process is called Thermohaline Circulation. ‘Thermo’ stands for
temperature and ‘Haline’ stands for salinity. The variations in temperature
and salinity at different parts of the oceans create density differences
which in turn affect the ocean currents. The movement of water through
the oceans is slowed by friction, with surrounding fluid moving at a
39
Oceanography and Hydrology different velocity. A faster-moving layer of water and a slower-moving
layer of water would impact each other. This causes momentum transfer
between both layers producing frictional forces.When the pressure
gradient force on the ocean current is balanced by the Coriolis forces, it
results in the geostrophic currents.
The direction of geostrophic flow is parallel to an isobar.
The high pressure is to the right of the flow in the Northern
Hemisphere, and the high pressure to the left is found in the Southern
Hemisphere.
40
Carribean Current Warm Ocean Currents and Resources
Falkland Current Cold
Florida Current Warm
North Atlantic Current Warm
South Atlantic Current Cold
Ocean Currents in Indian Ocean
Agulhas Current Warm
Leeuwin Current Warm
Mozambique Current Warm
West Australian Current Cold
Ocean Currents in Pacific Ocean
Alaska Current Warm
Humboldt Current Cold
Kamchatka Current Cold
Kuroshio Current Warm
North Pacific Current Warm
41
Oceanography and Hydrology 1. Currents in Mid-Pacific Ocean:
a) North Equatorial currents: This current of the Pacific Ocean runs
from west coast of Mexico and flows towards the east and contuse up to
Philippines. The transportation of water in this current is more than other
currents in Atlantic and Indian oceans in equatorial regions. Near Mexico,
this current is added to California Current.
b) South Equatorial current: This current is present on both sides of the
equator. The formation of this current is caused by south-east trade winds.
This current covers a total distance of about 13600 kms in south Pacific
Ocean. Numerous small ocean currents meet this current on its left
margin.
c) Equatorial counter current: It flows between north and south
equatorial currents. It continues to flow from west to east throughout the
year. It is interesting to note that this current always flows in northern
hemisphere. During north summer the current velocity reaches to 100
cm/sec.
42
2.2.3 Ocean currents in Indian Ocean Ocean Currents and Resources
Because of peculiar geographical location the Indian ocean is entirely
different from the Pacific and Atlantic ocean currents. Northern part of the
Indian ocean is different from other parts of it. North India ocean is under
the influence of Indian monsoon. In southern part of Indian Ocean anti-
cyclonic system of current is present.
The Winter Monsoon Drift, South Monsoon Drift are important ocean
currents in North Indian Oceans whereas the South Equatorial Current, ,
Madagascar current, Mozambique current are dominant in South Indian
Ocean.
43
Oceanography and Hydrology Causes of oceanic Wave formation
Waves are most commonly caused by wind. Wind-driven waves, or
surface waves, are created by the friction between wind and surface water.
As wind blows across the surface of the ocean or a lake, the continual
disturbance creates a wave crest.
The ocean is never still. Whether observing from the beach or a boat, we
expect to see waves on the horizon. Waves are created by energy passing
through water, causing it to move in a circular motion. However, water
does not actually travel in waves. Waves transmit energy, not water,
across the ocean and if not obstructed by anything, they have the potential
to travel across an entire ocean basin.
Waves are most commonly caused by wind. Wind-driven waves,
or surface waves, are created by the friction between wind and surface
water. As wind blows across the surface of the ocean or a lake, the
continual disturbance creates a wave crest. These types of waves are found
globally across the open ocean and along the coast.
More potentially hazardous waves can be caused by severe weather, like a
hurricane. The strong winds and pressure from this type of severe storm
causes storm surge, a series of long waves that are created far from shore
in deeper water and intensify as they move closer to land. Other hazardous
waves can be caused by underwater disturbances that displace large
amounts of water quickly such as earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic
eruptions. These very long waves are called tsunamis. Storm surge and
tsunamis are not the types of waves you imagine crashing down on the
shore. These waves roll upon the shore like a massive sea level rise and
can reach far distances inland.
The gravitational pull of the sun and moon on the earth also causes waves.
These waves are tides or, in other words, tidal waves. It is a common
misconception that a tidal wave is also a tsunami. The cause of tsunamis
are not related to tide information at all but can occur in any tidal state.
2.4 Tsunamis
How tsunamis are formed. A tsunami is a wave that spreads in the sea and
is caused by an underwater earthquake, a landslide, a volcanic eruption or
the fall of a meteorite. As the first cause is the most frequent one, we will
focus on unravelling underwater earthquakes. The vast majority of
earthquakes occur in faults.
44
What happens is that the two Ocean Currents and Resources
portions of the earth's crust
separate, where one side slips over
to the other side. That slide can be
completely vertical, which
literally means the fall of one of
the sides of the fault, totally
horizontal or something
intermediate. In order for an
underwater earthquake to cause a
tsunami, the movement must have
a vertical component; if it is
totally horizontal it will not occur.
The movement of the fault is so
fast that the "step" that occurs on
the ocean floor is instantly
reflected on the surface of the sea,
which deforms just like the bottom. We all know that a "step" in the water
is not stable, the surface tends to recover horizontality. The higher water
descends and vice versa, giving rise to a series of waves that propagate in
all directions from the site of the earthquake: the tsunami.
Tsunami Characteristics
Most tsunamis are caused by a rapid vertical movement along a break in
the Earth's crust (i.e., their origin is tectonic). A tsunami is generated when
a large mass of earth on the bottom of the ocean drops or rises, thereby
displacing the column of water directly above it. This type of displacement
commonly occurs in large subduction zones, where the collision of two
tectonic plates causes the oceanic plate to dip beneath the continental plate
to form deep ocean trenches. Most subduction occurs along most of the
island arcs and coastal areas of the Pacific, the notable exception being the
west coast of the United States and Canada. Movement along the faults
there is largely strike-slip, having little vertical displacement, and the
movement produces few local tsunamis.
Volcanoes have generated significant tsunamis with death tolls as large as
30,000 people from a single event. Roughly one fourth of the deaths
occurring during volcanic eruptions where tsunamis were generated, were
the result of the tsunami rather than the volcano. A tsunami is an effective
transmitter of energy to areas outside the reach of the volcanic eruption
itself. The most efficient methods of tsunami generation by volcanoes
include disruption of a body of water by the collapse of all or part of the
volcanic edifice, subsidence, an accompanying or preceding the eruption.
Roughly one-half of all volcanic tsunamis are generated at calderas or at
cones within calderas. Submarine eruptions may also cause minor
tsunamis.
Locally destructive tsunamis may be generated by subaerial and
submarine landslides into bays or lakes. Lituya Bay, Alaska, has been the
site of several landslide-generated tsunamis, including one in 1958 that
45
Oceanography and Hydrology produced a splash wave that removed trees to a height of 525 m. It also
caused a tsunami of at least 50 m in the bay. The 1964 Prince William
Sound earthquake triggered at least four submarine landslides, which
accounted for 71 to 82 of the 106 fatalities in Alaska for the 1964 event.
However, it is tectonic earthquake-generated tsunamis (those produced by
a major deformation of Earth's crust) that may affect the entire Pacific
Basin.
Other possible but less efficient methods of tsunami generation include:
strong oscillations of the bottom of the ocean, or transmission of energy to
a column of water from a seismic impulse (e.g., a deep-focus earthquake
that has no surface rupture); transmission of energy from a horizontal
seismic impulse to the water column through a vertical or inclined wall
such as a bathymetric ridge; strong turbidity currents; underwater and
above-water explosions. Several mechanisms commonly are involved in
the generation of a tsunami (e.g., vertical movement of the crust by a
seismic impulse or an earthquake, and a submarine landslide).
46
In the Indian Ocean, the Indo-Australian plate is being subducted beneath Ocean Currents and Resources
the Eurasian plate at its east margin. On December 26, 2004, an
earthquake off the coast of northern Sumatra generated a tsunami that was
recorded nearly world-wide and killed more people than any other tsunami
in recorded history. More than 227,899 people were either killed or listed
as missing and presumed dead and 1,126,900 were displaced by the
earthquake and subsequent tsunami. The estimated economic losses
exceed $10 billion. The devastating megathrust earthquake of December
26th, 2004 occurred on the interface of the India and Burma plates and
was caused by the release of stresses that develop as the India plate
subducts beneath the overriding Burma plate. The India plate begins its
descent into the mantle at the Sunda trench which lies to the west of the
earthquake's epicenter. The trench is the surface expression of the plate
interface between the Australia and India plates, situated to the southwest
of the trench, and the Burma and Sunda plates, situated to the northeast.
2.5 TIDES
Tide refer to as’ any of the cyclic deformations of one astronomical body
caused by the gravitational forces exerted by others’. The most familiar
are the periodic variations in sea level on Earth that correspond to changes
in the relative positions of the Moon and the Sun. The tides may be
regarded as forced waves, partially running waves and partially standing
waves. They are manifested by vertical movements of the sea surface (the
height maximum and minimum are called high water [HW] and low water
[LW]) and alternating horizontal movements of the water, the tidal
currents. The words ebb and flow are used to designate the falling tide and
the rising tide, respectively.
47
Oceanography and Hydrology
The dynamic theory/ real tide on the other hand, represents the tide as a
wave “forced” by the tide-producing forces, and the rise and fall on the
coast as a result of flow convergence or divergence. In theory, it allows
calculations of tidal flows in the ocean, and the rise and fall on the shores.
However, the real ocean basins have very complicated coastal and bottom
48
topography and it is not possible to obtain exact solutions, except in the Ocean Currents and Resources
open sea.
There are several important factors that modify the movement of water in
real tide situations:
1. The Sun/Moon: The moon’s gravitational effect is greater than that of
the suns due to it’s closer proximity to the Earth, but acting sometimes
in conjunction with the sun and sometimes in opposition it varies the
amplitude and timing of the tides.
2. Geography: Land masses obviously impede and deflect movement of
water on the Earth’s surface.
3. Friction: Friction retards the movement of water particles across the
Earth’s surface – (the movement of tides across it is gradually slowing
down the rotational speed of the Earth.)
4. Basin Oscillation: All bodies of water have natural periods of
oscillation determined by their size and shape. All oceans are made up
of a number of oscillating basins. The resultant oscillations at any one
place affect the tidal movement or wave form depending upon the
degree of resonance with the astronomic tidal curve.
5. Lunar and Terrestrial Orbits: The shape and plane of both the
Earth’s orbit around the Sun and the moon’s orbit around the Earth are
such that the distance between these bodies, their gravitational effect,
varies continuously in cycles of months, years and even longer
periods.
6. The Earth’s Orbit: is in the form of an eccentric ellipse (eg or pear
shaped). At perihelion the Earth is 91.3 million miles and at aphelion it
is 94.5 million miles away from the sun respectively.
7. The Earth’s Declination/ Tilt: 23° 27’ off the vertical, hence the
declination of the relative position of the sun and the moon as they
appear to revolve around the Earth.
8. The Moon’s Orbit: Also an eccentric ellipse with a varying apogee
and perogee.
The Equilibrium theory explained above describes two bulges moving
around the Earth from east to west at a steady rate. Their range would be
0.5m at the equator. This is not exactly what happens with the observed
tides. The theoretical explanation of diurnal tides does not agree with the
observations either. So why not?
The main reason for this complicated response to the tidal forcings is the
fact that the land divides the world's waters into oceans, seas, gulfs etc. of
different size, shape and depth. The only latitudes for the unimpeded
circumpolar movement are around Antarctica and in the Arctic.
49
Oceanography and Hydrology In addition, the water movements are affected by the rotation of the Earth.
The Coriolis effect (which we will come to later) causes the water to take
a curved path rather than a straight one and Kelvin waves produce
different tidal ranges across channels. The best example of this is that of
the English Channel where the French coast experiences a much larger
tidal range than the British side
Natural Resonance
The various bodies of water have their individual natural periods of
oscillation. This influences their response to the tide- raising force. The
Pacific Ocean has, in general, a natural period of oscillation of about 25
hours, making it resonant to the diurnal components of the tide raising
forces, so the tides tend to be diurnal there. The natural period of
oscillation of the Atlantic is about 12.5 hours making it resonant to the
semi- diurnal components and so the tides in that ocean are mainly semi-
diurnal. Pacific tides are observed to have much more diurnal
characteristics in general than Atlantic tides. There are also seas that have
a natural period of oscillation that makes them unresponsive to either
diurnal or semi-diurnal forces, these are known as non-tidal waters. Good
examples of non-tidal waters are: Eastern Mediterranean, Baltic, Black
and Caspian Seas
Lithogenous Deposits
Lithogenous composed of small fragments. It is also known as terrigenous
sediments. The small fragments are the part of preexisting sediments that
have made their way into the ocean. These sediments can contain an entire
range of particle sizes, from microscopic to clay to large boulders. They
are found normally everywhere on the ocean floor. These sediments are
created on land by the process of weather. Here rocks and minerals are
broken down into tiny particles through the action of wind, rain, water
flow, temperature or ice-induced cracking, and other erosive processes.
Then these particles are transferred into the oceans.
Lithogenous sediments usually reflect the composition of whatever
materials they were derived from. They are dominated by the main
material that makes up most terrestrial rocks. Quartz, feldspar, clay
minerals, iron oxides, and terrestrial organic matter. Quartz which is also
known as silicon dioxide is one of the most common minerals found in all
rocks. That's why it is the dominant component of the lithogenous
sediments including sand.
Various forms of deposits are found in oceans. About 90% of the
lithogenous sediment in the oceans have come from rivers, particularly
from Asia.
Most of the sediments, mainly the larger particles, will be deposited
and remain closer to the coastline.
On the other side, small particles may be suspended in the water
column for longer periods and may be transported a big distance from
the source.
52
The wind is such a fact which can transport small particles like dust Ocean Currents and Resources
and sand to the ocean and move to thousands of kilometres from the
source.
These small particles can fall into the ocean when the wind dies down
or serve as the nuclei around which raindrops or snowflakes.
Glaciers also have lots of soil and rock particles and large boulders
which they get carried by the ice.
When the glacier breaks out and melts and it meets with the ocean then
these particles get deposited in the ocean.
Landslides, mudslides, avalanches and other gravity-driven events can
deposit large amounts of materials into the ocean.
Wave action along a coastline will erode rocks and will push loose
particles into the ocean and seashore.
Volcanic eruptions emit large amounts of ash and other particles into
the surroundings and are then transported to the oceans through the
wind.
Biogenous Deposits
Biogenous sediments are sediments that are made from the skeletal
remains of living organisms. These sediments include a wide variety of
microscopic organisms, coral fragments, sea urchins and pieces of mollusc
shells. Algae and protozoans are the sources of biogenous sediments. The
biogenous sediments come from the tests of these one-celled organisms.
They are living in the surface waters of the oceans. When these tests
comprise greater than 30% of the particles then these particles are known
as ooze. There are two types of oozes on the ocean floor are calcareous
sediment and siliceous sediment. Oozes that are dominated by diatom or
radiolarian tests are called siliceous oozes and calcareous sediment are
produced from the tests of microscopic algae and protozoans.
Hydrogenous Deposits
Seawater contains many different types of dissolved substances.
Sometimes, chemical reactions occur that cause these types of substances
to precipitate out as solid particles, which accumulate as hydrogenous
sediment. All these occur by the change in conditions such as a change in
temperature, pressure or pH which reduces the amount of substance that
can remain in a dissolved state. These kinds of sediment are normally
found near hydrogenous vents. In these systems, seawater percolates into
the seafloor where it becomes superheated by magma before being
expelled by the vent. This water contains many dissolved substances and
when it mixes with cold seawater after leaving the vent then these particles
precipitate out mostly as metal sulfides. These particles make smoke that
flows from the vent and eventually settle on the bottom as hydrogenous
sediments.
53
Oceanography and Hydrology Cosmogenous Sediments
Cosmogenous sediments are derived from extraterrestrial sources. These
have mainly come in two primary forms - microscopic spherules and
larger meteor debris. Spherules mostly consist of silica or iron and nickel
and are thought to be ejected as meteors burn up after entering the
atmosphere. Meteors come from the collision of meteorites with the earth.
These types of collisions have a great impact on the earth's atmosphere
that eventually settle back down to earth and contribute to the sediments.
Meteor debris consists of mainly silica and nickel. One of the main forms
of this debris from collisions are tektites which are small droplets of glass.
They are composed of terrestrial silica that was ejected and melted during
a meteorite impact. It forms solid after it becomes cool upon returning to
the surface. Cosmogenous sediments are fairly rare in the ocean and it
does not usually accumulate in large deposits. It comes from space dust
which is present in the atmosphere which is continuously raining down on
the earth.
Marine Soil
Soil deposits on ocean beds are known as marine soils. Though oceans are
very violent the seabeds are very calm for the most part. A very small
particle would deposit on the seabeds. The texture and composition
depend on the proximity to the land and biological matter. The ocean floor
is composed of three different types of soil also known as pelagic
sediments or marine sediments. The names of the soils are calcareous
ooze, red clay, and siliceous ooze.
Calcareous Ooze
It is the most common soil of the three soils. It covers approximately 48%
of the whole ocean floor. It consists of the shells of foraminifera,
coccolithophores, and pteropods. They are the tiny organisms that are
living in the ocean.
Red Clay
It is the second soil that is found in the ocean. It covers approximately
38% of the ocean floor. It is brown in color. It is made up of quartz, clay
minerals, and micrometeorites which are rocks that weigh less than a gram
and have fallen to earth from the outer surface.
Manganese nodules
Covering huge areas of the deep sea with masses of up to 75 kilograms per
square metre, manganese nodules are lumps of minerals ranging in size
from a potato to a head of lettuce. They are composed mainly of
manganese, iron, silicates and hydroxides, and they grow around a
crystalline nucleus at a rate of only about one to 3 millimetres per million
years. The chemical elements are precipitated from seawater or originate
in the pore waters of the underlying sediments. The greatest densities of
nodules occur off the west coast of Mexico (in the Clarion-Clipperton
Zone), in the Peru Basin, and the Indian Ocean.
In the Clarion-Clipperton Zone the manganese nodules lie on the deep-sea
sediments covering an area of at least 9 million square kilometres – an
area the size of Europe. Their concentration in this area can probably be
attributed to an increased input of manganese-rich minerals through the
sediments released from the interior of the Earth at the East Pacific
Rise by hydrothermal activity – that is, released from within the Earth by
warm-water seeps on the sea floor and distributed over a large area by
deep ocean currents.
55
Oceanography and Hydrology 2.8 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Q.1. Fill in the following and complete the sentence.
1. ___________may be defined as any persistent and dominantly
horizontal flow of ocean water. (Ocean currents)
2. The ocean currents at or near the ocean surface are driven by wind
forces. The process is called____________. (Thermohaline Circulation)
3. North Equatorial Current flows between the latitudes of
____________degrees north. (10 degrees and 20)
4. ______________currents is in fact is the extension of north Equatorial
Current. (Kurioshio)
5. The Winter Monsoon Drift, South Monsoon Drift are important ocean
currents in_________________. (North Indian Oceans)
6. South Equatorial Current, Madagascar current, Mozambique current are
dominant in_____________. (South Indian Ocean)
7. The distance between a wave's crest and trough is called ________of
the wave. (Height)
8. The first recorded tsunami occurred off the coast of _____________in
2000 B.C. (Syria)
9. ___________ refer to as’ any of the cyclic deformations of one
astronomical body caused by the gravitational forces exerted by others’.
(Tide)
10. Marine sediments deposited near continents cover approximately
_______ percent of the seafloor.(25)
12. --------------sediments are sediments that are made from the skeletal
remains of living organisms.(Biogenous)
56
Q. 3. Write Short notes on: Ocean Currents and Resources
1. Characteristics of oceanic waves
2. Causes of tsunami
3. Types of ocean sediments
4. Types of tides
5. Ocean currents in Indian Ocean
57
3
OCEANOGRAPHY AND HYDROLOGY
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 The Hydrological Cycle
3.3.1 Hydrological Cycle or Water Cycle
3.4 The Patterns of Movement of Water and Factors Affecting
Movement of Water
3.4.1 Patterns of Movement and Storage of Water
3.4.2 Factors Affecting Movement of Water
3.5 Water Budget
3.5.1 Water Budget Components
3.5.2 World Water Balance
3.6 Water Resources
3.6.1 World Water Resources
3.6.2 Global Fresh Water Resources
3.7 History of Hydrology
3.8 Exercises
3.9 Summary
3.10 References
3.1 OBJECTIVES
a. To provide the students with conceptual clarity about Hydrology,
water cycle, water budget and water resources. This in turn will help
them understand the various components of the hydrological cycle and
how these components interact with each other to maintain an
equilibrium on earth. These components and their interaction is a
continuous cyclic process, commonly experienced by humans on a
regular basis. The idea is to explain the mechanism behind the
occurrence of such interactions between the atmosphere, land and
underground water, so as to be able to relate to their occurrence.
b. To familiarize the students with the important aspects of the patterns
of movement of water through the water cycle and the factors that
influence this movement. All the components are sub-divided into 3
discrete compartments and all the three are very much related and
dependent on one another to the extent that without the existence of
any one of them the water cycle wouldn’t be possible.
58
c. To acquaint the students with the diverse water resources present on Ocean Currents and Resources
the surface of the Earth in the form of saline as well as fresh water
resources. The importance of these sources of water is further
emphasized and elaborated for the convenience of the students and to
generate better understanding. Moreover, the crucial concept of water
budget is also presented herein.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Water, by large is considered to be the lifeline that supports all forms of
life on Earth, be it those creatures that live in water or those that survive
on land, all biota is hugely dependent on water. Therefore, the vitality and
resourcefulness of water can under no circumstance be undermined. Water
is of two types- saline and fresh. The latter is of a higher significance in
terms of human survival. The information presented here, highlights the
occurrence of water in various forms (solid, liquid and vapor). It is rather
necessary that water exists in these forms so as to keep the water cycle in
motion. The water budget talks about the mechanism through which the
Earth maintains and balances the available water on the continents and in
the oceans. The patterns of movement adopted by water and the factors
responsible for its movement through the atmosphere, land and
underground aquifers help in generating a clear understanding about the
role played by nature to present water in the usable and non-usable forms
as well as the hindrances created though human intervention in the
existing phenomena, in the mind of the readers. Knowledge about the
global water supply and the existing fresh and salty water resources
present on earth can be extracted from the information presented in the
following pages.
59
Oceanography and Hydrology
63
Oceanography and Hydrology a single source of water supply i.e. precipitation, whereas the other two
sources of water supply are absent here.
The span of time for which a specific quantity of water shall remain in the
lake is called its residence time. This keeps varying from time to time and
is different for large and small lakes. The residence time of very large
lakes will be excessively large, i.e. 200 years or more. Whereas, the
residence time of smaller lakes may range between 2-5 years. In case of
glacial lakes it may stretch upto a decade or more. Whereas, very small
lakes may have a residence time ranging from a few days to a few weeks.
II. Wetlands: these are similar to lakes in several ways, i.e. both contain
standing water and the water loss and gain mechanisms for both is
very much alike. Moreover, water stored in the wetland depressions
gives the appearance of a lake. The most conspicuous difference lies in
the fact that outflow of water from these areas is mostly in the form of
transpiration from vegetation rather than by evaporation (as
experienced by lakes). Secondly, the water in the wetlands is generally
stored in their soils, unlike the lakes. In general, wetlands are places
which, for a major part of the year, contain water saturated soils. This
has a huge influence on the manner in which the soil development
takes place as well as the flora and fauna inhabiting that area/wetland.
There are certain types of wetlands which do not receive a continuous
inflow of water from different sources throughout the year. Moreover,
the presence of standing water is not a usual phenomenon, instead,
water inflow occurs only for a given period of time or a part of the
year. Such wetlands have one governing factor that remains constant
i.e. ‘saturation of the soil’ meaning- ‘soil remains covered with ample
amount of moisture throughout the year’. The wetlands play a vital
role in the hydrological cycle by majorly contributing to it. This takes
place through constant exchanges, movement and storage of water (in
its various forms), between the atmosphere, land surface and the sub-
surface.
III. Streams: These hold a very small percentage of the total water content
present as fresh water on the surface of the Earth. A very prominent
feature displayed by streams is that they always begin their journey
from places at higher elevations and end up in the plains. This journey
of the streams can be divided into 3 discrete stages, namely; youthful
stage, mature stage and senile (old) stage. They vary in size as well as
the volume of water carried and area drained by them, ranging from
small rivulets to huge perennial or seasonal rivers (area may vary from
a few kilometers to thousands of kilometers and some of them even
flow across international borders). Many streams, called as rivers, are
even older than the early human civilizations and such major rivers
after draining an extensive drainage basin eventually fall into the sea,
E.g. Nile, Mississippi, Amazon, Indus, and Brahmaputra. Their main
task is to transport water from their source to their mouth and thus,
they cannot be considered as reservoirs or agencies of water storage.
These may be interrupted at various places by natural or man-made
features, which leads to changes in their natural courses or flow
64
regimes. The flow velocity (speed) of streams is also quite variable i.e. Ocean Currents and Resources
ranging between 30 cm/second to 300 cm/second. Streams are not only
an essential source of fresh water, but also act as facilitators in the
water cycle by promoting evaporation and increasing the vapor content
in the atmosphere which ultimately results in precipitation and filling
of water bodies and by acting as an agent of exchange between the
water present on land surface (including rainfall runoff) and under the
surface (interflow/ discharge). During the wet months or late spring
when the snow-melt begins, both, their flow velocity as well as
discharge increases manifold. Large streams are less dynamic as
compared to small streams- which display a sharp and rapid reaction to
storm events.
c) Underground Water: This flows in the sub-surface and forms the
water table. The water received through precipitation and that which
seeps into the ground passing through the different layers of the soil,
ultimately ends up as ground water which is generally found stored in
the crevices, open spaces or between two layers of the rocks found
underneath the soft, porous and permeable soil. Several rock particles,
minerals, gases, organic matter, solid rocks, water etc. collectively
form the subsurface. The water present here is majorly in the storage
form since it acts as a reservoir. Transportation of water takes place
but to a limited extent. Underground water has a noticeable function of
maintaining and regulating the water cycle like the other two segments
discussed above. The rain water and surface runoff penetrates into the
soil and moves downwards. Underground water can even be seen
flowing on the surface after an outflow (as seen in karst topography),
during human extraction or during instances when water escapes
through openings in the surface e.g. hot springs.
Note that: More than 95 per cent of the global fresh water is stored in the
underground aquifers as ground water. But due to excessive extraction and
restricted recharge, the subsurface water has begun to show signs of
depletion. This can be experienced whenever the need to dig deeper to
obtain water, arises and during instances of land subsidence.
The sub-surface has 2 distinct zones, namely, saturated zone and the
unsaturated zone. The former zone has pores and voids among the Earth
materials which are completely full of water. This zone is located below
the unsaturated zone and acts as a storehouse holding the largest amount
of consumable freshwater. The water table lies just above this zone. Saline
water can be found below it. Water table is said to be recharged when
water from the unsaturated zone moves downward. In some regions,
human extraction of ground water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial
uses constitutes the major portion of outflow of underground water.
Whereas, the latter (unsaturated zone) is characterized by the presence of
both air and water in the open spaces between the Earth materials located
beneath the ground. This means that the pores and crevices are partially
filled with air and partially with water. This zone may vary from 0-1000 m
in thickness and thicker unsaturated zones are generally found in arid
65
Oceanography and Hydrology areas. Moreover, this zone makes water available for the plants and
vegetation to grow and flourish, because, water here percolates very
gradually allowing more water for a longer time for plants.
According to Healy, R.W., et al. (2007), out of the precipitation that falls
on Earth, the amount of water that finds its way into the soil and
downward into the subsurface, is around 76 per cent. 85 percent i.e.
majority of water that percolates downwards, is returned to the atmosphere
either through evaporation from the soil or through evapotranspiration
through the flora.
Soils are capable of holding and retaining moisture in them. Different
types of soils have varying capacities to hold moisture. Moisture obtained
from rainfall, runoff or flow of the rivers, is retained in the upper layers of
the soil and the excess water slowly moves downwards through the pores
(open spaces) of the soil. Also, the water retained in the pores starts
downward movement over a period of time or with addition of more
water. This is known as the porosity of the soil. In other words, it refers to
the presence of open spaces in between the soil particles. Certain soils are
more porous as compared to the others. E.g. Sandy gravel soils and,
loamy, clayey soils- are most porous whereas, limestone soil and silt are
the least porous. Those soils containing more or less equal sized particles
and sticky materials, have lower porosity and vice-versa.
In addition to porosity, permeability of the soil also plays a key role. This
means- the rate at which water infiltrates downward to reach the water
table is known as permeability. Particle size, water impurities, void ratio,
the degree of saturation, trapped air and organic material all these greatly
influence the soil permeability. To better understand the concept of
permeability, the example of a pebble and a sponge can be assumed. On
pouring water over a pebble, it is observed that the water flows without
being absorbed. The pebble is incapable of retaining water whereas, if the
same water is poured over a sponge, it retains the water. In doing so, the
water is allowed to move down, towards the base of the sponge. Similarly,
certain types of soils respond better to permeability than the others. These
include- clayey soils and silt- these impede the flow of water downward.
On the other hand, both sand and gravel are highly porous as well as
permeable, thus, these act as excellent aquifer materials. Sandstone and
limestone are also highly permeable.
The ground water is recharged and lost annually through several
processes. The recharge processes are listed below.
Recharge through precipitation i.e. rain water infiltration.
Seepage of canal water downward through the soil.
Percolation of water downwards from the irrigated fields and
cultivable lands.
Water seepage form overlying streams.
66
Recharge through lakes, reservoirs, tanks etc. Ocean Currents and Resources
Artificial recharge schemes.
Following are the water loss mechanisms operating underground.
Through outflow of subsurface water into the rivers or streams
Through the process of transpiration from all flora.
Evaporation processes.
Extraction of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural activities.
Note: The water that is available for consumption marks the difference
between the annual recharge of ground water and the annual loss.
71
Oceanography and Hydrology Certain scholars have defined the water budget by stating that this
budget is the means through which the difference between the flow
rate of water inside and outside of an ‘accounting unit’ can be
balanced by understanding the rate at which changes occur in the
water storage. An accounting unit of the water budget can be in the
form of an agricultural field, a watershed, a reservoir, or an
underground aquifer. This can be better understood with the help of an
equation; In flow of water - Out flow of water = Change in water
Storage.
It is important to note that, water budget depends on water storage and
movement processes, therefore, it is projected as simple and
universally accepted.
Water budget studies carried out in different parts of the world hint
towards the fact that, there is always a scope for assessing and
comparing the effects and outcomes of different natural and man-made
factors on water budgets. The natural factors can be in the form of
geology, soils and vegetation which can alter the water cycle in many
ways. Other methods of alterations include man-made changes in land-
use like; clearing land for agriculture, carrying out construction
activities, building dams on rivers, installing irrigation and drainage
systems etc. all these hugely impact the water budget and water cycle.
Water budgets provide a basis for assessing how a natural or human-
induced change in one part of the hydrologic cycle may affect other
aspects of the cycle.
Water Budget also referred to as the ‘Water Balance’ is a means for
calculating the quantity of water that enters into and exits from, the
various components of the water cycle (I.e. land, sub-surface and the
atmosphere) as mentioned in the preceding sections. A water budget
assists us in studying and understanding the sources of water supply,
the places where sources of water storage can be found and the
quantity of water present in them.
While studying the Water budget, one is required to know the process
of evapotranspiration and the working of the water cycle, along with
the places (reservoirs) where water is stored on the ground and under
the ground. The amount of water present in them, their movement
patterns from discharge to recharge and the inter basin (import and
export) transfers of water. This provides essential information about
land’s carrying capacity with regard to water resources. Table 3.5.1
depicts the global water supply and table 3.5.2 depicts the water
budget for the global landmass.
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Table 3.5.1: Estimated global water supply. Ocean Currents and Resources
75
Oceanography and Hydrology Table 3.5.4: Water balance of Oceans (in sq. mm/year)
76
3.6.2 Global Fresh Water Resources: Ocean Currents and Resources
Fresh water, also known as potable water exists in three forms on Earth,
namely; liqiud, solid and vapour. Water in all these forms accounts for a
total of 2.5 per cent. The water that is readily available for human use (i.e.
water in rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, canals or tanks) is even limited in
extent since a significant proportion of this water is present in the
atmosphere as vapour and in solid form as ice fields of Antarctica,
Greenland, Arctic Ocean, on the mountains tops as ice caps or in the form
of glaciers. A small portion of this water is also present as sub-surface
water and can only be extracted through wells, tube wells or springs and
gysers.
a) Precipitation - rain, snow, dew etc. - plays the key role in renewing
water resources and in defining local climatic conditions and
biodiversity. Depending on the local conditions, precipitation may feed
rivers and lakes, replenish groundwater, or return to the air by
evaporation. (Facts on Water Resources: A summary of the United
Nations World Water Development Report 2, 2016). The atmosphere
contains the amount of water which if collected together would form a
thin layer of just 25 mm in thickness. This atmospheric water is a
result of the continuous evaporation that takes place from the fresh and
saline water bodies as well as from the soil and vegetation i.e.
transpiration. This water then condenses or freezes and returns to the
Earth as precipitation.
b) Glaciers - store water as snow and ice, releasing varying amounts of
water into local streams depending on the season. But many are
shrinking as a result of climate change. (Facts on Water Resources: A
summary of the United Nations World Water Development Report 2,
2016). Glaciers are capable of supplying water to the rivers/streams
throughout the year, through snowmelt. They are the largest sources of
fresh water on Earth, carrying 29.2 million km3 of water in the form of
snow and polar ice. Glaciers are fed by solid atmospheric water (i.e.
precipitation in the form of snowfall).
c) River basins - are a useful “natural unit” for the management of water
resources and many of them are shared by more than one country. The
largest river basins include the Amazon and Congo Zaire basins. River
flows can vary greatly from one season to the next and from one
climatic region to another. Because lakes store large amounts of water,
they can reduce seasonal differences in how much water flows in
rivers and streams. (Facts on Water Resources: A summary of the
United Nations World Water Development Report 2, 2016). The
rivers/streams carry only a small fraction of the total water present on
land, though these serve as the most useful water bodies since the
water contained in them is potable and ready for any human or animal
consumption or utilization at any given time. The volume of water
contained in them is approximately 1,250 km3. These are generally
classified as water transport agents rather than water storage agents of
77
Oceanography and Hydrology the Earth. They majorly aid in exchange of water between the surface
and the sub-surface.
d) Wetlands - including swamps, bogs, marshes, and lagoons - cover 6%
of the world’s land surface and play a key role in local ecosystems and
water resources. Many of them have been destroyed, but the remaining
wetlands can still play an important role in preventing floods and
promoting river flows. (Facts on Water Resources: A summary of the
United Nations World Water Development Report 2, 2016). The water
in the wetlands is supplied by rivers/streams or underground water.
Many a times, the water here is in the form of soil moisture or is stored
in the vegetation. Water that evaporates from here contribues to the
water cycle.
e) Lakes – these occupy the fourth position among the largest sources of
water on land, in the global water budget. An estimated quantity of
229,000 km3 is stored in the natural lakes. of this total quantity, stored
in the lakes, approximately 125,000 km3 volume of water is fresh in
nature and 104,000 km3 is stored in the form of salty water. 95 per
cent of the total salty lake water is present in the Caspian Sea alone.
f) Groundwater - Of the freshwater which is not frozen, almost all is
found below the surface as groundwater. Generally of high quality,
groundwater is being withdrawn mostly to supply drinking water and
support farming in dry climates. The resource is considered renewable
as long as groundwater is not withdrawn faster than nature can
replenish it, but in many dry regions the groundwater does not renew
itself or only very slowly. Few countries measure the quality of
groundwater or the rate at which it is being exploited. This makes it
difficult to manage. (Facts on Water Resources: A summary of the
United Nations World Water Development Report 2, 2016). It should
be noted that water stored in the sub-surface accounts for nearly 95 per
cent of the total fresh water present in the readily usable form, which
can be utilised for satisfying any human need just after being extracted
from its source.
Note: The average amount available per person varies from less than 50
m3 per year in parts of the Middle East to over 100 000 m3 per year in
humid and sparsely populated areas. (Facts on Water Resources: A
summary of the United Nations World Water Development Report 2,
2016).
3.8 EXERCISES
3.8.1 Fill Ups.
a) There are _____ main stages in the water cycle.
b) The process of conversion of water vapor back into water is called
_______.
c) The constructions which facilitate the storage, impoundment,
transmission and diversion of water are known as ______.
d) Saturated zone and unsaturated zone are a part of _____.
e) _____ is the largest source of fresh water on Earth.
79
Oceanography and Hydrology c) Lakes that receive water from different sources but lose it only
through the process of evaporation are:
i. Small Lakes
ii. Terminal Lakes
iii. Saline Lakes
iv. Shallow Lakes
d) Wetlands generally have saturated soils. This means that the soils
are covered with ample:
i. Water
ii. Trees
iii. Crops
iv. Silt and clay
e) 65 per cent of the total precipitation that falls on the global
landmasses is the result of:
i. Runoff
ii. Infiltration
iii. Evapotranspiration
iv. Interflow
3.8.4 Task
a) Discuss the hydrological cycle in detail with appropriate diagram
b) Human intervention is responsible for altering the water cycle. Justify.
c) Elaborate the concept of the water budget, highlighting its
components.
80
3.9 SUMMARY Ocean Currents and Resources
Water is regarded as the most essential resource for humans and all living
entities. Its importance has been underscored since the very beginning of
civilizations. Not only is it significant for maintaining life on Earth but it
is the fundamental contituent for regulating the temperature on our planet,
fuelling the hydrological cycle and sustaing the countries of the world.
The information presented in this fold will paly a role in generating a
better understanding of the worldwide water resources, water budget and
the water cycle. It is of particular relavance to realize the significance of
the water cycle as it forms the foundation of this fold. Every aspect of the
sub-heads covered here, are coherrently correlated with this cycle. The
storage and movement of water through the atmosphere, land and sub-
surface and the factors responsible for this movement throughout the
length and breadth of the Earth need to be studied with reference to the
continuous cyclic motion of water. These factors have been vividly
elaborated for the convenience of the readers. Furthermore, the global
water supply, fresh water resources and types as well as the mechanism of
world water balance hae been optimally explained.
3.10 REFERENCES
Facts, G. (2016). Facts on water resources. A summary of the United
Nations World Water Development Report 2.
Subramanya, K. (2013). Engineering hydrology, 4e. Tata McGraw-Hill
Education.
Healy, R. W., Winter, T. C., LaBaugh, J. W., & Franke, O. L.
(2007). Water budgets: foundations for effective water-resources and
environmental management (Vol. 1308). Reston, Virginia: US Geological
Survey.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/factors-that-influence-water-movement-
in-river-systems.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/factors-that-influence-groundwater-
movement.html
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=425
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4
WATERSHED ITS CHARACTERISTICS
AND EAPORATION PROCESS
After going through this chapter following aspects of watershed its
characteristics and evaporation process will help you to understand the
concept of watershed and get details information about various
physiographic agro – pedo and geological characteristics along with the
concept of evaporation.
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Topographic and effective watershed
4.2.1 Watershed delineation
4.3 Physiographic characteristics of watershed
4.3.1 Geometric & Drainage Network
4.3.2 Geomorphological characteristics
4.3.3 Watershed Orientation
4.4 Agro – Pedo – Geological Characteristics of Watershed.
4.5 Meteorological factors influencing evaporation physical factors
involved in evaporation process
4.6 Summery
4.1 OBJECTIVE
Watershed is an important concept in the study of hydrology. It is
necessary to understand difference in the topographical and effective
watershed. The study of watershed is useful in the field of agriculture
water supply, settlement etc.
The main objective of this topic is to understand the concept of watershed
and get details information about various physiographic agro – pedo and
geological characteristics along with the concept of evaporation.
82
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
83
Oceanography and Hydrology
Effective Watershed
Topographical watershed can be decided on the basis of elevations marked
on the topographical map. In this case we view watershed from the top
i.e., above earth’s surface but effective watershed can be identified on the
basis of underlying geological factors that divert the flow of water below
the earth’s surface. Hence the effective watershed is based on the
geological characteristics found in the region below the earth’s surface.
84
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
Water flows in the direction of slope & so even after percolating through
surface layers of soil, water can flow in the direction of slope formed due
to underlying geological structure.
If there is a impermeable layer of rock below the porous or permeable
rock, then the water cannot percolate through this impermeable layer of
rock and this underground water will flow in the direction of slope.
Hence the topographical and effective watershed may be different & the
effective watershed is more important & usefull is decided on the basis of
various factors like geological factors which decide the effective flow of
water.
The following diagram represents topographical and effective watersheds.
85
Oceanography and Hydrology Many underground streams are found in the karst region and hence this
difference between the topographic watershed and real watershed is more
common in these region.
The surface flow of water is affected by the construction of man – made
features like roads, real ways embankments, artificial takes etc. Hence it is
important to study watershed of any region before constructions of man-
made features.
86
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
87
Oceanography and Hydrology 4.3.2 Geomorphological characteristics :
a) Watershed surface :
A watershed is the area of reception of rainfall and of supplying the
watercourse.
The outlet flows depend on its surface. the surface of watershed can be
measured using a variety of methods
(1) by using a planimeter
(2) by superimposing grid over the watershed map.
(3) By using digitalizing methods.
Watershed shape :
The shape of a watershed influences the shape of its characteristics
hydrograph. e.g. a long shaped watershed generates lower outlet flow as
the concentration time is higher.
A watershed having a fan-shaped presents a lower concentration time & so
it generates higher flow.
Graveliu’s index is used for the analysis of a watershed according to its
shape.
P
KG
2 A
P
0.28
A
88
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
a) Hypsographical Curve :
Watershed Hypsographical curve gives a general idea of the watershed
relief. Attitude is taken along ‘y’ axis and surface area - cumulated surface
is represented along x axis in this curve.
89
Oceanography and Hydrology Hypsography curve in Watershed :
Hypsographical curve has practical utility in the comparison of different
watersheds or of different sections of watershed.
The hypsographic curve also helps to establish the average amount of
precipitation over the watershed and can give about its hydrographic
network.
D.L
ia
A
Topography :
Topography of the region has greater control on baseflow - both directly
and indirectly. The influence of topography is most pronounced in
relatively high relief region.
Exceptions exist in highly porous regions e.g. Volcanic or glacial terrain
or Karst region, where water can move more freely in the subsurface
region.
Topographic gradients control the rate at which soil water moves
downslope, which is either stored in the soil or joins stream channel.
90
Hyporheic Zone : Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
The hyporheic zone is the region of sediment and porous space beneath
and alongside a stream bed, where there is mixing of shallow groundwater
and surface water.
Base flow :
Base flow is the flow of water below Earth’s surface. It includes
groundwater hyporheic flows, drainage of near surface valley soils.
Factors that promote infiltration and recharge of subsurface soft storage
will increase baseflows, but factors associated with higher
evapotranspiration will reduce baseflow.
Hydrography :
The hydrographic network is defined as the sum of all the water courses,
natural or artificial permanent or temporary, which contribute to the
runoff.
The characteristics of hydrographic network of watershed is influenced by
four main factors.
1) Geology
2) Climate
91
Oceanography and Hydrology 3) Relief
4) Environment
The hydrographic network is one of the most important characteristics of a
watershed.
92
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
H
Si
L
Soil Types -
Generally soils can be subdivided into three main groups.
A) Zonal Soils
B) Intrazonal Soils
C) Azonal Soils
93
Oceanography and Hydrology
A) Zonal Soils –
This type of Soils are formed under conditions of goods soil drainage
trough the prolonged action of climate and vegetation. These are most
important and wind-spread type of soil.
Distinctive soil profile is found in the zonal soils.
Examples of zonal soils.
1) Podzol soils - Hight coloured podzol soils & forested region.
2) Lateritic soils – Lateritic soils of warm moist subtropical, tropical and
equatorial regions .
(a) Reddish brown lateritic soils.
(b) Black and drak-gray tropical soils.
3) Soils of the forest-grassland transition- Degraded chernozem soils.
4) Dark coloured soils of the semi-arid and Humid grasslands –
Prairie Soils
Chernozem soils
Chestnut soils
Reddish brown soils
94
Azonal soils do not have well developed profiles, either because Watershed its Characteristics
they have insufficient time to develop or because they are on and Eaporation Process
slopes too steep to allow profile development.
Azonal soils include thin stony mountain soils (lithosols)
Freshly laid alluvial materials or sand dunes (Regosols)
95
Oceanography and Hydrology Vegetation Cover
The type and density of vegetal covering directly determines the quantity
of water intercepted and retained by the soil e.g. the forest retains a
certain part of the precipitation by the tree canopy.
Vegetation regularizes the runoff in normal climatic conditions. During
flood & droughts (extreme conditions) its action is relatively reduced.
The absence of vegetation cover reduces water retention capacity of the
soil. In this case runoff is very rapid & it also erodes river beds.
Deforestation
Forests and dense vegetation which covers the soil help to obstruct and
reduce the velocity of raindrops. Hence the physical impact of raindrop
coming to the earth’s surface with high velocity is reduced. Soil is also
protected from erosion. Forests & vegetation help rainwater to percolate
more and so it increases the ground water recharge and has an impact on
watershed.
96
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
All these factors are responsible for reduction in the base flow of
underground water and has an adverse impact on watershed in the region.
Agriculture
Agriculture can have positive or negative response to the underground
storage & baseflow of water depending on the management practices. If
the crops are irrigated from surface water resources linked to stream
network increased evapotranspiration may reduce baseflow of water.
However increases in baseflow may occur if irrigation water is drawn
from disconnected storage resources or front outside the drainage basin.
Varied management practices of agriculture are associated with a wide
range of soil impacts. e.g. conventional tillage practices to no till and
conservation tillage, differing temporal pattern to intensive cropping i.e.
perennial versus seasonal cultivation and whether or not crop residue or
other soil cover are used during the follow season.
Urbanization
With increase in the standard of living urban development is very rapid all
over the world. Urbanization is responsible for removal of forest &
vegetation in that region. It leads to.
1) Development of impervious surface
2) Compaction of soil
3) Channelization of water & sub-surface storm drainage network.
97
Oceanography and Hydrology Hence water from urban area is quickly flushed throughout due to reduced
hydraulic resistances of land surface. Road network, rooftops, buildings
and other land uses in the urban areas increase impervious surface and
obstruct percolation of water.
In most of the urban areas water is redistributed to accommodate human
activities and prevent flood damage. Water is routed through surface and
subsurface via storm drains, ditching, water mains, waste water, sewers,
and other means altering the rates and paths of water transmission through
urban basin.
GEOLOGY
Geology of the catchment area plays an important role in the percolation
of water, storage etc. Percolation of water is more in the regions having
highly fractured pervious rocks, porous rack, permeable rocks.
On the other hand, in the areas of massive crystalline rocks bedrocks, with
of minor fractures the surface runoff of water is more and percolation is
less.
98
Geological structure is also of great importance in the percolation of water Watershed its Characteristics
& its contribution to the watershed. and Eaporation Process
a) Folding - Smith (1981) showed that low flows in shale and sandstones
in
Virginia are related to the degree of bedrock folding.
In the region having more of folds.
b) Bedrock -Fractures
Fractures is the bedrock easily transmit Water in deep subsurface
storage.
c) Solution cavities
In the karst topography limestone and dolomite dissolved in the weak
carbonic combination of rainwater sand carbon dioxide Hence cavities
formed in limestone & dolomite have high storage capacity of
groundwater.
d) Porous Rocks –
Porous rocks like limestone have impact on baseflow losses.
f) Weathered material –
Weathered material accumulated on the surface can hold water and
serve as base flow reserves
g) Lateral drainage-
Large quantities of baseflow may also originate from the near surface
valley bottom storage such as alluvial depositions bank soil and
wetlands.
99
Oceanography and Hydrology
Water is the magical liquid found on the Earth. It is available in all three
stages solid (ICE / Snow) liquid (water) and Gas (water vapour)
Conversion of water from one stage to another requires Latent heat.
Following diagram represents various stages of water and latent heat.
2) Temperature :
Evaporation is directly proportional to the temperature. Evaporation
process becomes more rapid with increase in temperature.
EvaporationTemperature
101
Oceanography and Hydrology With increase in temperature, the capacity of the air to hold moisture also
increases.
A.H .
Relative Humidity 100
S .H
A.H. = Actual amount of water - Vapour present in the air.
S.H. = Saturation Humidity - The Amount of water vapour that the air can
hold at the given temperature.
102
Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
On the other hand during monsoon season R.H. is about 90%. So, air can
accommodate only 10% more water vapour, So the rate of evaporation is
very slow during this season.
When we switch on fan in the month of May when air is dry, we get
instant relief as the perspiration / sweat on our body evaporates quickly, so
we feel cool.
On the other hand during rainy season air is saturated & so even we switch
on fan, we do not get instant or sufficient relief. As the rate of evaporation
is slow the sweat on our body is not quickly evaporated & so we feel
sultry and uneasy.
Hence Evaporation is inversely proportional to the Relative Humidity.
a) When R.H. is less evaporation is more.
b) When R.H. is more evaporation is less.
4) Wind Speed :
Evaporation process is directly related to wind speed.
When wind speed is less, evaporation is very slow.
When wind speed is more, evaporation is very rapid.
When wind is light a thin layer of air just above the surface gets nearly
saturated in this situation the difference between the vapour pressure
between ground and air is very small.
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Oceanography and Hydrology
When the wind velocity is high, turbulence is set up in the air, Moisture
evaporated from the ground is mixed upward and so the vapour pressure
difference between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere remains large.
Hence the rate of evaporation is accelerated.
The rate of evaporation is exceptionally high when there is a combination
of following three factors.
1) High Temperature
2) Very low Relative Humidity (R.H. = 10%)
3) Strong wind
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5) Area of evaporating surface : Watershed its Characteristics
and Eaporation Process
If the area of evaporating surface is less, the rate of evaporation is also
less.
On the other hand if the area of evaporating surface is more or large then
the rate of evaporation is also more evaporation and area of surface.
6) Air pressure :
Evaporation process is related to the atmospheric pressure, exerted on the
evaporating surface.
Rate of evaporation is faster when the air pressure is low.
7) Composition of water :
Rate of evaporation is rapid or faster for fresh water than the saline.
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Oceanography and Hydrology Evaporation is inversely proportional to the salinity Higher salinity
reduces the rate of evaporation. Hence the ocean water (which is saline)
evaporates about 5% slower than the fresh water.
Potential Evapotranspiration:
Potential Evapotranspiration, this term is a combination of 3 words.
a) Potential - Maximum possible.
b) Evapo - Evaporation
c) Transpiration - from plants & biotic elements.
Potential evapotranspiration refers to the ideal conditions in which there
would be enough rainfall to provide sufficient moisture for all possible
evapotranspiration in an area.
Following factors are taken into consideration to determine potential
evapotranspiration for any place or area.
1) Latitude
2) Temperature
3) Vegetation
4) Permeability of soil / rock
5) Water retention capacity of soil.
Surplus water is available in areas which have surplus of precipitation than
the evapotranspiration.
The surplus water is stored underground and can be used for canal
irrigation or other types of irrigation.
In the areas of water deficit - where evapotranspiration is in excess of
precipitation no water is available for storage. Even if certain amount of
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water is stored during the rainy season it is quickly evaporated due to dry Watershed its Characteristics
and warm air so the soils become dry and vegetation is adversely affected. and Eaporation Process
4.6 SUMMERY
We got clear idea about the concept of watershed and difference between
topographical watershed and effective watershed in first fold of this topic.
We studied physiographic characteristics of watershed in the second topic.
In third topic we understood various factors related to soil and geology
which influence functioning of watershed. Last topic deals with concept of
evaporation, evapotranspiration and various factors affecting the process
of evaporation understanding of the science based concept has become
easy with the help of many diagrams include along with the text matter.
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