Module-1 Steam Generators

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Module-1
STEAM GENERATORS Coal and ash handling, Generation of steam using forced circulation,
high and supercritical pressures, LaMount, Benson, Velox, Loeffer, Schmidt steam generators,
Cooling towers and Ponds, Accessories such as Superheaters, De-superheater, Economizers, Air
preheaters.
1.6 COAL HANDLING

Coal handling refers to the process of conveying the coal from the point of unloading to
the place of use. It is carried out by several means depending upon the requirements of the
power plant.
1.6.1 Equipment for Coal Handling

The important equipment used for transporting the coal is in a power plant is as follows:
1) Belt conveyors
2) Screw conveyors
3) Bucket elevators
4) Grab Bucket elevators
1) Belt Conveyor
It is basically an endless moving belt over which the coal is moved. The belt is connected to
a pair of drums at the ends, and supported at the upper portion by a series of rollers (idlers) at
regular intervals, as illustrated in Fig. 1-20. The belt is usually made of strong and flexible
materials such as rubber or canvas.
Belt conveyors are useful for transportation of large quantity of coal over long distances in power
plants. The belt is inclined at about 15-20 degrees from the charge end to the Discharge end. The
average speed of belt conveyors is in the range of 50 to 100 m/minute.
Fig. 1-20. Belt Conveyor
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Advantages
1) It is simple in construction and operation.
2) The operation is smooth and clean.
3) It requires less power compared to other systems.
4) Large quantities of coal can be conveyed quickly and continuously.
5) It is comparatively cheaper in maintenance and operation.
2) Screw Conveyors
The construction of a simple screw conveyor is illustrated in Fig. 1-21. It consists of an endless
helical screw around a shaft. It is supported on two bearings and one side of the shaft is coupled
with a driving motor. The screw is covered with a cylindrical trough. Coal is transported along
the helical screw as it rotates in the trough. The diameter of the screw is about 200 mm and it
runs at about 100 rpm. A screw conveyor is most suitable for medium scale coal transportation
(about 100 to 125 tonnes/hour).
Fig. 1-21. Screw Conveyors

Advantages
1) It is relatively inexpensive.
2) It requires minimum space for operation.
3) It is very simple and compact.
4) It can be made dust-tight.
Disadvantages
1) Power consumption is comparatively high.
2) It is suitable for only short distance transportation (around 20 to 30 m).
3) Wear and tear of the parts is more.
3) Bucket Elevators

This type of conveyer is used for moving the coal vertically up. It consists of a number of
buckets fixed on to a chain moving over two sprockets, as shown in Fig. 1-22. In this, coal is
picked up by the up-moving buckets from the bottom part of the conveyer. The coal form the
buckets id discharged at the top due to centrifugal force as the buckets change the direction.
Usually such conveyors can transport coal to height of up to 30 m.
Fig. 1-22. Bucket Elevators Fig. 1-23. Grab Bucket Elevator
4) Grab Bucket Elevator

The construction of a grab bucket elevator is illustrated in Fig. 1-23. It consists of a crane which
can lift the coal and move circumferencially in a given location. This system is most suitable for
handling coal at the coal stoke yard. It is used to load coal from the yard to the wagon tippler,
which then moves inside the plant.
This elevator has the unique advantage of operating as a crane as well as moving
in all directions. This helps in lifting the coal, using the grab bucket from the yard, change its
direction, move to the required distance and unload it onto the wagon tippler. The grab bucket
with bottom closed condition picks up the coal from the heap and when moved to the wagon
opens its split opening bottom, thereby dumping the coal onto the wagon.
1.6.2 Flow of Coal in Power Plants
The flow of coal in a power plant takes place in the following sequences:
1) Storage yard to wagon tippler using grab bucket elevator.
2) Wagon tippler to belt conveyor.
3) Belt conveyor to crusher / separator.
4) Separator to belt conveyor to bucket elevator.
5) Bucket elevator to pulveriser.
6) Pulveriser to bin to furnace.
Fig. 1-24 shows the line diagram of the coal flow sequences.

1) The raw coal from the storage yard is lifted and loaded to the wagon tippler using a grab
bucket elevator. Grab bucket elevator is convenient to load coal as it operates like a crane and
moves as well in all directions.
2) The wagon tippler moves on rails from the storage yard to the belt conveyor and the coal is
unloaded by tilting the wagon tippler by a tilting mechanism.
Fig. 1-24.Coal in Power Plants

3)The belt conveyor carries the raw coal to a size crusher where the coal is crushed to 50
mm size and passes to a vibration separator. Oversized pieces from the separator arc
lifted and transported back to the crusher using a bucket elevator.
4) The sized coal then moves on to another belt conveyor and lifted up by another bucket
elevator (if necessary) to the hopper of the pulverising mill.
5)The coal is then powdered in the pulverising mill, where hot air is passed to remove the
moisture from the coal and for easy powdering action. The powdered coal is sucked by an
induced draft fan and passed through the cyclone separator, and the fuel is stored in a bin.
Over sized coal from the cyclone separator falls back to the pulverising mill.
6)The fuel from the storage bin is then fed through the pulverised fuel feeder by a forced
draft fan to the burner mounted in the furnace walls as shown in figure.
1.7 ASH HANDLING
Coal based steam power plants produce a large quantity of ash. The amount of ash
produced is about 20 to 30% of the coal burnt. Ash handling in power plants is a major problem
since the ash taken out from the furnace is hot, dusty, messy to handle and comes out with some
gases that are hazardous to health.
Generally, before handling the ash from the furnace, first it is quenched in water for the
following reasons:

1) Water quenching reduces the temperature of ash, hence can be handled easily.
2) It dilutes the ash, thus reducing its corrosive characteristics.
3) Large lumps of ash clinkers get disintegrated after quenching, thus making it easier to
handle.
4) On quenching, the dust particles and some hazardous gases in the ash get dissolved in
water, and reduce the pollution problems.
Requirements of Ash Handling Equipments
1) Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges should be low.

2) It should be able to handle large quantities of ash.
3) It should be capable of handling clinkers, soot, and dust smoothly.
4) It should operate with minimum noise.
5) It should be capable of handling ashes with different chemical compositions since
varieties of fuels can be used. ,
6) It should handle effectively both hot and wet ashes.
7) It should be corrosion and wear resistant.
8)It should have high ash handling rate to deal with sudden change in boiler operating
conditions.
Types of Ash Handling Systems

There are four types of ash handling systems:
1) Mechanical handling system
2) Hydraulic handling system
3) Pneumatic handling system
4) Steam jet handling system
1) Mechanical Ash handling system
Mechanical ash handling system is suitable for small and medium capacity power
plants. Fig. 1-25 illustrates the schematic arrangement of a typical mechanical ash handling
system. It is a conveyor based ash handling system.
In this, the hot ash from the furnaces is dumped to a water trough, where it gets
quenched. The quenched ash is then discharged over to a belt conveyor. The cooled ash is
then conveyed by the belt to a distant dumping site, from where it is collected in bunkers and
transported by means of trucks for further disposal.

Fig. 1-25. Mechanical Ash handling system

The life of a mechanical ash handling system is about 5 to 10 years. The average ash handling
capacity of such a system is about 5 tonnes/hour. The main advantages of this system are
simple construction, ease of operation, low power consumption, and continuous ash handling.
2) Hydraulic Ash handling system
In this system, ash is carried by a high velocity stream of water through a channel, and
dumped to the ash sump. There are two categories in this - low velocity and high velocity
systems.
(a) Low Velocity System in this system

(Fig. 1-26a), the hot ash from the furnaces is discharged into a flowing water channel. The
water flows at a low velocity (3-5 m/sec) and carries the ash along with it. At the sump ash is
separated from the water and the water is reused. The typical ash carrying capacity of this
system is about 50 tonnes/hour and can carry ashes up to a distance of about 1 km.
(b) High Velocity System
Fig. 1-26b shows the schematic arrangement of a high velocity hydraulic ash handling system.
In this, the hot ash from the furnace is quenched by a set of water jets. Another set of nozzles
at the lower portion of the system, give out high velocity water jets, which provide the driving
force to carry the ash to sump. The cooled ash with high velocity water is carried to the sump,
where water and ash are separated. The typical ash handling capacity of such a system is
about 100 tonnes/hour and distances up to 2 km can be easily covered. Troughs and sumps for
this system are constructed using corrosion resistant materials, since the ash is highly
corrosive.

Fig. 1-26. Hydraulic Ash handling system
Advantages
1) It is a clean and dust free system.
2) Since it is fully covered, it does not pose any health hazards problems.
3) It can carry higher quantity of ash and hence suitable for large capacity power plants.
4) It can carry ashes to higher distances (2 km) at faster rates.
5) Molten ash can also be handled safely and easily.
3) Pneumatic Ash handling System
Fig. 1-27 shows the schematic arrangement of a pneumatic ash handling system. In this system,
ash from the furnace in lumped form is crushed in crushers to to particles/ powder, so that it can
be handled easily by pneumatic means. This powdered ash and dust are picked up by a high
velocity stream of air created by an exhauster (ID fan) at the discharge end. This ash is separated

from the air in the primary and secondary cyclone separators and collected in the hopper. The air
is exhausted to atmosphere after passing through the filter. The collected ash is conveyed through
trucks to the dumping yard.
Fig. 1-27. Pneumatic Ash handling System

The exhauster used may be an induced draft fan, steam jet or water-jet type. If an induced draft
fan is used, suitable air filter or air-washers are necessary for cleaning the before being released
to the atmosphere. The ash carrying capacity of a pneumatic. system is about 10 to 30
tonnes/hours. This system is suitable for handling abrasive ash, as well as fine dusty materials
such as fly-ash and soot.
Difficulties in the Design & Operation
Though the pneumatic ash handling system is a very convenient means of ash
handling, there are number of difficulties that are encountered in its design and operation.
The main problems associated with this system are:
1) Hot ash handling: The hot ash from the furnace is directly sent to crushers. The design
has to cater for handling hot ash as it is highly corrosive in nature, and creates lot of
wear and tear of the pipe lines/conveyers and crushing equipment.
2) Maintenance: The hot and corrosive ash causes frequent damages to the pipe lines/
conveyers and crushing equipment. This leads to higher maintenance time (down time),
labour and expenses.

3) Noise : The equipment has crushers, cyclone air cleaners and the powerful ID fan, The
simultaneous and continuous operation of all these led to high noise pollution,
4) Power consumption and High investment : This system has equipment such has
crushers, cyclone air cleaners and the powerful ID fan, which make the system very
expensive. Also, the power consumed is very high, which reduces the plant efficiency.
5) Plant capacity: Because of the crushing and cyclone separator functions associated in
ash handling, such a system is suitable only for small capacity operations.
Advantages
1)It can conveniently handle both fly ash and soot.
2)Ash is handled in dry state and hence there are no chances of sticking or choking in any
part of the system.
3)The system is highly flexible.
4)Conveyor pipe line requires less space
5)It is an economical system and the cost per tonne of ash
discharged is low.
Disadvantages
1) It makes more noise than other systems.
2) The wear and tear of pipe line is more as dry ash comes in direct contact, and hence
maintenance charges are more.
3) This is suitable only for small capacity plants.
4) Steam Jet System
In this system, steam under high pressure carries the ashes through a pipe line, under high
velocity. The ash is deposited in the hopper at the other side of the pipe line. This is notused
widely as the pipe wear in more, noise is heavy and also the capacity of ash discharge is very
low (about 15 T/h).

In a steam power plant, generation of high pressure steam is the most important activity.
High pressure steam is used to run the turbines, which in turn drive the electric generators to
produce electric power. The steam generation is done in high pressure boilers by burning fuels
(mainly coal in lump form or pulverised form). For effective steam generation, along with the
boilers the plant is supported with draught (chimney) system, coolindtowers, and various
accessories such as superheaters, de-superheater, economizers, air preheaters and re-heaters.
The steam generation system and the associated equipment and accessories are discussed
briefly here.
2.2 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

High pressure boilers are used in thermal power plants to fulfill the requirements of high
pressure steam to run steam turbines/generators and produce electric power. As the name
indicates these are capable of rising steam to a high pressure and temperature up to 250 bars and
at 550°C as against 30 bar and about 400°C by the conventional boilers. High pressure boilers
facilitate the use of low grade fuels and economical de 2icient boiler construction. Thus high
pressure boilers yield higher thermal efficiency. Usually high pressure boilers are water tube
types; the boiler walls are used as the heat exchangers, and use pulverized coal for steam
generation.
2.2.1 Features of High Pressure Boilers

The important features of high pressure boilers are as follows:
1) Forced circulation of water: Since the inside pressure of high-pressure boilers is very high,
natural water circulation is not possible. Hence water pumps are used to maintain forced
circulation of feed water through the boiler tubes. Forced circulation facilitates: (a) positive
circulation of water, (b) increased rate of heat transfer, (c) the use of smaller boiler drum/ or less
number of steam drums, in case multiple drum are used.
2) Use of smaller diameter tubes: High pressure Boilers are equipped with large number of
smaller diameter tubes, because of which the surface area exposed to the flue gases is more. This
helps in: (a) more effective use of the fuel, (b) reduced pressure loss, and (c) control of quality of
steam produced.
3) Pressurized combustion: In high-pressure boilers, the required air for combustion is generally
supplied by the blowers. Because of this low grade fuels can be burnt more efficiently. This also
increases the rate of firing of fuels and hence the rate of heat transfers.
4) Space area: Since high-pressure boilers are more compact, they require lesser floor area for
their location per unit quantity of steam generated.
5) Power output: As these boilers generate high pressure and high temperature steam (250 bars,
550°C), it leads to higher output of the plants.

Advantages of High Pressure Boilers

1) Low grade fuels can be successfully burnt because of pressurized combustion.
2) The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to the high velocity of water through the
tubes.
3) They require lesser floor area and adopt economical constructions. Hence they are economical
for higher plant outputs.
4) As all parts are uniformly heated, there is no risk of overheating & thermal stresses.
5) Because of forced circulation of water the components can be laid horizontally since there is
no need for natural circulation.
6) Steam can be raised at a faster rate to meet the varying load demands.
7) These boilers can start quickly and generate steam from cold.
8) Boiler operation can be mechanized.
Demerits of High Pressure Boilers
1) Since they work under high pressure and temperature, chances of explosion are more, and it
necessitates the use of high quality materials for construction.
2) Accessories like blowers, feed water pumps, water circulating pumps etc., are essential and
this increases the initial investment of the power plant.
3) Since a large number of accessories are essential for the safe and continuous operation of the
boiler, the cost of maintenance is very high.
4) Expert and skilled personnel are required to operate the high pressure boilers.
5) The number of working parts is more, which leads to a higher erection time.
2.2.2 Natural and Forced Circulation
In a good boiler design, proper circulation of water is essential to generate steam. The water is
required to be circulated from the boiler drum through the water tubes for heat
absorption/generation of steam and back to the drum. This circulation can be achieved by two
means: natural circulation and forced circulation. Natural circulation of water takes place due to
difference in densities of cold water and hot water. In this type of circulation, saturated water
comes down the boiler drum by gravity through the downcomer tube, and reaches the bottom
header of the water tubes (see Fig. 2-1). The water from the bottom header rises up through the
riser tubes. As the heat is absorbed by the riser tube, the water partially boils with the formation
of bubbles/steam and then flows back to the boiler drum. The density of the steam water mixture
in the riser tube is lower than the density of the saturated water in the downcomer. This
difference in density sets up circulation current from the downcomer to the riser to the drum. As

the steam formation takes place, the water loss is compensated by the continuous supply of feed
water to the drum, and the wet steam from the boiler drum is taken through the superheater and
finally for use in the turbine.
Fig.2-1.Natural circulation Fig.2-1. Critical Circulation

The difference in density of the saturated liquid and the saturated vapour decreases with increase
in the boiler pressure. This difference in density becomes zero when the steam pressure reaches a
critical value pc (Fig. 2-2).
Hence, at this critical pressure (180 bar) the natural circulation of water completely stops.
In such situations the water has to be subjected to forced circulation. For this purpose a
circulation pump is used in the downcomer line (see Fig. 2-3). The flow rate of the saturated
water in the downcomer and the flow rate of steam from the boiler drum are related by the term
circulation ratio. It is given by the relation,
The circulation ratio should be kept between 6 and 25.

Fig.2-3. Forced Circulation

2.2.3 Types of High Pressure Boilers
The different types of high pressure boilers are:
1. La Mont Boiler
2. Loeffler Boiler
3. Benson Boiler
4. Velox Boiler 5
5. Schmidt Hartmann Boiler
1. Lo Mont Boiler
This boiler is designed to generate about 50 tonnes of superheated steam up to a pressure of 150
bar and 500°C. Fig. 2-4 shows the schematic diagram of a La Mont boiler, illustrating the flow of
water, steam and flues.

Fig.2-4. Lo Mont Boiler

The feed water from the hot water sump is supplied to the boiler drum, at a high pressure
(about 2.5 bar higher than the boiler pressure). The water is passed through the economiser to
improve the thermal efficiency, by utilizing the waste flues. Forced circulation of the water is
maintained by the circulating pump from the boiler drum through the evaporator tubes, and back
to the drum. The pumped water is distributed by a distribution header to a set of nozzles into the
radiant evaporator, which then flows to the convective evaporator. The amount of water
circulated by this pump is about 10 times of evaporation taking place in the evaporators. This
prevents the over heating of the evaporator tubes. The wet steam generated in the evaporators is
collected in the boiler drum. The dry steam is separated in the boiler drum, which then passes
through a superheater to obtain the superheated steam, and finally to the steam turbine.
2. Loeffler Boiler
One of the main problems in the La Mont boiler is the salt deposition on the inner surface
of the water tubes. The salt deposited not only reduces the heat transfer efficiency, but also
increases the danger of overheating of the tubes. This problem was over come in the Loeffler
boiler design. This boiler can raise about 100 tonnes of steam per hour and up to a pressure of
140 bar.
Fig. 2-5 illustrates the schematic diagram and working principle of a Loeffler boiler. The
steam drum of this boiler is located away from the furnace. The feed water is pumped to the
boiler drum through the economizer. The drum is also connected to the super heated steam line
which converts the pumped water in the drum into saturated steam. This saturated steam is
circulated by a pump to the radiant and convective superheaters. This steam flows to the prime
movers and a part of this is used in the drum for evaporating the water in it.

Fig.2-5. Loeffler Boiler

3. Benson Boiler (Once Through Boiler)
Benson boiler is another innovative design that eliminated the salt and water bubble
formation in the evaporator tubes in the La Mont boiler. The specialty of this boiler is that there
is no boiler drum. This boiler is also known as Once through boiler, since the feed water is
converted directly into superheated steam through the pipe lines and evaporators without being
stored in drums. This boiler can work with a capacity of 150 tonnes per hour, up to a pressure of
500 bar and a temperature of 650°C. Fig. 2-6 illustrates the schematic arrangement of a Benson
boiler.
Fig.2-6. Benson Boiler

The special feature of this type of boiler is that there is no steam drum in it. The feed water is
pumped to the economizer, which flows through the radiant evaporator tubes and is evaporated
partially. The wet steam generated then passes through the convective intermediate evaporator
where it is converted into saturated high pressure steam (225 bar). This steam finally passes
through the superheater and to the steam turbine.
Merits of Benson Boiler
1) The total boiler cost and weight is less as there is no steam drum.
2) A Benson boiler occupies lesser space area.
3) In this boiler, parts are less and all the joints are welded, hence erection is faster.
4) As this boiler works at a high pressure of 250 bar there is no danger of bubble formation even
when sudden fall of demand occurs.
5) Possibility of explosion does not raise as there is no boiler drum.
6) Benson boiler can be started very quickly from cold.
Demerits of Benson Boiler
1) It has low steam capacity and hence not suitable for high power outputs.
2) There are possibilities of overheating of economizer, evaporator and superheater, in cases of
feed water pump problems in running conditions.
3) It cannot meet sudden raise in demands.
4. Velox Boiler
This boiler design makes use of pressurised combustion, to achieve a higher rate of heat transfer
from a smaller surface area. Fig. 2-7 illustrates the schematic arrangement and working principle
of a Velox boiler. The special feature of this boiler is that the flue gases are expanded in a gas
turbine before being discharged to the atmosphere, which runs an axial flow compressor. The
axial flow compressor is used to pressurize the atmospheric air to the operating furnace pressure
to facilitate pressurized combustion. The compressor is driven by the gas turbine with reduction
gears (as the turbine speed is very high). This system thus makes efficient use of the fuel in a
smaller area for heat transfer.
In the steam line, the feed water from the economizer passes through a steam separating
unit. The steam is separated due to the centrifugal effect of the water entering through the spiral
flow arrangement. The separated water is then fed to the evaporator by a water circulating pump.
The steam separated in the separator as well as the steam from the evaporator together enters the
superheater. This superheated steam finally passes to the prime mover for operation.

Fig. 2-7. Velox Boiler

Advantages of Velox Boiler
1) Due to pressurised combustion, very high combustion rates are acieved.
2) Due to pressurised combustion, less draft is required.
3) It can raise high rate of steam per unit volume of boiler.
4) It can be quickly started.
5) It is very compact system with high flexibility.
5. Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler
This boiler makes use of two steam pressure circuits to raise the steam. A closed primary steam
circuit is used to evaporate the water in the secondary circuit and the steam produced in the
secondary circuit is used for running the prime mover. Fig. 2-8 illustrates the schematic
arrangement of a Schmidt-Hartmann boiler.

Fig. 2-8. Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler

The closed primary circuit uses distilled water and the steam is raised at a pressure of
about 100 bar. This steam is used to generate steam in the secondary or main evaporator. This is
achieved by the submerged heating coils in the evaporator of the primary circuit. Then the
condensate of this circuit is used to preheat the feed water of the secondary circuit, and finally
flows back to the primary evaporator. The primary circuit also includes a steam separator and a
non-return valve as shown in figure. The preheated feed water in the secondary circuit then
passes to the main evaporator and the generated steam at about 60 bar is superheated in the
superheater and finally passed to the prime mover. The flow in the primary circuit, however,
takes place due to the natural circulation.

2.5 COOLING TOWERS AND PONDS

Cooling water is essential in a steam power plant to condense the steam from the steam
turbines. The quantity of cooling water required is so high that it cannot be let out after use. A
100 MW plant needs about 10,000 tonnes of cooling water per day. This necessitates the need for
recirculation of the cooling water. The used water absorbs heat from the condenser and cannot be
recirculated unless cooled to a minimum temperature. This function of cooling is achieved by a
structure termed Cooling Tower. There are two types of cooling towers -wet and dry type. In wet
cooling towers, the turbine exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser where the heat is
transferred to cooling water medium. This hot water is cooled in cooling towers. Wet cooling
tower is a large, tall structure from the top of which the hot water from the condenser is allowed
to fall. The falling water comes in contact with air entering from bottom and gets cooled.
In the dry cooling towers, either the turbine exhaust steam is directly condensed in the cooling
tower, or hot from the condenser is cooled in the tower. Such cooling towers are used in plants
where sufficient cooling water is available.
cooling towers are built with either wood, steel or concrete. For large power plants,
generally concrete structure of hyperbolic shape are used. Because these provide efficient have
high cooling capacities. The cooling towers can be either wet or dry type, are classified based on
the type of air draught used to cool the water. The different types of cooling towers used in
power plants are:
1. Wet type
a) Natural draught cooling tower
b) Forced draught cooling tower
c) Induced draught cooling tower
2. Dry type
a) Direct type
b) Indirect type
2.5.1 Natural Draught Cooling Tower - Wet type
This is a wet type of cooling tower, and is generally used in large capacity power plants. It
consists of a huge hyperbolic concrete structure, with openings at the bottom as shown in Fig.
2-21.

Fig. 2-21. Natural draught cooling tower

At the lowest portion of the structure a water pond is constructed for the collection of the
cooling water. In operation, the cooling water from the condenser is pumped to the top of the
cooling tower. The water is sprayed from the top, and falls down as sprinkles. Because of the
height, natural draught is created and the air rises from the bottom. The falling water comes in
contact with the rising air and gets cooled. The cooled water is collected in the pond and pumped
back to the condenser. Make up water is added to the pond periodically. The height of the
cooling tower ranges from 50 m to 80 m, with base diameter up to 40 m.
2.5.2 Forced Draught Cooling Tower - Wet type
Forced draught cooling towers are smaller in size and are used in small capacity power
plants. Since the height of the cooling tower is smaller and it has a rectangular section, the
natural draught created very low. Hence, to create a draught, a forced draught a fan is provided at
the bottom of the tower as shown in Fig. 2-22.
The cooling tower is a rectangular section having baffles / obstruction at the centre. A
forced draught fan is provided at the bottom, and it pressurises the air. The hot water from the
condenser is sprayed from the top and while falling through the baffles/obstacles it comes in
contact with the raising forced draught air and gets cooled. The cooled water is collected in the
pond and recirculated. Make up water is added to the pond periodically.

Fig. 2-22. Forced draught cooling tower

2.5.3 Induced Draught Cooling Tower - Wet type
This is similar in construction and operation to a forced draught cooling tower, except for
the induced draught fan. This is suitable for small capacity power plants. Fig. 2-23 shows the
schematic diagram of a induced draught cooling tower.
Fig. 2-23. Induced Draught Cooling Tower - Wet type

It has a rectangular section with opening at the bottom for the air entry. In operation the induced
draught fan sucks air through the baffles and the openings at the bottom. Hot water pumped from
the condenser is sprayed at the top. The falling water comes in contact raising air and gets

cooled. The cooled water is collected in the pond and condenser. Make up water is added
periodically to the pond.
2.5.4 Direct Cooling Tower - Dry type
In this cooling system, there is no water cooled condenser to condense the turbine
exhaust steam. Instead, the exhaust steam is condensed directly in the cooling tower using an FD
fan. A typical arrangement of this cooling tower is shown in Fig. 2-24.
Fig. 2-24. Direct Cooling Tower - Dry type

In this, the exhaust steam is collected in a large steam header at the top. A number of
steel tubes are connected to the steam header, through which the steam is passed to the
condensate header at the bottom. The steam tubes are provided with external fins, so as to
increase the heat transfer rate and hence condense the steam in the tubes. The cooling air to the
finned tubes is supplied by a FD fan as shown in figure. The steam condenses as water in the
condensate headers, and is collected in a condensate tank. From the tank the water is pumped to
the feed water line.
2.5.5 Indirect Dry Cooling Tower
There are three types of indirect dry cooling towers.
a) Indirect dry cooling tower with a conventional surface condenser
This cooling tower uses two heat exchangers in series. The first one is the conventional surface
condenser, where the turbine exhaust steam is condensed using cooling water as the coolant. The
condensate is used as feed water. The second heat exchanger is the hot water to air heat
exchanger, in which the hot water from the surface condenser is cooled with the help of finned
tubing similar to the dry cooling tower concept. The schematic arrangement of this type of
cooling tower, and the corresponding temperature path lengths are shown in Fig. 2-25 & Fig.
2-26.

Fig. 2-25. Indirect dry cooling tower with surface condenser

The steam at temperature Ts from the turbine is first condensed in the surface condenser.
At this heat exchanger by absorbing heat from steam, the water temperature raises from T1 to T2.
The hot water is (at 1.2) then passed through a series of steel tubes in the dry cooling tower. The
steel tubings are provided with external fins, so as to increase the heat transfer rate and hence
cool the hot water in the tubes. The cooling is assisted in the tower with the help of two ID fans
(or a large hyperbolic natural draught tower can also be used, depending upon the cooling
requirements). At this cooling tower, the water temperature drops from T2 to T1. Since the heat is
absorbed by the cooling air, the air gains temperature from T3 to T4. These temperature path
lengths at the condenser and the cooling tower are shown in Fig. 2-26.
ID fans (or a large hyperbolic natural draught tower can also be used, depending upon the
cooling requirements). At this cooling tower, the water temperature drops from T2 to T1. Since
the heat is absorbed by the cooling air, the air gains temperature from T3 to T4. These
temperature path lengths at the condenser and the cooling tower are shown in Fig. 2-26.
Another variant of this cooling tower uses ammonia as the coolant in the surface condenser to
condense the steam. After absorbing heat from steam, the ammonia evaporates, which is then
cooled / condensed in the cooling tower. The condensed ammonia is recirculated to the steam
condenser.

Fig. 2-26. Temperature-path length in indirect dry cooling tower with surface condenser
b) Indirect dry cooling tower with a open type condenser
The construction and operation of this cooling tower is same as the dry indirect cooling
tower with surface condenser, except that it uses a open spray type condenser instead of the
surface condenser. Thus this cooling tower also uses two heat exchangers in series. The first one
is a direct contact spray type steam condenser, where the turbine exhaust steam is condensed
using cooling water. The second heat exchanger is indirect type, the hot water to air heat
exchanger, in which the hot water from the condenser is cooled with the help of finned tubing
similar to the dry cooling tower concept. A part of the hot water is used as feed water. The
schematic arrangement of this type of cooling tower, and the corresponding temperature path
lengths are shown in Fig. 2-27 & Fig. 2-28, respectively.
The steam at a higher temperature from the turbine is first condensed in the spray type
condenser. At this heat exchanger by mixing with steam, the water temperature raises from T1 to
T2 (water-steam mixture attains the same temperature T2). The hot water is (at T2) then passed
through a series of steel tubes in the dry cooling tower. The steel tubings are provided with
external fins, so as to increase the heat transfer rate and hence cool the hot water in the tubes.
The cooling is assisted in the tower with the help of two ID fans (or a large hyperbolic natural
draught tower can also be used, depending upon the cooling requirements). At this cooling tower,
the water_ temperature drops from T2 to T1. Since the heat is absorbed by the cooling air, the air
gains temperature from T3 to T4. These temperature path lengths at the condenser and the cooling
tower are shown in Fig. 2-28


2A BOILER ACCESSORIES
A boiler requires many accessories for continuous trouble-free functioning and steam generation.
Some accessories are needed to increase the efficiency of the boiler. High economy in power
generation can be achieved by utilising the heat energy to the maximum extent. The typical heat
utilisation in the boiler furnace is of the order of 70% only. That means about 30% of the heat is
carried by the exhaust gases, which constitutes a huge loss, if discharged directly to the
atmosphere. There are various means to recover part of this heat energy. Some of the essential
boiler accessories useful for waste heat recovery, in the sequence, are as follows:
1. Superheater
2. Reheater
3. Economiser
4. Air preheater
The temperature of the hot gases burnt in the furnace is of the order of 1200°C to 1350°C,
depending upon the quality of the coal used for combustion. About 70% of the heat is utilised in
the furnace to heat the water tubes to raise steam, and the flues are still at a higher temperature
about 650°C. The rest of the heat is then utlised in superheater, reheater, economiser and air
preheater. When the flues pass out of the superheater, reheater and economiser, the temperature
of the hot gases is about 400°C. The heat available from these gases is then utlised in the air
preheater, and exit the preheater at about 160°C. With this utilisation of the hot gases, the
efficiency of the plant is improved to a great extent. Other essential accessories include:
1. Desuperheater
2. Soot blower
This principle of operation of these accessories is briefly described in the following subsections.
2.4.1 Superheater
As the name implies, the function of a superheater is to superheat the steam coming from the
boiler. The steam generated in a boiler is not fully saturated, it contains some water particles
(dryness fraction will be less than 1). If used directly, the water particles in the wet steam cause
corrosion of the turbine blades, lead to reduced turbine efficiency, life and later failure of the
blades itself. The superheater completely saturates the wet steam (produces dry steam) and
increases its temperature. A superheated steam has high heat content, and hence has an increased
capacity to do work. This in turn improves the overall efficiency of the power plant; the
superheaters are made of steel tubes of 25 to 50 mm diameter, and formed in series of U shapes.

Fig. 2-13. Superheater

The schematic arrangement of a typical superheater is illustrated in Fig. 2-13. It is a coil of steel
tubes placed in the path of the hot flues. The wet steam from the boiler drum is passed through
the superheater coils, which absorb heat from the flues and get superheated. Superheaters can be
classified based on the heat transfer method. There are three types of superheaters, as follows:
a) Convective superheater - absorbs heat from the hot gases by convection. This is the primary
superheater that receives nearly saturated steam from the boiler drum. This superheater is located
in the convective zone of the furnace, just before the economiser.
b) Radiant superheater - absorbs heat from the hot gases by radiation. This is the secondary
superheater that receives steam from the primary superheater. This superheater is located in the
radiant zone of the furnace, adjacent to the water wall so that it absorbs heat by radiation from
the hot gases.
c) Combined convective and radiant superheater - absorbs heat both by convection and radiation
from the hot gases. This is also termed the pendant superheater, and is another secondary
superheater used in steam power plants. Usually the steam from the radiant superheater passes
through a desuperheater, where high quality water is directly sprayed on to the steam. The
desuperheater maintains the required temperature in the steam after passing through the final
stage or the pendant superheater.
2.4.2 Reheaters
In a boiler, the superheaters are used to superheat the steam before being expanded in the high
pressure (HP) turbine. The steam from the HP turbine loses the pressure and temperature. This
steam before being sent to the next stage (intermediate IP or low pressure LP) turbine, it need to
be improved again. This is done by passing this steam through a reheater. Thus, a reheater is
similar to a superheater, except that it adds heat to the steam coming out of the HP turbine,
before being expanded in the IP or LP turbine. A typical reheater circuit arrangement is
schematically illustrated in Fig. 2-14.

Fig. 2-14. Reheater circuit

A reheater is generally located above the primary or convective superheater in the path of
the hot flues. It is made of steel tubes mounted horizontally, perpendicular to the flue direction.
2.4.3 Economiser
The function of an economiser is to heat the feed water, before being supplied to the
boiler, using the products of combustion discharged from the boiler. Generally feed water is
heated 20-30°C below the boiling point. The economiser makes use of waste flues, recovers heat
energy and hence the name economiser. Thus the economiser increases the boiler efficiency. As
an approximation, it is shown that the boiler efficiency increases by 1% for every 6°C raise in the
feed water temperature. The working principle of an economiser is schematically illustrated in
Fig. 2-15.
Fig. 2-15. Econimiser

It is generally made of steel tubes and arranged in a chamber as shown in figure. The
flues passing through the economiser chamber transfer the heat energy to the water flowing
through the steel tubes. The maximum temperature desirable is 20-30°C below the boiling point,
as at temperatures above S5°C the steam bubbles begin to form and the feed pump cannot supply
steam-water mixture properly. To overcome this problem the feed water pump is generally
located before the economiser as shown in figure. The feed water pump pumps either raw water
(after proper treatment) or condensate from the condenser. The feed water flowing through the

economiser gets heated and enters the boiler under pressure. A non-return valve is provided to
avoid return flow of feed water or steam from the boiler, when the feed pump is not in operation.
The pump pressure is always higher (about 2 bar more) than the boiler pressure in operation.
Advantages of Economiser
1) It recovers the waste heat to a greater extent.
2) It reduces the fuel consumption per unit power produced.
3) It improves the efficiency of the power plant.
4) It reduces the soot and fly-ash being discharged to atmosphere to some extent.
2.4.4 Air Preheater
The function of an air preheater, as the name indicates, is to preheat the air being supplied
to the furnace for combustion. This makes use of the flues discharged from the furnace and from
the economiser. As this also recovers further heat from the flues, it increases the boiler
efficiency. An increase in temperature of the air by 20°C increases the boiler efficiency by 1%.
Some times, it can be considered as the secondary function of an air preheater to heat the air
which is being used to dry the coal (to remove the moisture) in the pulverising mills. This helps
in proper grinding of the coal and further combustion of the pulverised coal. The air preheaters
can be classified as follows:
1. Recuperative preheater
a) Tubular type
b) Plate type
2. Regenerative preheater
a) Brick type
b) Rotary (Ljungstrom) type
1. Recuperative Air Preheater
The principle of operation of this type of preheater is similar to an economiser. In this type, the
heat is directly transferred from the hot flues to the air to be preheated, with an intermediate heat
transfer metallic medium. Based on the type of intermediate medium. construction used to
transfer heat from the flues to the air being heated ,there are two types of recuperative preheaters
- tubular and plate type. In tubular type, the flues pass through a number of tubes and the air to
be preheated passes over the tubes.

Fig. 2-16. Air preheater

A typical arrangement of tubular type of air preheater is schematically shown in Fig.
2-16a. Tubular recuperative preheater are usually counter-flow-type, with tube in shell
arrangement. The hot flues flow downward through the tubes, while the air to be preheated
around the hot tubes, and absorb the heat. Baffles are provided in the shell, so as to increase the
length air flow path around the tubes, and maximize heat transfer from the hot flues. In plate
type, a series of plates are arranged in parallel in a chamber as shown in Fig. 2-16b. In this, the
flues pass in between alternate plates, while the air to be preheated by side of the alternate plates.
2. Regenerative Air Preheater
These are heat energy storage type preheaters, termed the matrix. This matrix is
alternately exposed to flow of hot flues and cold air to be preheated, thus completing one
operation in two cycles. In the first cycle, the hot flues flow through the matrix, and the matrix
absorb heat energy. In the next cycle, cold air passes over the hot matrix and absorbs the heat.
There are two types of preheaters based on the matrix used. The commonly used types are brick
type and the rotary type.
a) Brick type Preheater
In this the heat is first absorbed by a brick work, which is then desorbed to a stream of
cold air. The operation in this type of preheater is performed into two cycles. In the first cycle hot
flues pass over a checquer brick work, and give out the heat to the bricks. Then in the other
cycle, cold air is passed over these hot bricks to recover the heat. Fig. 2-17 shows the schematic
diagram of a regenerative type of air preheater.

Fig. 2-17. Regenerative air preheater

The system consists of two checquer brick constructions CB1 and CB2 as shown. It also
consists of a valve which allows the air and flues in opposite directions at position P1 and
changes their directions simultaneously at position P2. The operation is performed in two cycles.
First Cycle: The valve is at position P1 and the flues enter the brick construction CB1, transfer the
heat to them and pass to chimney, during which the air-line to the burner is closed.
Simultaneously, the air to be heated enters the brick construction CB2 which has been heated in
the previous cycle. The air absorbs the heat energy from the bricks and passes to the burner line.
During this the chimney line is kept closed.
Second Cycle: During this cycle, the valve is at position P2, and the above cycle is
performed in reverse direction. Now the flues enter the brick construction CB2 and heat the
bricks and finally escape to the chimney. On the other side, the air to be heated enters the Nick
work CB1 absorbs the heat and passes to the burner line. Now the chimney line is kept closed.
Advantages
1) Combustion efficiency is improved.
2) Low grade fuels can be burnt successfully.
3) Steam rising capacity is increased.
4) Fuel consumption is reduced.
b) Rotary (Ljungstrom) type preheater
The rotary or Ljumgstrom air preheater is a simple, compact and effective regenerative system.
The construction of a rotary preheater is shown in Fig. 2-18.

Fig. 2-18. Ljungstrom or rotary air preheater

It consists of a rotor with about 12 to 18 radial sectors. Each sector is packed with plain
or corrugated steel metals plates. Two sectors, opposite to one another, are left blank which act as
a seal to prevent leakage of air to hot flue side and vice versa. The rotor is rotated at a low speed
(about 2 to 4 rpm). The hot flues and air flow through these sectors at opposite zones. In the hot
flue zone, the sectors progressively coming in contact with the hot gases absorb heat and store as
sensible heat. As the heated sectors enter the air zone, they progressively release the stored heat
energy to the air, thus healing it. At the same time the sectors that are cold (or already released
heat) progressively enter the hot zone and start absorbing heat. This process of heat absorption
from hot flues and heat release to cold air continues.
Advantages
1) Rotary air preheaters are simple and compact in construction.
2) They operate continuously, and have good heat transfer efficiency.
3) They are economical in operation.
Disadvantages
1) The sealing between flues and air zone, and vice-versa is difficult
2) Due its constructional features, the rotate air preheaters create large pressure drops both for
the hot flues and the air, thereby consuming sufficient power.
3) Fly ash accumulation in the flue paths is a common problem.
2.4.5 Desuperheater
It is essential to control the superheat temperature; otherwise it may lead to overheating
of superheater tubes and initial stages of the turbine, causing operational problems. The device
used to control the superheat temperature is termed a desuperheater. The various methods used to
control the superheat temperatures are as follows:

1) Bypassing the hot gases. When the temperature of the superheated steam raises sufficiently
high, then the hot gases are bypassed with the help of dampers.
Fig. 2-19. Desuperheater

2) Tilting the burners. The direction of the burners can be tilted when the steam temperature is
high, thereby reducing the heat supply to the superheaters. This, in turn reduces the steam
temperatures.
3) Desuperheater. Another method of controlling the temperature of the superheated steam is by
the use of desuperheater. This uses a water spray to cool the portion of the superheater section,
when the temperature of the steam is too high, as shown in Fig. 2-19.
4) Immersion in the steam drum. In this method a portion of the superheater is kept immersed in
the water of the boiler drum through a bypass valve. Whenever the need for temperature control
rises, the superheated steam is diverted to the immersed line by operating the bypass valve. In
normal operations the valve is kept closed.
2.4,6 Soot Blowers
The products of combustion always carry soot with them. Soot is a fine dust like particle, light in
weight and floats in gases. Soot is gradually collected on the boiler tubes, economiser and air
preheater. With the increase in thickness of the soot on the tubes, the rate of heat transfer from
the gases to the tubes also reduces. This leads to increased consumption of fuel. To remove the
soot from the surface of the tubes soot-blowers are used. Soot blowers release high pressure
steam or compressed air through nozzles on to the tubes, from where the soot is to be removed
(Fig. 2-20). The arrangement of the soot blower nozzles is done depending upon the cleaning
requirements. The soot blowing operation is done periodically.

Fig. 2-20. Soot blower

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1.6 COAL HANDLING

1.6.1 Equipment for Coal Handling

Fig. 1-20. Belt Conveyor

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Fig. 1-21. Screw Conveyors

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Fig. 1-22. Bucket Elevators Fig. 1-23. Grab Bucket Elevator

4) Grab Bucket Elevator

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Fig. 1-24.Coal in Power Plants

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1) Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges should be low.

Types of Ash Handling Systems

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Fig. 1-25. Mechanical Ash handling system

(a) Low Velocity System in this system

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Fig. 1-26. Hydraulic Ash handling system

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Fig. 1-27. Pneumatic Ash handling System

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2.2 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

2.2.1 Features of High Pressure Boilers

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Advantages of High Pressure Boilers

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Fig.2-1.Natural circulation Fig.2-1. Critical Circulation

The circulation ratio should be kept between 6 and 25.

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Fig.2-3. Forced Circulation

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Fig.2-4. Lo Mont Boiler

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Fig.2-5. Loeffler Boiler

Fig.2-6. Benson Boiler

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Fig. 2-7. Velox Boiler

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Fig. 2-8. Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler

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2.5 COOLING TOWERS AND PONDS

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Fig. 2-21. Natural draught cooling tower

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Fig. 2-22. Forced draught cooling tower

Fig. 2-23. Induced Draught Cooling Tower - Wet type

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Fig. 2-24. Direct Cooling Tower - Dry type

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Fig. 2-25. Indirect dry cooling tower with surface condenser

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