Hellmueller, L. C., & Aeschbacher, N. (2010) .
Hellmueller, L. C., & Aeschbacher, N. (2010) .
Hellmueller, L. C., & Aeschbacher, N. (2010) .
IN THIS
ISSUE
ISSN: 0144-4646
Table of Contents
Communication Research Trends
Media and Celebrity: Volume 29 (2010) Number 4
Production And Consumption of “Well-Knownness” http://cscc.scu.edu
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Published four times a year by the Centre for the Study of
A. Section outline of this review . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Communication and Culture (CSCC), sponsored by the
2. Historical Approach: From Alexander the Great California Province of the Society of Jesus.
to Reality TV Celebrities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Copyright 2010. ISSN 0144-4646
A. The historical origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. The birth of celebrity journalism . . . . . . . . . . 6 Editor: Emile McAnany
3. The (Mass) Media’s Role in Creating Fame . . . . 9 Editor emeritus: William E. Biernatzki, S.J.
A. Relationship between paparazzi, Managing Editor: Paul A. Soukup, S.J.
Celebrities and their followers . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1. Battles for visibility and control . . . . . . . .12 Subscription:
B. Reality TV: Construction and Annual subscription (Vol. 29) US$50
deconstruction of fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
1. Altered (perception of) Celebrity Payment by check, MasterCard, Visa or US$ preferred.
value through Reality TV . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 For payments by MasterCard or Visa, send full account
2. Reality TV production from an number, expiration date, name on account, and signature.
economic perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
3. Balance of power between Reality TV Checks and/or International Money Orders (drawn on
and its participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 USA banks; for non-USA banks, add $10 for handling)
4. Media coverage of should be made payable to Communication Research
Reality TV participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Trends and sent to the managing editor
C. Interplay between mass and social media Paul A. Soukup, S.J.
communication channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Communication Department
1. The place of social media in the traditional Santa Clara University
media’s landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 500 El Camino Real
2. Celebrities’ use of social media . . . . . . . . .18 Santa Clara, CA 95053 USA
3. Fame through social media and user-
generated content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Transfer by wire: Contact the managing editor. Add $10
4. Interaction between Audience, Celebrities, for handling.
and Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
A. The position of the audience in the celebrity Address all correspondence to the managing editor at the
cultural industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 address shown above.
B. The Audience as a Consumer, Producer, and Tel: +1-408-554-5498
Promoter of Mediated Celebrity Content . . .22 Fax: +1-408-554-4913
C. Relationship between Celebrities and their email: [email protected]
Audience through Online Media . . . . . . . . . .23
5. From the Celebrities’ Point of View: The Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture
Case Study of Switzerland’s Beauty Queens . . . .24 (CSCC) is an international service of the Society of Jesus
6. Research Prospective for Media Celebrity established in 1977 and currently managed by the
Scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 California Province of the Society of Jesus, P.O. Box 519,
Los Gatos, CA 95031-0519.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Additional Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
1. Introduction
“Two centuries ago when a great man appeared, 1962, 1972), is only one type of contemporary celebri-
people looked for God’s purpose in him; today we look ty status. Ascribed celebrity, on the other hand, is the
for his press agent” (Boorstin, 1972, p. 45). Daniel celebrity of biological descent whereas achieved
Boorstin (1962, 1972) pointed out how much of our celebrity is the celebrity of accomplishments–that is,
thinking about human greatness has changed since individuals who possess rare talents or skills. However,
Shakespeare divided great individuals into three class- mass media may play a stronger role in the creation of
es: Those who had greatness thrust upon them, those Celebrities than assumed by Rojek (2001). To give an
who achieved greatness, and those born great example, not all players who are merely drafted into the
(Boorstin, 1972, p. 45). Within the last century, National Football League (i.e., achieved celebrity status
processes by which Celebrities can be manufactured through talent and skills) receive the same attention in
have been established. (The term celebrity is multifac- society because they do not receive the same attributed
eted and has changed its meaning over time. Within celebrity status by the media. Therefore, the representa-
this essay, the term can either refer to the actual human tion in the media and the public’s attention to it mainly
being represented by the term or to the tradable com- influences the process of contemporary celebrity cre-
modity that a celebrity generates or to the theoretical ation (Bell, 2009, p. 3). Hence, the media maintain the
concept, Bell, 2009, p. 1. To avoid confusion, we will intersection between achieved and attributed celebrity
capitalize the human being represented by the term, status. They can decide whether someone who embod-
i.e., “Celebrity.”) In fact, since the birth of mass com- ies talent and skills is newsworthy or not and thus high-
mercial culture, a society-wide system that supports the ly contribute to their celebrity status in society. Due to
creation of Celebrities has been in place (Gamson, the emerging omnipresence of created celebrity status
1992). Therefore, Boorstin (1972) defines a Celebrity (e.g., media can create a celebrity), this review primari-
(i.e., the human person) as a “human pseudo-event,” ly concerns itself with this type of celebrity and its inter-
that is a product of manufacture—a creation—rather sections with achieved celebrity.
than the result of merit. It is particularly important to highlight the
The media play a crucial role in that creation of celebrity industry on a space and time perspective, as
Celebrities: They provide visibility and a distribution these two components intertwine and provide the driv-
channel of Celebrities’ activities, which contribute to ing forces for change in the celebrity system. During
their well-knownness in society. In the democracy of the mass communication culture’s early years, each
pseudo-events, everyone can become a Celebrity by celebrity sector was largely concentrated in a special
getting into the media’s spotlight and by staying there location (i.e., Nashville’s country music made it
(Gamson, 1992; Ponce de Leon, 2002; Boorstin, 1972). famous; public art celebrities did so for Seattle; film for
Rojek (2001) argues that the “human pseudo-event,” Los Angeles, and so on). Due to technological process-
that is attributed celebrity as a concentrated representa- es, the celebrity industry has evolved into a stage of
tion of an individual as newsworthy (e.g., Boorstin, decentralization. Not only has celebrity manufacturing
moved into sectors beyond entertainment (e.g., sports,
Authors note: The authors would like to thank Prof. politics, and business), but Celebrities also do not
Louis Bosshart for his support, feedback, and contri- remain in one sector (e.g., movie actor Ronald Reagan
butions to this essay. was elected governor of California in 1966 and presi-
Celebrities, stars, heroes, and famous and promi- a visual timeline. Writing about historical origins poses
nent people refer to persons that stand out from the its challenges as it always refers to a particular culture,
mass. Due to their visibility, nowadays achieved a particular point of view. Different scholars discussed
through the mass media, they become well known by a the roots of the concept (Inglis 2010; Bell, 2009;
dispersed public. Because people use a variety of terms Gamson, 1992; Boorstin, 1972) from various angles.
to describe the visibility of these people, this creates For example, Boorstin (1972) focused on the graphic
difficulties in conceptualizing and defining these revolution, the revolution of the image, whereas
terms. Many of those meanings overlap even though Gamson (1992) focused on celebrity in 20th-century
they first occurred as autonomous words. “It is not pos- America. The interaction between celebrity, culture,
sible to locate a set of coherent criteria against which and technological progress is dynamic and can alter the
these terms are used, nor is it possible to use them concept of celebrity. Not only today, but also from an
objectively” (Holmes & Redmond, 2006, p. 9). Seifert historical perspective, change matters and has altered
(2010) states that the concepts of stars, Celebrities, and the concept of celebrity in various ways. How that
prominent people are social constructs, which are high- meaning transformation came about and how it affect-
ly complex phenomena, influenced by various forces ed celebrity culture and society will form a part of fur-
defining them (p. 38). This essay particularly deals ther investigation.
with the origin of the word celebrity and its transfor-
A. The historical origin
mation and will mainly focus on that by taking on
Rojek’s (2001) categories of celebrity (ascribed, The first really famous man in Europe’s history
attributed, and achieved celebrity). Without doubt, the was Herostratos. To make sure that his fellows and
concept of celebrity relates to other forms of becoming generations to come would remember him he set the
visible, like fame, notoriety, power, and elite status. famous temple of Artemis in Ephesus on fire. That was
But they are not interchangeable concepts. in 356 B.C. Now, more than 2,000 years later one has
In order to understand the emergence of the cul- to admit that, in this regard, he certainly succeeded.
tural meaning attached to the term celebrity, we have to A millennium ago, a title such as monarch or
delve deeper into historical dimensions. This will allow one’s status as a warrior formed one of the best ways
for a better understanding of how those terms have to become a Celebrity. Some of the first Celebrities
undergone and still undergo constant meaning changes were, in fact, winners in the ancient Olympic Games
because of cultural and technological developments (BBC News, April 4, 2003). They won the right to life-
(Seifert, 2010, p. 38). The history of celebrity ultimate- long free meals, and poets would advertise their fame
ly deals with the history of individuals (Giles, 2000, p. by hymns of praise. In fact, in the era of ancient Rome,
12). In his dissertation, Bell (2009) argues that one of the cities advertised their most famous inhabitants by
the hallmarks of contemporary society consists in the imprinting their faces on coins as a mark of immortal-
shift from a collectivistic to an individualistic society, ity. Known as the “first famous person,” Alexander the
from a “we-society” to a “me-society.” Culture and Great received celebration for his conquests. The
technology also combine to produce celebrity (Inglis, Roman era acknowledged for the first time that it could
2010), and the historical approach will thus manifest bestow civic honors upon even those who were not
the origins of modern celebrity. In order to have a bet- born into nobility (Giles, 2000, p. 15). Julius Caesar
ter understanding of when the concept of celebrity first became the first Roman to appear on a coin while still
attracted human attention, this section will also provide alive. Later, the gladiators achieved fame during the
Without the (mass) media’s supplying the public ty of the ordinary, what Turner (2010b) names “the
with information about Celebrities, recipients would demotic turn” (p. 2). In this context he also highlights
have no awareness of their existence (Hollander, 2010, the active involvement of the media machinery: “The
p. 150; Schierl, 2007b). From the media’s standpoint, most important development, in my view, is the scale
“celebrity” has nowadays become a precious econom- with which the media has begun to produce celebrity
ic good, because the demand for such content has grad- ‘on its own’” (p. 156). With these changing develop-
ually but consistently increased (Schierl, 2007a, p. 7). ments, we can no longer consider the media only as
News and entertainment media, for example, gos- “mediators” or “translators” of cultural identity but
sip magazines such as InTouch, People, or US Weekly also as “authors” that produce their own texts (p. 159).
and blogs like TMZ, feature an abundance of Celebrity Aside from Celebrities who are well-established
pictures and video footage that render celebrities visi- through other channels (e.g., sports or music), televi-
ble for a wide audience. Visibility, according to Rein, sion’s production itself keeps on growing, introducing
Kotler, and Stoller (1997) is vital for a Celebrity (p. 7). and selling its own Celebrities through different TV
However, they also highlight the drawbacks that can programs such as Reality TV (Turner, 2006, p. 156-
come with high visibility: “Becoming visible means 157). We will discuss Reality TV’s role concerning the
that the media will not only glorify acts but also mag- construction and deconstruction of fame, as well as the
nify sins” (p. 3). In the case of Celebrity gossip this profitability and sustainability of its “self-produced”
results in catching celebrities on tape/camera not only celebrities later in this section. Furthermore, in the face
when they make a glamorous appearance on the red of emerging trends on the Internet, a new, not to be
carpet, but also when they display deviant behavior neglected force in the context of celebrity culture has
(e.g., Britney Spears spontaneously shaving her head at recently further enhanced the traditional mass media
a hairdresser’s). On one hand, paparazzi serve the landscape: social media.
accumulative demand for such pictures. On the other In any discussion of contemporary celebrity cul-
hand, the audience itself participates increasingly ture, the media play an important, but not the only role
actively in the production of the celebrities’ visibility, that we must take into account. The paparazzi have
as pictures and videos can nowadays be taken easily become one of the biggest occupational groups that
from various devices (e.g., mobile phones) and then contribute to Celebrity visibility. The subsequent sec-
spread in a matter of minutes. tion will therefore elaborate their significance for the
Pictures that get published in the media show a contemporary media and celebrity culture, as well as
wide range of Celebrities. How did these people the relationship between paparazzi, Celebrities, and
acquire fame and thus celebrity status? Schierl (2007b) their followers.
argues that the media today have altered their selection
A. Relationship between paparazzi, Celebrities,
criteria concerning the people they prominently cover
because the demand for Celebrity content has and their followers
increased. Consequently, traditional sectors of society, Both the general public and journalists consistent-
like politics or the arts, can not provide a “sufficient” ly view paparazzi as more negatively than other groups
number of famous people anymore for the media’s cov- of photographers, denigrating them as the “worst of
erage (p. 103-104). Holmes (2010) emphasizes the rise worst” (Mendelson, 2007, p. 169). We can best define a
of “ordinary” people in the media landscape because paparazzo nowadays as a “freelance photographer who
their appearances symbolize the significant change that aggressively pursues celebrities in order to take candid,
has occurred in celebrity culture (p. 74). Turner (2006) often compromising photographs of them for publica-
characterizes this change as a shift “from the elite to tion” (Gold, 2001, p. 111). They are often criticized
the ordinary,” which has especially taken place in because of their overaggressive search of an unexpect-
today’s television and Internet content production (p. ed picture of a Celebrity. The word paparazzi comes
154). This shift results in an increasing media visibili- from an Italian word for “buzzing insects” and first
ipate in the production of their image; on the other to the audience, without the interference of other mass
hand, they must remain present in these media in order media outlets (Marshall, 2010, p. 41). On the other
to stay on the media’s and consequently on the audi- hand, the audience members themselves have taken
ence’s agenda. According to Daschmann (2007), the more and more to present themselves online and on the
masses of (aspiring) Celebrities all have to compete for various platforms and have begun to produce their
the public’s (limited) attention (p. 186). In such a com- own content (Marshall, 2006, p. 638). Choi and Berger
petitive environment a famous person must therefore (2009) believe “that the global Internet has dramati-
remain present on all the accessible media channels cally magnified the global quest for fame and celebri-
(Seifert, 2010, p. 60). ty” (p. 194).
Fame through social media and user generated Posting self-made videos on MySpace and
content. Social networks do not only present an YouTube can provide an alternative way to gain a poten-
opportunity for the well-established, but also for the tial world-wide audience and to become famous. Bruce
aspiring Celebrities and ordinary people to participate Daisley (2010), head of YouTube UK, remains convinced
or to get themselves “out there.” Stefanone, Lackaff, that “if you’re good enough, YouTube’s users will make
and Rosen (2008) argue that in addition to Reality TV, you famous.” As an example of a person achieving fame
new online technologies like social networks have had and landing a record deal through a social media plat-
an influence on where the public locates itself within form, he mentions Justin Bieber, whose mother posted
the media system: “Rather than simply being the tar- videos of him singing on YouTube, which then got sev-
get of mediated messages, they can see themselves as eral million views and caught the attention of his first
protagonists of mediated narratives and can integrate manager, Scott Braun (Hampp, 2010). Although some
themselves into a complex media ecosystem” (p. 107). noticeable examples exist of people/artists making it
In this context Marshall (2010) highlights the chang- thanks to the presence on a social media platform, Totty
ing “face” of celebrity culture, which has been moving (2007) highlights the competition an aspiring online star
away from a pure representational towards a more pre- faces when trying to get famous online, e.g. on YouTube.
sentational system (p. 45). Due to social media plat- Not only must one appear among millions of other
forms like Twitter, Celebrities, on one hand, have videos, but the presence and popularity of the tradition-
started to present themselves in more unfiltered ways al media and their content on these sites complicate the
Due to the ever-growing amount of media con- celebrity system and its economic power has always
tent, attracting a wide audience remains challenging. strongly relied on the audience’s involvement with it.
Generally, the media industry has to adapt to the con- Involvement includes investing and dedicating time in
ditions of the “Attention Economy,” where a surplus of Celebrities by writing fan mail or by becoming a mem-
“capital, labor information, and knowledge” results in ber of a fan club (p. 635). Writing fan mail and invest-
scarcity of available attention. Therefore, the latter ing time in a fan club imply the audience’s potential
becomes valuable all the more (Davenport & Beck, active role when it comes to supporting a Celebrity.
2001, p. 3; see also Franck, 1998). As an “earlier” This activity spectrum, through time, has undergone
example for strategies to grasp the audience’s attention, significant changes, resulting in further levels of
Davenport and Beck (2001) mention the emergence of engagement. Reality TV provides a good example for
“people” magazines, who started to use more and more the media industry’s counting on the involvement of
Celebrities as “vehicles of attention” in order to attract the public, by granting the audience an alleged say in
their readers (p. 106-107). who deserves gaining celebrity status, through letting
The aforementioned changes and tendencies in the audience vote for the best American Idol participant
the contemporary media landscape, as well as the mod- or against the least-liked Big Brother roommate.
ified ratio between Celebrities and the different media Furthermore, producers directly encourage the audi-
channels, urges a more detailed consideration of the ence to participate in their shows by promoting open
audience and the roles they play in relation to these casting calls for future shows. Interestingly, we can
developments. also trace this shift towards the audience’s participation
in shows that originally did not count (that strongly) on
A. The position of the audience in the celebrity the involvement of the public. We will therefore pres-
cultural industry ent two examples.
The audience’s consumption and reception sym- The audience of MTV’s The Real World original-
bolizes the necessary “fuel” to keep the economic ly did not have the possibility to choose who should
enterprise of celebrity going (Redmond & Holmes, become part of the cast. Then, for the 20th season, tak-
2007, p. 310). Outlining the interdependency between ing place in Hollywood, MTV introduced a new online
celebrity status and the audience, Wippersberg (2007) casting process through which Internet users could
emphasizes that a Celebrity can only become and decide on who should complete (along with the seven
remain a Celebrity if the audience embraces and thus people who the producers cast the “traditional” way)
perceives the individual Celebrity as a Celebrity (p. the show’s cast (MTV.com).
248). Seifert (2010) argues that although the media can In Switzerland, the televised election of the Miss
introduce and present potential new Celebrities to an Switzerland pageant underwent “democratization” in
audience, the consent of the audience remains essential 2005, when the public’s opinion received more weight
(p. 38). The “accepted” Celebrity thus marks the audi- than ever. Before, the audience had had only one out of
ence’s power position vis-à-vis the media industry, as nine votes that counted for the election of the next beau-
Celebrities symbolize the impersonation of the collec- ty queen. Nowadays, during the two preliminary rounds,
tive audience, on which the industry depends the public’s vote counts just as much as all the official
(Marshall, 2006, p. 636). Consequently, television judge’s votes together (resulting in a 50/50 ratio). Out of
shows and their casts depend on the endorsement of the top three contestants, it then becomes wholly up to
their viewers and gossip magazines, on their readership the audience to decide who they want to see as the new
to legitimize their position in the media landscape and Miss Switzerland (Bosshart & Witmer, 2007, p. 48).
to draw and maintain the advertising industries’ inter- According to Bosshart and Witmer (2007), the produc-
est. Therefore, the media count on the involvement of ers modified the participation mode in order to foster the
the public in order to financially sustain themselves. audience’s involvement and integration and to diminish
Marshall (2006) argues that the constitution of the possible gossip about unfair elections.
5. From the Celebrities’ Point of View: Case Study of Switzerland’s Beauty Queens
by Prof. Louis Bosshart, University of Fribourg
Celebrity nowadays depends on the mass media The survey questions revolved around which role
and their capacity to generate big audiences. The mass the expectation of becoming a Celebrity played when
media, on the other side, depend on the presence of a the interviewees decided to participate in the pageant
Celebrity, which creates marketable news values. contest. What is their perception of “becoming or
These news values provide so much profit that many being a Celebrity?” Is celebrity a value in itself? What
mass media outlets started to create Celebrities them- are the benefits and drawbacks of being a Celebrity, in
selves. One specific way to create Celebrities while the professional as well as in the private sphere? How
simultaneously ensuring the interest of other media lies much ambition or even narcissism does it take to main-
in organizing beauty contests. The tremendous success tain a celebrity status? What kind of sacrifices are the
of beauty contests led to an inflationary creation of contestants willing to accept? Furthermore, the women
contests of this kind. To name a few Swiss examples: also had the possibility, if they wished, to write down
Miss Molly (contestants who weigh more than 170 additional thoughts on the topic of celebrity that
pounds), Miss Handicap, Miss Teenie, Miss Earth seemed of note.
Switzerland, and Miss Altersheim (women who are In response to the question about their reasons or
older than 70 years and are still able to walk on stage motives to participate in a pageant contest, the beauty
without any help). queens stated:
What does the chance of becoming a Celebrity
• “At first I wanted to take the chances that come
mean to young women who submit an application form
with participating in a pageant contest. At that
to participate in a beauty contest? And, after having
time I did not even realize that this chance had a
gone through an extensive selection and evaluation
side effect, called ‘celebrity’.”
process, what does it mean to become a famous wide-
• “I saw it as a nice opportunity and sort of a fun
ly known beauty queen? We transformed these
experience.”
research questions into interview questions. We then
• “It was like applying for a job that would offer me
interviewed six Swiss beauty queens—who all won
financial independence and a sort of an adven-
beauty pageants between 2004 and 2009. We focused
ture.”
on two pageants, Miss Bern and Miss Switzerland,
• “It was something new, unknown, and provided
because they have taken place for more than a decade
the opportunity to make some extra money. I did
and therefore are well known. We sent the question-
not take the aspect of celebrity into consideration,
naires to the beauty queens who completed them
at least not well enough.”
between 2008 and 2009.
“[M]edia exposure is the oxygen that sustains the own way to the celebrity industry by providing plat-
contemporary Celebrity” (Drake & Miah, 2010, p. 55). forms where individuals or corporations can promote
But, that describes only one side of the contemporary Celebrities, by letting Celebrities communicate direct-
celebrity culture. Today, the media play an important ly with their audience, and/or by providing content for
role within the celebrity industry, but other forces of the traditional media industry.
power also work to regulate that relationship between Furthermore, we should note that the three main
media and Celebrities. According to Rein, Kotler, and elements reviewed in this essay, celebrity, media, and
Stoller (1997, p. 42) the celebrity business merged into the audience, connect somewhat to each other in a tri-
a celebrity industry, where a wide range of different but adic way. They all depend on but also benefit from
related industries have become involved in the produc- each other (see Wippersberg, 2007) in order to “func-
tion and consumption process of the celebrity industry. tion” adequately. Therefore we added a triangle that
We can define an industry “a collection of people, links the three elements to each other. Past studies have
materials, equipment, and processes that collectively indicated which fields were and should be further
produce an output that has values to the market” (p. investigated (e.g., how the audience finds pleasure in
30). The celebrity industry needs specialists who man- consuming celebrity gossip). With new elements like
age their clients’ rise to high visibility. Acknowledging social media coming into play, questions on their role
the developments media and technology have under- in the triadic relationship between media, Celebrities,
gone and the change in contemporary celebrity culture, and audience arise in themselves but also in terms of
we have enhanced and modified the Rein, Kotler, and the entire celebrity industry.
Stoller (1997) model of the celebrity industry (p. 42). The entertainment industry plays an important
Figure 1 outlines a summary of our literature review role by producing entertainment and entertainers. The
that we integrated into our conceptualization of the celebrity industry uses such venues as baseball games
celebrity industry. Not every celebrity industry utilizes to remain in the media’s spotlight (e.g., by singing the
every sector, but it helps to understand why and how national anthem before the game). The representation
the field of contemporary celebrity must remain industry, on the other hand, organizes the busy sched-
extremely heterogeneous. By adding the audience as ule of Celebrities (e.g., a personal manager or per-
an industry, we acknowledge the involvement of the sonal assistant), or acts as promoters to arrange
audience in the consumption, production, and promo- events and to arrange publicity for their clients. The
tion of celebrity content. The audience’s willingness to publicity industry has a very close relationship to the
invest attention and money into the celebrity industry representation industry. This industry consists of pub-
is fundamental. Further, social media foster these lic relations specialists, the advertising market, and
activities of the audience, but also contribute in their marketing research specialists. They have the goal of
Figure 1. The Contemporary Celebrity Industry (adapted from Rein, Kotler, & Stoller, 1997, p. 42).