Political Science N. D.

Arora
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 Ce el 0

POLITICAL
SCIENCE
for Civil Services Main Examination
 About the Author

N D Arora was an Associate Professor in PGDAV College,

University of Delhi. He has more than four decades of experience
in teaching graduate and post-graduate classes and was a guide
for MPhil and PhD scholars who obtained their degrees under his
able supervision. There are more than twenty books to his credit,
in addition to scores of articles published in academic journals.
Presently, he writes books for competitive examinations.
 POLITICAL
SCIENCE
for Civil Services Main Examination

N D Arora
Formerly of PGDAV College
(University of Delhi)
New Delhi

Mc
Graw
Hill
Seer
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
NEW DELHI

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Political Science for Civil Services Main Examination, 2e
Copyright © 2016, 2010, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
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 To
My Wife
Who deserves much more than mere gratitude
 Preface to the Second
Edition

It is a privilege, indeed, to have a second edition of one’s book

come out, since it testifies to the students’ need and desire to
have a better version of the work. | am extremely glad of the
response this work has seen so far, and | have attempted, along
with the publisher, McGraw Hill, to revise, adapt and update the
book so that it may continue to remain relevant in its field. The
revised second edition of the Political Science for Civil Services
Main Examination comes with updated content, changes in almost
every chapter, and new questions added to Practice Questions at
the end of chapters. The last section consisting of eight chapters
on_ International Relations and Foreign Policy have been
completely revised and are in tune with the latest developments in
Indian and world politics.
| hope that this serves as a comprehensive textbook for Civil
Services Main and state civil services preparation and is
successful in its primary aim—to cover the entire syllabus of
Political Science in great detail, and yet in a language that is easy
for the aspirants to grasp. Individual modules of the syllabus are
covered in separate chapters, with author's notes provided in
boxes.
| remain grateful to many of my friends and also extend my
sincere thanks to the McGraw Hill Education team, comprising of
Tanmoy Roychowdhury, Shukti Mukherjee, Abhishek Kumar,
Gargi Bhattacharya and Medha Arora for their efforts to refine the
book.
The author may be contacted at [email protected]
N.D. ARORA
 Preface to the First Edition

An endeavour to write for competitive examinations such as for

the civil services is, indeed, no easy a task. The attempt would not
have been dared but for the constant (and sometimes critical)
encouragement received through students, colleagues and friends
for the author’s earlier work on the civil services preliminary
(Political Science) examination ( published by Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited).
Writing on Political Science for the main examination with a
syllabi as diverse as Political Theory and Political Thought, Indian
Political System, Comparative Politics and International Relations,
has been a challenging exercise. The author has been vacillating
between what has been analytical and argumentative (relating to
theoretical formulations in theory), what has been critical and
suggestive (relating to Indian political system) and what has to be
the most informative and latest (relating to problems of
international and global concerns).
Working on a manual related to competitive examinations is
very different than writing a textbook for graduate and post-
graduate students. In civil services examinations, one has to be
(a) concise and precise on the contents,
(b) analytical and yet presentable in dealing with questions,
(c) critical to the extent of being evaluative while summing up
the answers, and
 (d) avoid what is repetitive, irrelevant and redundant.
While preparing this manual, a conscious attempt has been
made to keep all these aspects in mind.
This study covers the discussion of what is prescribed in the
civil services examination syllabus. All the chapters (48 in all)
have been thoroughly updated so as to include all the latest
developments in the subject.
The manual is a small yet sincere effort to help the civil services
aspirants do their best in their examinations. An exhaustive list of
references also lies dispersed in these pages.
f— ~

From a competitive examination perspective, the author has

sought to include:
(a) narrative description of all the available facts required
herein;
(b) lucid presentation of the related material:
(c) scientific formulations of what is needed to make the
answer as systematic as possible;
(d) major points, logically ordered, in each and every topic,
and
(e) pratice questions to induce the reader to write his/her
answer himself/herself.
\. y,

| am greatly indebted to many friends and colleagues, in

particular Dr. Sunder Raman and Dr. Ramesh Singh who have
rendered valuable help in the preparation of this work. The author
also extends his gratitude to Biju Kumar, K.N. Prakash, Abhishek
Sharma, Anupma Rai, and Medha Arora of Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited for their constant and continuous
support to make this work see the light of the day.
The author can be contacted at [email protected]
N.D. ARORA
 CONTENTS

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

. Political Theory: Meaning and Significance

Introduction
Political Thought, Political Philosophy, Political Theory, Political
Science
Political Theory: Meaning, Definitions
Political Theory: Nature
Evolution and Growth of the Discipline
Political Theory: Classical, Modern, Contemporary
Political Theory: Significance and Utility
Summing Up
Practice Questions

. Political Theory: Approaches, Debates, Trends

Introduction
Approaches
Great Debates
Trends in Political Theory
Practice Questions
3. Theories of State
Introduction
State: Definitions
Practice Questions

4. Justice: Rawls’ Theory of Justice

Introduction
Etymology, Meaning, Development
Justice—lIts Dimensions
Justice and Its Relation with Liberty and Equality
Conceptions of Justice—Different Perspectives
Justice: Types
Libertarian Justice—Hayek, Rawls, and Nozick
A Word on Distributive Justice—Theories
Practice Questions

5. Equality: Types, Forms, Relationship with Freedom, and

Affirmative Action
Introduction
Meaning of Equality
Equality: Evolution and Growth
Types of Equality
Forms of Equality: Social, Political, Economic
Relationship Between Equality and Freedom
Affirmative Action
Protective Discrimination: Reservation Policy in India
Practice Questions

6. Rights and the Concept of Human Rights

Introduction
Rights: Meaning, Nature, and Characteristics
 Evolution of Rights and Related Theories
Analysis of Rights: Wesley Hohfeld and Lawrence Becker
Kinds of Rights
Functions of Rights: Will (Choice) Theory and Interest Theory
Concept of Human Rights
Practice Questions

7. Democracy:Representative, Participatory, and Deliberative

Introduction
Democracy: Meaning and Definitions
Democracy: Evolution and Growth
Theories of Democracy
Models of Democracy
Practice Questions

8. Concepts: Power, Hegemony, Ideology, Legitimacy

Introduction
Concept of Power
Concept of Hegemony
Concept of Ideology
Concept of Legitimacy
Practice Questions

9. Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism,

Fascism, Gandhism, Feminism
Introduction
Liberalism and its Variants
Socialism and its Variants
Marxism, Leninism, Maoism, Third Way, Anarchism
Fascism and Conservatism
Gandhism
 Feminism
Practice Questions

10. Indian Political Thought I: Dharmashastra, Arthashastra,

Buddhist Tradition, and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Sources of Ancient Indian Polity
Nature of Polity—Dharmashastra, Arthashastra, and the
Buddhist Tradition
Polity in Dnharmashastra, Arthashastra, and the Buddhist
Tradition
Sir Syed Anmed Khan
Practice Questions

11. Indian Political Thought Il: Sri Aurobindo, M.K. Gandhi,

B.R. Ambedkar, M.N. Roy
Introduction
Sri Aurobindo
M.K. Gandhi
B.R. Ambedkar
M.N. Roy
Practice Questions

12. Western Political Thought I: Plato and Aristotle

Introduction
Plato
Aristotle
Practice Questions

13. Western Political Thought Il: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke,

Niccolo Machiavelli: 1469-1527

 Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
John Locke: 1632-1704
John Stuart Mill: 1806-73
Practice Questions

14. Western Political Thought Ill: Marx, Gramsci, Arendt

Karl Marx: 1818-83
Antonio Gramsci: 1891-1937
Hannah Arendt: 1906-75
Practice Questions

15. Indian Nationalism: Strategies and Perspectives

Birth of the Indian National Congress
Strategy: Constitutionalism
Strategy: Extremist-Militant, Revolutionary
Strategy: Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements
Peasants’ and Workers’ Movements in India’s Freedom
Struggle
Indian National Movement: Different Perspectives
Practice Questions

16. The Making of the Indian Constitution

Constitutional Development
Legacy of the British Rule
Legacy of the National Movement
The Constituent Assembly
The Constitution: Its Making
Practice Questions

17. Salient Features of the Indian Constitution

Sources of the Constitution
 Preamble of the Constitution
Major Features of the Constitution
Territory
Citizenship
Practice Questions

18. Indian Constitution: Amendment Procedure and Basic

Structure Doctrine
Amendment: Meaning and Definitions
Why Amendment?
Procedure of Amendment in India
Amendments made in the Constitution
Constitutional Amendments and the Shifting Judicial Stance
Constitutional Amendment and Social Change
Basic Structure Doctrine
Practice Questions

19. Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and

Fundamental Duties
Debates in the Constituent Assembly
Fundamental Rights
Directive Principles of State Policy
Fundamental Duties
Practice Questions

20. The Executive in India: The President, The Prime Minister,

and the Union Cabinet, The Governor, the Chief Minister and
the State Cabinet
The President of India
The Vice President of India
The Council of Ministers (The Cabinet) and the Prime Minister
 The Government of States
Administration—National Level
Practice Questions

21. The Legislature in India: Parliament of India and

Legislatures in States
The Indian Parliament
State Legislatures in India
Practice Questions

22. The Judiciary in India: The Supreme Court, the High

Courts, etc.
The Supreme Court of India
The High Courts in India
Judicial Review
Judicial Activism
Subordinate Courts
Lok Adalat
Free Legal Aid and Public Interest Litigation
Judicial Reforms
Practice Questions

23. Grassroots Democracy: Urban and Rural Government

(Municipal Administration and Panchayati Raj)
Urban Local Administration in India
Urban Administration and the 74th Amendment: Municipal
Bodies
Panchayati Raj: Historical Overview
Rural Administration and the 73rd Amendment: Panchayati Raj
Institutions
District and Metropolitan Planning
 Practice Questions

24. The Statutory Institutions/Commissions

The Election Commission
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
Finance Commission
Union Public Service Commission
National Commission for Scheduled Castes
National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
National Commission for Women
National Human Rights Commission
National Commission for Minorities
National Commission for Backward Classes
Other Commissions
Practice Questions

25. Federalism in India

Nature of the Indian Federalism
Federal Features oflndia’s Union ofStates
Asymmetrical Federal Features in India
Unitary Tendencies in India’s Federation
Union-StatesRelationsinindia
Centre-State Relations’ Commission
Tendencies: Integrative, Regional, Inter-State Disputes
Practice Questions

26. Planning and Economic Development

Development: Meaning and Implications
Development: Gandhian and Nehruvian Perspectives
Indian Planning: Nature and Role
Role of Public Sector
 Green Revolution
Agrarian Relations and Land Reforms
Liberalisation and Globalisation
Economic Reforms in India
Neoliberalism of Modi’s Government
Practice Questions

27. Party System and Pressure Groups in India

Evolution of Party System in India
Political Parties in India
Lok Sabha Elections: 1952 to 2014
Electoral process in India
Nature of the Indian Party System
Regional Political Parties in India
Political Parties: Ideological and Social Bases
Coalitional Politics in India
Pressure groups in India
Electoral Behaviour and Legislators’ Profile: Trends
Practice Questions

28. Caste, Religion, Ethnicity, Social Movements in India

Caste in Indian Politics
Religion in Indian Politics
Ethnicity and Politics
Social Movements
Practice Questions

29. Comparative Politics: Nature, Approaches, Perspectives

Comparative Politics
Comparative Politics: Approaches
Comparative politics: Perspectives
 Comparative Method and Its Limitations
Practice Questions

30. The State in Comparative Perspectives

The State: The Twentieth-Century Notion
The Changing Nature of the State in the Capitalist Economies
The Changing Nature of the State in the Socialist Economies
Nature and Role of the State in Advanced Industrial Societies
Nature and Role of the State in the Developing Societies
Developed and Developing Nations: A Comparison
A Word About the Minimal State
Practice Questions

31. Representation, Participation, Party Systems, Pressure

Groups, Social Movements
Representation: Forms and Theories
Electoral System and Elections
Political Participation
Party Systems
Pressure Groups and Interest Groups
Social Movements
Practice Questions

32. Globalisation: Perspectives

Globalisation: Meaning, Definitions, Nature
Globalisation: Evolution
Globalisation: Theories, Forms and Essence
Globalisation: Effects and Critique
Globalisation: Responses from Developed and Developing
Societies
Practice Questions
33. Approaches to the Study of International Relations
Traditional Approaches
Modern Approaches
Practice Questions

34. Key Concepts in International Relations

National Interest
Security and Power
Balance of Power and Deterrence
Transnational Actors and Collective Security
World Capitalist Economy and Globalisation
Practice Questions

35. Changing International Political Order

Rise of the Superpower
Bipolarity
Post Cold War World: Theories
Cold War, Arms and Nuclear Threat
Practice Questions

36. Non-Alignment Movement, Soviet Disintegration,

Unipolarity
Non-Alignment Movement
Collapse of the Soviet Union
Unipolarity: American Hegemony
Practice Questions

37. International Economic System: WTO, CMEA, NIEO

Development of Economy: Mercantilism, Capitalism,
Globalisation
Socialist Economies and the Council for Mutual Economic
 Assistance
Developing Nations: New International Economic Order
Summing Up
Practice Questions

38. The United Nations System

The United Nations: General
United Nations Specialised Agencies
Independent Bodies under United Nations
United Nations: Strength and Limitations
United Nations: Reforms
Practice Questions

39. The Regionalisation of World Politics: EU, ASEAN, APEC,

SAARC, NAFTA
European Union
The Association of South-East Asian Nations—ASEAN
Asia-pacific Economic Cooperation—APEC
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
North American Free Trade Agreement—NAFTA
Practice Questions

40. Contemporary Global Concerns (Democracy, Human

Rights, Environment, Gender Justice, Terrorism, Nuclear
Proliferation)
Democracy
Human Rights
Environment
Gender Justice
Terrorism
Nuclear Proliferation
 Practice Questions

41. India’s Foreign Policy and Its Role in NAM

What is a Foreign Policy?
India’s Foreign Policy and Its Determinants
Phases of India’s Foreign Policy
India’s Prime Ministers and Their Foreign Policy Visions
Foreign Policy: Old and New
India and the Non-Alignment Movement
Practice Questions

42. India and South Asia

Introduction
South Asia: India and Its Neighbours
Regional Cooperation: SAARC
Impediments of Regional Cooperation
India’s “Look East” Policy
India-ASEAN Relations
Practice Questions

43. India’s Relations with Neighbouring States (Pakistan,

Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka)
India-Pakistan Relations
India-Nepal Relations
India-Bangladesh Relations
India-Sri Lanka Relations
India Afghanistan Relations
Practice Questions

44, India and the Global South (Africa and Latin America)
Africa: Pre-Colonial, Colonial and Post-Colonial
 Latin America: Colonial and Post-Colonial Era
India-Africa Relations
India-Latin America Relations
India, WTO and NIEO
Practice Questions

45. India and the Global Centres of Powers (USA, EU, Japan,
China, Russia, France, etc.)
Relations between India and the United States
India and European Union (EU) Relations
India-Japan Trade Relations
India-China Relations
Sino-Indian War
Indo-Russia Relations
India-France Relations
Relations between India and other Countries
Practice Questions

46. India and the United Nations System

India’s Role is the United Nations System
The UN Peace-keeping Operations
India and UNPeace-keeping
India’s Demand for UN Security Council’s Permanent Seat
Practice Questions

47. India and the Nuclear Question

India: National Interest and the Nuclear Question 47.17
The Evolution of India’s Nuclear Policy 47.3
India’s Nuclear Policy
Nuclear Doctrine 47.7
Practice Questions
48. Recent Developments in Indian Foreign Policy
India’s Position in the Near North-West: Afghanistan
India’s Position on the Crisis in Iraq
India and the West Asia and Central Asia
India-USNuclearDeal
India and the Gulf War (1990-91)
India and Israel
South China Sea Issue
Present situation between ASEAN and China
India’s stand on South China Sea
India and the Vision of a New World Order
Practice Questions
 Political Theory:
Meaning And Significance

I. INTRODUCTION
uman beings are different from all other living
creatures. The other living creatures depend, for
most part of their life and living, on conditions not
made by them, and hence, do but little in changing them
through their efforts. Human beings too, though, find
themselves in a situation not made by them but do or can at
least do a lot in changing the atmosphere they live in. This
was what Marx meant when he said that man is both the
product of history as well as the maker of history. Indeed,
there were times when human beings, like all other creatures,
lived at the mercy of nature and developed in accordance
with the law of natural evolution and as such, were powerless
to make changes. But as they developed, they became
conscious of their environment and set themselves to explain
and plan modifications and improvements. Human beings,
due to their more developed mental faculties, were able to do
much more than the other living creatures who remained, and
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time the crank of the grindstone must have been turning because the
bullet and the crank are fastened together, and therefore, instead of
traveling through the air, the bullet has used up its energy in turning
the grindstone. When you get a grindstone started it is rather hard to
stop, isn’t it? And if you didn’t stop it, it would keep on turning
around, wouldn’t it? If this is true, we might as well let it clean the
cannon. As the hole “I” is connected with the gas tank, we cannot let
it force the burnt gas out there, can we? We will therefore pull out the
plug “J” in the hole “E” just as the bullet reaches the point “K” so that
in coming back it will force the burnt gases and smoke out through
the hole “E.” Now we are all ready to start over again; the cannon
has been cleaned out, and the bullet still being fastened to the
grindstone, which is turning, as a result of the explosion, would
immediately begin starting out on another outward stroke. If we put
in the plug “J” again and pull out the plug “L,” the bullet or piston as
we might call it now, will suck in another charge of gas.
Fig. 7—Grinding a valve.
Fig. 8—A section of a Cylinder
showing location of various parts—
end view.

You can see that if you had two boys, one of them to pull out the
plugs, and another to fire the charge you could keep the gun firing
steadily, and run the grindstone. After you have done this for a while
you will get tired of taking out the plugs and putting them in, and
standing there with a match lit all the time, and you would wish there
was some way to make the grindstone, which was running, do all
this for you. This is exactly what happened to some of the old
engineers, and so they set about trying to accomplish this result.
They succeeded in rigging a piece of machinery that would open and
close these holes automatically, and with the introduction of
electricity they also devised a way whereby the charge could be
ignited by an electric spark instead of a match. The plugs which
cover the holes, they called valves and the plug which contained the
electric wires, used for firing the gas, they called a spark plug.
Now let us see what we have learned in this chapter. We have
found that it takes four strokes to explode one charge of gas
1. Suction stroke, during which the gas is sucked into the barrel
of the cannon, or cylinder as it is called.
2. The compression stroke, during which the gas is compressed
so that it will burn easier.
3. The explosive stroke, or working stroke, called so on account
of the fact that the explosive force of the gas is used to turn the
wheel.
4. The cleansing, or exhaust stroke, during which the burnt gas
and smoke is forced out of the barrel.
For this reason, a gas engine which works on this principle is
called a Four-Stroke Cycle Engine. It requires four strokes to
complete the entire operation and bring it back to the beginning
ready to start over again.
 THE CYLINDER
So far we have confined ourselves to the parts of a cannon, but
now that we are going to take up the study of the motor in its details
let us call them by their regular names. The barrel of the cannon we
will call a cylinder. In an actual motor a cylinder is made out of cast
iron, carefully bored out inside, so that the hole is perfectly round,
and the sides of the wall as smooth as possible.

Fig. 9.

You will realize that this is necessary as we want to reduce, as much

as possible, any rubbing or friction, as it is called, between the piston
and cylinder walls. Next we must provide some means of cooling
these walls, as you know that the continuous firing would soon make
them very hot. This is done by surrounding the cylinder with what is
known as a water jacket through which water can be circulated,
thereby carrying off the heat, and keeping the iron from getting red
hot. We must also cut two holes in the side of the cylinder to make
places for the valves and a place for the spark plug.

Fig. 10—End view of Horizontal One-cylinder Motor, showing piston,

valves and valve mechanism.

A cylinder is generally mounted on its side in a one cylinder

engine, and is set up on end when it is desired to use more than
one. Therefore, in a one cylinder motor you will notice that the piston
moves back and forth, whereas in a two-cylinder, four-cylinder or six-
cylinder type, the pistons move up and down. As far as the action of
the parts is concerned they work in exactly the same way, only that
the valve mechanism has to be changed somewhat.
The cylinder is bolted to a framework called the crank case
which furnishes a solid foundation upon which it can rest.
 VALVES
You will remember that in first discussing the drawing in and
cleaning out of the gas that two holes had to be cut in the sides of
the cylinder wall. One of these through which the fresh gas might be
sucked in, and the other through which the burnt gas might be
expelled. Also remember that we kept these holes plugged except
when it was necessary to have them open to perform their work.

Fig. 11—The evolution Fig. 12—A regular

of a Valve. Valve.

Now let us take a section of a valve and see how it is made up.
You will notice first the little plug “A” which covers the hole in the
cylinder; it is tapered very much like a glass stopper in a bottle for
the reason that in this form it is easier to fit it to the opening; it can be
“ground in” in the same way that a glass stopper can, in order to
make an air-tight fit. “B” is a rod known as the valve stem, and is
simply a round piece of steel fastened to the valve plug “A.” “S” is a
valve spring which holds the valve down into the cylinder wall, or
valve-seat, as it is called. In order to open these valves you can see
that all that is necessary for you to do is to push up on the valve
stem “B.” This will raise the valve “A” away from its seat into the
position shown by the dotted lines, leaving a space all around
through which the gas may enter or leave. In an actual motor,
however, little irregular pieces of steel, cut out in general shape
shown in Fig. 14 perform the operation of raising the valve.

Fig. 13—Three positions of a Valve Cam.

Fig. 13 shows three positions of one of these revolving pieces of

steel, technically called cams, first, in the act of just starting to raise
the valve; second, its position when the valve is entirely open; third,
its position when the valve has just closed. If both valves are
operated by these cams you can see that if they are set at the proper
position they can be opened at different times and entirely
independent of each other. If you will look at Fig. 3 you will see a
complete motor, the inlet valve on the left side, and the exhaust
valve on the right side. This figure will also show you the little cams
in their various positions at different points of the four strokes.
Sometimes the two valves, instead of being on opposite sides of the
cylinder, are placed on the same side, and both cams are put on the
same shaft, which, by the way, is called a cam-shaft.

Fig. 14—Names of Valve Parts.

Fig. 14 shows two such valves, the left hand one opening, and
the right hand one closed. The extreme left hand view shows the
way they would look if viewed from the end. It also gives you the
names of all the parts.
 Fig. 7 shows how the valves are “ground in.” The way you do it is
to take the valve out, and coat it with very fine emery dust and oil,
and then put it back in place leaving off the spring, fit a wrench to it
on top as shown in the picture and twirl it around as you would a
glass stopper in a bottle until it is perfectly air-tight, after which the
valve should be removed and both it and the valve seat carefully
wiped off so that none of the emery will get into the cylinder or other
working parts of the engine and cause them to be cut.
There are several different ways of making valves and several
places to put them so that you must not always expect to find them
in the same place. Their action is the same, however, no matter
where they are situated or how they are operated, and I think with a
little examination and study you will always be able to find them and
understand how they work in any engine.
 THE PISTON
The piston forms, as you will recall, the bullet in the cannon,
which instead of leaving the barrel, was made to travel back and
forth inside of the cylinder under the action of the explosive gas.
Owing to the fact that a solid piece of iron would be very heavy and
would get very warm, the real piston used in a motor is made hollow
so that it is merely a shell. Instead of fastening the rod to the end of
it, a small rod, called the piston pin is in the center of it, and to this
the connecting rod is connected. Fig. 16 shows a section of the
piston. You will notice that the piston pin is kept from sliding
sideways by a bolt that is screwed into it.

Fig. 15—A Piston, Piston Ring, and Piston Pin.

 Owing to the fact that both the cylinder walls and piston get hot,
and that iron expands and contracts according to its temperature, it
is not possible to make a piston alone which would remain air-tight
all the time. Engineers, therefore, found it necessary to put rings,
which were cut at some point in their circumference, on the outside
of the piston itself. These piston rings, due to the fact that they are
cut, can accommodate themselves to the varying diameters of the
cylinder, and can therefore keep an air-tight fit, even when the piston
is moving back and forth all the time. Most of you, no doubt, know
that the plunger in a pump is made air-tight by one or a set of leather
washers, which, owing to their pliable structure, can expand or
contract so as to always fit air-tightly the pipe in the pump. Piston
rings work in precisely the same manner, and are always kept
lubricated so that they will work smoothly, thus doing away with any
friction which might result.

Fig. 16—A section of a Piston, showing location of

piston pin and end of connecting rods.
 THE CRANK SHAFT
Most of you are familiar with a crank as applied to a grindstone.
A crank in a motor is practically the same shape except that it is
supported on two bearings instead of one and is therefore made in
the form shown in Fig. 17. The crank shafts for two and four-cylinder
motors are only a combination of two or four of these single cranks.
Crank shafts are made up of steel, carefully forged, and then turned
and ground down to proper size to fit the bearings for which they are
intended. They are hardened and every precaution taken to keep
them from wearing. They form one of the most important parts of the
motor because they change the back and forth motion of the piston
into the rotary motion of the fly wheel. The fly wheel in our former
illustration was represented by the grindstone itself. In the real motor
the fly wheel is made of cast iron, and after being carefully balanced
so that it turns evenly, it is securely bolted to the crank shaft, so that
they practically form one piece.

Fig. 17—A Four-cylinder Crank Shaft.

 THE CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rod, as you can guess from its name, forms the
connecting link between the piston and crank shaft, transferring the
energy of the explosive gas, acting behind the piston, to the crank
shaft and fly wheel, from which it can be transmitted to the driving
wheels of the automobile. It is made up in some such form as shown
in Fig. 18 and is made of steel or bronze. It has a bearing at each
end, the smaller one fitting around the piston pin, the larger one
surrounding a portion of the crank shaft called the crank pin. Both of
these bearings are lubricated by oil which splashes up from the
bottom of the crank case when the engine is running. You will notice
that one of the bearings is cut in two and bolted together so that you
can take it off from the crank shaft, should you wish to examine it.

Fig. 18—A typical Connecting Rod.

Fig. 19—The two halves of the
Connecting Rod Bearing.
 THE CRANK CASE
The crank case of a motor serves as a foundation for the engine,
furnishes a support for the main bearings in which the crank shaft
revolves and encloses the working parts in such a way as to provide
for their lubrication and protect them from the dust and other
substances which might materially hinder the proper performance of
their functions. To a certain extent the crank case might be
compared to the framework of the grindstone, although the latter
does not answer as many purposes as the real crank case of the
motor does.

Fig. 20—The two halves of a Four-cylinder Crank Case.

 The case itself is made of iron or aluminum, and is so put
together that, although practically air-tight, there is still a means
provided for getting inside of it for examination of the working parts
or an adjustment of the bearings.
 THE CARBURETOR
The carburetor or mixing chamber, as it is sometimes called, is a
device used for obtaining an explosive mixture of gasoline and air. It
consists, as shown by the accompanying drawing, of two principal
parts, an air pipe and gasoline pipe, the latter running through the
wall and discharging into the center of the former.

Fig. 21—Simple drawing of a Carburetor.

In order to make sure that the amount of gasoline flowing out of the
gasoline jet shall be just the right amount at all times it is necessary
to provide a little gasoline tank, which forms a part of the carburetor
casting itself, which is known as a float chamber, so that the amount
of gasoline in the main tank will not affect the amount discharged at
the nozzle. You can see why this is necessary if you think of a water
tank or a dam. If the water was almost up to the top of the dam and
you should bore a hole through the wall somewhere near the bottom,
the water would flow out faster than if the water was low. By putting
this little gasoline tank in the carburetor itself and keeping a certain
height of gasoline in this smaller reservoir, which always
automatically shuts off the supply at the right time, you can make the
pressure, and therefore the flow of the liquid, always the same. The
illustration will show this plainly. For instance, when the gasoline gets
low the little float will gradually drop down until the ball on the end of
the float stem will open the valve in the gasoline pipe. The gasoline
will then flow in from the tank until the proper amount has filled the
float chamber and caused the float to bob up to its former position,
carrying the ball, which closes the gasoline off, up with it. By this
means the requisite amount of gasoline is always kept in the float
chamber.
The amount of air entering the mixing chamber is controlled by
changing the size of the hole through which the air enters and the
quantity of gasoline admitted is regulated by means of a needle
valve in the gasoline pipe.
Although many carburetors, in fact most of them, do not look like
this drawing, yet their action is the same, and by careful study you
will find that the same principles enter into their construction. Fig. 22
shows an actual sectional drawing of a carburetor used on a four-
cylinder motor. In this particular carburetor, however, the float
chamber and float surround the mixing chamber, and the float valve,
instead of being directly under the float, is at the right hand side and
is operated by means of a lever. The needle valve, which is the little
round rod having a “T” handle, running up through the center of the
mixing chamber, controls the amount of gasoline flowing from the
gasoline chamber to the nozzle. The air comes up through the
bottom and around the gasoline jet. At the left you will notice a small
valve which opens downward, which you do not find on the other
carburetor. It is known as an auxiliary air valve and allows a certain
amount of air to be added to the mixture, a small quantity of which is
sometimes needed to keep the mixture just right. The throttle valve,
which looks like a damper in a stovepipe and which controls the
amount of gasoline vapor going in to the engine, will be seen in the
upper pipe.
Fig. 22—A Typical Four-cylinder
Carburetor.