BIG DATA ANALYTICS

UNIT 1

1. What are characteristics of Big Data:

Big data is characterized by several key features, often referred to as the

"3Vs" - Volume, Velocity, and Variety. Additionally, two more Vs -
Veracity and Value - are sometimes included to provide a more
comprehensive understanding. Here are the characteristics of big data:

1. Volume: Big data refers to datasets that are extremely large in size, far
beyond the capacity of traditional data processing systems to manage, store,
and analyze efficiently. The volume of data can range from terabytes to
petabytes and even exabytes.
2. Velocity: Big data is generated and collected at an unprecedented speed.
Data streams in continuously from various sources such as social media,
sensors, web logs, and transactions. The velocity of data refers to the rate at
which data is generated, captured, and processed in real-time or near real-
time.
3. Variety: Big data comes in various formats and types, including structured,
semi-structured, and unstructured data. Structured data, such as relational
databases, follows a predefined schema. Semi-structured data, like JSON or
XML files, has some organization but lacks a fixed schema. Unstructured
data, such as text, images, audio, and video, lacks any predefined structure.
4. Veracity: Veracity refers to the quality, accuracy, and reliability of the data.
Big data sources may include noisy, incomplete, inconsistent, or erroneous
data. Ensuring data veracity involves assessing data quality, detecting and
correcting errors, and maintaining data integrity throughout the data
lifecycle.
5. Value: The ultimate goal of big data analysis is to derive meaningful
insights, actionable intelligence, and business value from the vast amounts of
data collected. Extracting value from big data involves applying advanced
analytics techniques, such as data mining, machine learning, and predictive
modeling, to uncover patterns, trends, correlations, and hidden knowledge
that can inform decision-making, drive innovation, and optimize processes.

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3. What is Big Data Analytics:

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4. Types of Big Data Analytics:

5. Difference between big data analytics and big data engineering:

• In a big data analytics case study, you might explore how a
company utilized large datasets to gain insights, make data-driven
decisions, or improve business processes.
• For instance, a retail company could analyze customer purchasing
patterns to optimize inventory and marketing strategies.
• On the other hand, a big data engineering case study would focus
on the technical aspects of handling massive datasets.
• It could detail how a company redesigned its data architecture,
implemented data pipelines, or scaled its infrastructure to
efficiently process and store large volumes of data.
• An example might involve a technology firm enhancing its data
storage and processing capabilities to accommodate growing data
volumes.

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 • In summary, big data analytics case studies highlight the strategic
use of data for business insights, while big data engineering case
studies showcase the technical solutions and infrastructure
developed to handle large-scale data processing.

6. Explain architecture of a Hadoop:

Hadoop is an open-source framework for distributed storage and

processing of large-scale datasets across clusters of commodity hardware.
The architecture of Hadoop consists of several key components, each
playing a specific role in the storage, processing, and management of
data. Here's an overview of the architecture of Hadoop:

1. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):

• HDFS is the primary storage layer of Hadoop, designed to store
large datasets reliably across a cluster of machines.
• It follows a master-slave architecture with two main components:
NameNode and DataNode.
• NameNode: Manages the metadata of the file system, including
the namespace, file-to-block mapping, and access control.
• DataNode: Stores the actual data blocks and manages read and
write operations on the data.
2. Yet Another Resource Negotiator (YARN):
• YARN is the resource management and job scheduling component
of Hadoop.
• It allows multiple data processing engines to run on top of Hadoop,
enabling diverse workloads such as MapReduce, Apache Spark,
Apache Flink, and Apache Hive.
• YARN consists of ResourceManager and NodeManager.
• ResourceManager: Manages cluster resources, allocates
containers, and schedules application tasks.
• NodeManager: Runs on each worker node and manages resources
such as CPU, memory, and disk on that node.
3. MapReduce:
• MapReduce is a programming model and processing engine for
distributed data processing in Hadoop.
• It divides data processing tasks into two phases: Map and Reduce.
• Map: Processes input data and produces intermediate key-value
pairs.

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 •Reduce: Aggregates and combines intermediate key-value pairs to
generate the final output.
• MapReduce jobs are submitted to the YARN ResourceManager for
execution.
4. Hadoop Common:
• Hadoop Common contains libraries and utilities shared by other
Hadoop modules.
• It provides common functionalities such as authentication,
configuration, logging, and networking.
5. Hadoop Ecosystem:
• Hadoop ecosystem consists of various projects and tools built on
top of Hadoop core components to extend its capabilities.
• Examples include Apache Hive for SQL-like querying, Apache Pig
for data flow scripting, Apache HBase for NoSQL database,
Apache Spark for in-memory processing, Apache Kafka for real-
time data streaming, and many others.

The architecture of Hadoop is designed to be scalable, fault-tolerant, and

cost-effective, making it suitable for processing and analyzing large
volumes of data across distributed clusters. It enables organizations to
store, process, and derive insights from big data, driving innovation,
decision-making, and business value across various industries.

7. What are the different components of HDFS:

The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) comprises several
components that work together to store and manage large datasets across
a cluster of machines. These components include:

1. NameNode:
• The NameNode is the master node in the HDFS architecture.
• It manages the metadata of the file system, including the
namespace hierarchy, file permissions, and file-to-block mappings.
• The NameNode stores metadata in memory for faster access and
periodically persists it to the disk in the form of the fsimage and
edits log files.
• The failure of the NameNode can lead to the unavailability of the
entire file system, making it a single point of failure. To mitigate
this, Hadoop provides mechanisms like high availability (HA)
through a secondary NameNode and tools like Hadoop Federation
and Hadoop Cluster.
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2. DataNode:
• DataNodes are worker nodes in the HDFS architecture.
• They store the actual data blocks that make up the files in HDFS.
• DataNodes communicate with the NameNode to report the list of
blocks they are storing and to replicate or delete blocks based on
instructions from the NameNode.
• DataNodes are responsible for serving read and write requests from
clients and other Hadoop components.
3. Secondary NameNode:
• Despite its name, the Secondary NameNode does not act as a
standby or backup NameNode.
• Its primary role is to periodically merge the fsimage and edits log
files produced by the NameNode to prevent them from growing
indefinitely.
• The Secondary NameNode generates a new combined image of the
file system, which is then sent back to the NameNode to replace
the current fsimage file.
• This process helps reduce the startup time of the NameNode in
case of failure and minimizes the risk of data loss in the event of
NameNode failure.

8. What are different components of YARN:

YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator) is the resource management
and job scheduling component of Hadoop. It enables multiple data
processing engines to run on top of Hadoop, allowing for diverse
workloads such as MapReduce, Apache Spark, Apache Flink, and
Apache Hive. YARN consists of several key components that work
together to manage resources and schedule tasks efficiently across a
Hadoop cluster. These components include:

1. ResourceManager (RM):
• The ResourceManager is the master daemon in the YARN
architecture.
• It is responsible for managing and allocating cluster resources
among different applications.
• The ResourceManager consists of two main components:
• Scheduler: Allocates resources to various applications based
on their resource requirements, scheduling policies, and
constraints.
• ApplicationManager: Manages the lifecycle of applications
running on the cluster, including submission, monitoring,
and termination.

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2. NodeManager (NM):
• NodeManagers are worker nodes in the YARN architecture.
• They run on each node in the Hadoop cluster and are responsible
for managing resources such as CPU, memory, and disk on that
node.
• NodeManagers report resource availability and health status to the
ResourceManager and execute tasks allocated to them by the
ResourceManager.
• NodeManagers monitor the resource usage of containers running
on the node and report back to the ResourceManager for resource
accounting and monitoring.
3. ApplicationMaster (AM):
• The ApplicationMaster is a per-application component responsible
for coordinating and managing the execution of a specific
application on the cluster.
• When a client submits an application to run on the cluster, YARN
launches an ApplicationMaster instance for that application.
• The ApplicationMaster negotiates with the ResourceManager for
resources, requests containers from NodeManagers, monitors the
progress of tasks, and handles failures and retries.
• Each application running on the cluster has its own
ApplicationMaster instance, ensuring isolation and resource
management at the application level.

9. Explain commands of HDFS:

In HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System), you interact with the file
system using command-line tools or APIs provided by Hadoop. Below
are some commonly used commands for interacting with HDFS:

1. hadoop fs:
• This is the main command used to interact with HDFS. It has
various subcommands to perform different operations.
2. hadoop fs -ls:
• Lists the contents of a directory in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -ls /user
3. hadoop fs -mkdir:
• Creates a directory in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -mkdir /user/mydirectory
4. hadoop fs -put:
• Copies files or directories from the local file system to HDFS.

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 • Example: hadoop fs -put localfile.txt /user/mydirectory
5. hadoop fs -get:
• Copies files or directories from HDFS to the local file system.
• Example: hadoop fs -get /user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt
localfile.txt
6. hadoop fs -rm:
• Deletes files or directories in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -rm /user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt
7. hadoop fs -cat:
• Displays the contents of a file in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -cat /user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt
8. hadoop fs -copyToLocal:
• Copies files or directories from HDFS to the local file system.
• Example: hadoop fs -copyToLocal
/user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt localfile.txt
9. hadoop fs -copyFromLocal:
• Copies files or directories from the local file system to HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -copyFromLocal localfile.txt
/user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt
10. hadoop fs -du:
• Displays the disk usage of files and directories in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -du /user/mydirectory
11. hadoop fs -chmod:
• Changes the permissions of files or directories in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -chmod 777 /user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt
12. hadoop fs -chown:
• Changes the owner of files or directories in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -chown username /user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt
13. hadoop fs -chgrp:
• Changes the group of files or directories in HDFS.
• Example: hadoop fs -chgrp groupname /user/mydirectory/hdfsfile.txt

10. Explain working of Map Reduce:

Sure, here's a brief explanation of how MapReduce works in Hadoop:

1. **Map Phase**:
- Input data is divided into smaller chunks called input splits.

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 - Each input split is processed by a map function, which generates a set of
intermediate key-value pairs.
- The map function is designed to operate independently on each input
split, allowing for parallel processing across multiple nodes in the Hadoop
cluster.

2. **Shuffle and Sort**:

- The intermediate key-value pairs generated by the map functions are
shuffled and sorted based on their keys.
- This phase ensures that all values associated with the same key are
grouped together, preparing the data for the reduce phase.

3. **Reduce Phase**:
- The sorted intermediate key-value pairs are passed to the reduce function.
- The reduce function aggregates the values associated with each key,
typically performing some form of aggregation or summarization.
- Like the map phase, the reduce phase is designed for parallel execution
across multiple nodes in the cluster.

4. **Output**:
- The output of the reduce phase is the final result of the MapReduce job.
- The output is typically written to distributed storage, such as HDFS
(Hadoop Distributed File System), making it available for further processing
or analysis.

5. **Fault Tolerance and Scalability**:

- MapReduce provides built-in fault tolerance by replicating intermediate
data and re-executing failed tasks on other nodes.
- It is highly scalable, allowing Hadoop clusters to handle large volumes of
data by distributing processing across numerous nodes.

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 - This scalability and fault tolerance make MapReduce an effective
framework for processing big data in distributed environments like Hadoop.
11. Case study on big data analytics:

• Challenge:
A leading retail chain faced challenges in optimizing its inventory
management and enhancing customer satisfaction. The company
struggled with stockouts, excess inventory, and lacked insights into
customer preferences, leading to suboptimal stocking decisions.
• Solution:
The retail chain implemented a comprehensive big data analytics
solution to address these challenges.
• Steps Taken:
Data Collection
Customer Segmentation
Demand Forecasting
Inventory Optimization
Personalized Marketing
• Results:
Reduced Stockouts and Excess Inventory:
Improved Customer Satisfaction:
Increased customer loyalty and repeat business.
Increased Revenue:
Operational Efficiency:
• Conclusion:
This case study demonstrates how big data analytics can transform
retail operations by providing actionable insights. The implemented
solution not only optimized inventory management but also enhanced
the overall customer experience, leading to increased revenue and
operational efficiency.

12. Case study on big data analytics:

• Steps Taken:
Data Infrastructure Overhaul.
Upgraded the data infrastructure to a distributed and scalable architecture.
Adopted big data technologies such as Apache Hadoop and Apache Spark
for distributed processing.
• Real-time Data Ingestion:

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 Implemented a real-time data ingestion pipeline to capture sales
transactions, customer interactions, and inventory updates in real-time.
Utilized Apache Kafka for seamless and scalable event streaming.
• Data Storage Optimization:
Employed distributed storage solutions like Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS) for efficient and cost-effective storage of large datasets.
Utilized data compression techniques to optimize storage space.
• Data Processing and Transformation:
Developed data processing pipelines using Apache Spark for efficient and
parallelized data transformation.
Applied data cleaning and enrichment processes to enhance the quality of
incoming data.
• Integration with Inventory Systems:
Integrated the big data infrastructure with the inventory management
system for real-time updates.
Enabled automated triggers for inventory replenishment based on demand
forecasts.
• Results:
Real-time Insights
Scalability and Performance
Cost Savings
Improved Inventory Management

13. How do we submit MapReduce job to YARN?

Submitting a MapReduce job to YARN (Yet Another
Resource Negotiator) in a Hadoop cluster involves several steps:

1. **Prepare Job Configuration**:

- Define the configuration settings for the MapReduce job, including
input/output paths, mapper and reducer classes, input/output formats, etc.
- This configuration specifies how the job will be executed within the
YARN framework.

2. **Package Application**:

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 - Package your MapReduce application into a JAR (Java Archive) file
along with any required dependencies.
- Ensure that the JAR file contains all necessary classes and resources
for running the job.

3. **Submit Job to YARN**:

- Use the Hadoop command-line interface or an API (such as the
Hadoop Java API) to submit the MapReduce job to the YARN
ResourceManager.
- Specify the JAR file containing your application, along with any
additional configuration parameters.

4. **ResourceManager Schedules Tasks**:

- The YARN ResourceManager receives the job submission and
coordinates the allocation of resources across the cluster.
- It schedules map and reduce tasks on available NodeManagers based
on resource availability and job requirements.

5. **Monitor Job Progress**:

- Monitor the progress of the MapReduce job using the YARN
ResourceManager web interface, command-line tools (such as `yarn
application -status`), or monitoring APIs.
- Track the completion status, resource usage, and performance metrics
of the job to ensure it executes successfully and efficiently.

Submitting a MapReduce job to YARN involves configuring the job,

packaging it into a JAR file, submitting it to the ResourceManager,
monitoring its progress, and analyzing the results upon completion.
14. Explain with example hadoop cluster:

Consider a Hadoop cluster comprising several physical or virtual

machines, each with its own processing power, memory, and storage
capacity. Let's say our cluster consists of the following nodes:
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1. NameNode (Master Node): Responsible for storing metadata and
coordinating file system operations.
2. Secondary NameNode (Optional): Assists the NameNode by performing
periodic checkpoints and merging edit logs.
3. ResourceManager (Master Node): Manages resources and schedules
jobs across the cluster.
4. DataNodes (Worker Nodes): Store data blocks and perform data
processing tasks.
5. NodeManagers (Worker Nodes): Manage resources and execute tasks on
behalf of the ResourceManager.

Now, let's walk through an example of how this Hadoop cluster would
work with a MapReduce job:

1. Job Submission:
• A user submits a MapReduce job to the Hadoop cluster, specifying
the input data location, map and reduce functions, and any other
job configurations.
• The job is submitted to the ResourceManager, which assigns it an
application ID and schedules it for execution.
2. Job Initialization:
• The ResourceManager communicates with the NameNode to
determine the location of input data blocks.
• The ResourceManager selects NodeManagers to run the map and
reduce tasks based on resource availability and scheduling policies.
• The ResourceManager launches an ApplicationMaster for the job,
which is responsible for managing the job's execution.
3. Map Phase:
• The ApplicationMaster negotiates with the ResourceManager to
allocate resources for map tasks.
• NodeManagers execute map tasks in parallel across the cluster,
reading input data blocks from DataNodes and applying the user-
defined map function.
• Intermediate key-value pairs are generated by the map tasks and
partitioned based on keys.
• The output of the map tasks is written to local disk and buffered
until it is ready for the shuffle and sort phase.
4. Shuffle and Sort:
• Intermediate key-value pairs generated by map tasks are shuffled
and sorted based on keys.
• The shuffle and sort process involves transferring data over the
network from map tasks to reduce tasks and grouping data by key.

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 • This phase ensures that all values associated with the same key are
sent to the same reducer for processing.
5. Reduce Phase:
• The ApplicationMaster negotiates with the ResourceManager to
allocate resources for reduce tasks.
• NodeManagers execute reduce tasks in parallel across the cluster,
reading intermediate data from map tasks and applying the user-
defined reduce function.
• The reduce tasks aggregate and process the intermediate key-value
pairs to generate the final output.
6. Output:
• The final output of the MapReduce job is written to HDFS or
another distributed file system.
• Each reducer produces its output file, which contains the final
results of the computation.
• The output files can be accessed by the user for further analysis or
processing.

Throughout this process, Hadoop provides fault tolerance by

automatically handling failures and rerunning tasks as needed. It also
optimizes resource utilization by dynamically allocating resources based
on job requirements and cluster availability. Overall, the Hadoop cluster
efficiently processes large-scale data workloads in a distributed and fault-
tolerant manner, enabling organizations to derive insights and value from
their data.

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 Unit 2
Hive:
1. Compare HQL with SQL?
Hive Query Language (HQL) and Structured Query Language (SQL) are
both used for querying and manipulating data in databases. While they
serve similar purposes, there are some differences between them,
particularly in the context of Hive in Big Data environments:

1. Syntax:
• SQL follows a standard syntax defined by ANSI (American
National Standards Institute).
• HQL, on the other hand, is a SQL-like language specific to Hive.
While it resembles SQL, it may have some variations and
additional features specific to Hive.
2. Use Case:
• SQL is used in traditional relational database management systems
(RDBMS) like MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, etc.
• HQL is used in Apache Hive, which is a data warehouse
infrastructure built on top of Hadoop. It provides SQL-like
interface to query and analyze data stored in Hadoop Distributed
File System (HDFS).
3. Data Model:
• SQL typically operates on structured data stored in tables with
fixed schemas.
• Hive and HQL, being part of the Hadoop ecosystem, are designed
to handle semi-structured and unstructured data as well. They can
work with data stored in various formats like CSV, JSON, Avro,
etc., and can handle schema-on-read, meaning the schema can be
applied at the time of querying rather than enforcing it at the time
of data ingestion.
4. Performance:
• SQL queries in traditional databases are optimized for relational
data processing engines.
• HQL queries are optimized for distributed processing engines like
Apache Tez or Apache Spark, which are used in Hive. These
engines are designed to process large volumes of data distributed
across a cluster of nodes.
5. Ecosystem Integration:

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 •SQL is widely supported across various database management
systems and has a rich ecosystem of tools and libraries.
• HQL integrates with the Hadoop ecosystem, which includes tools
like Apache Spark, Apache Pig, Apache HBase, etc. It can leverage
these tools for various data processing tasks.
6. Complexity:
• SQL syntax is generally more concise and straightforward
compared to HQL.
• HQL, being designed for distributed computing environments, may
have additional features and complexities to handle distributed data
processing efficiently.

In summary, while SQL and HQL serve similar purposes of querying and
manipulating data, they are tailored for different environments and have
some differences in syntax, use cases, data model, performance
optimization, ecosystem integration, and complexity.

2. How is Hive a data warehousing framework?

Hive is considered a data warehousing framework primarily because of
its ability to provide a structured, query-based interface to data stored in
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) or other compatible storage
systems. Here are several key aspects that contribute to Hive being
classified as a data warehousing framework:

1. Schema-on-Read: Unlike traditional relational databases where data

must adhere to a predefined schema before being ingested, Hive allows
for schema-on-read. This means that data can be stored in its raw or semi-
structured form within HDFS, and the schema is applied at the time of
querying, rather than during data ingestion. This flexibility enables Hive
to handle a variety of data formats and evolving schemas, which is a
common requirement in data warehousing scenarios.
2. SQL-Like Interface: Hive provides a SQL-like language called Hive
Query Language (HQL) that allows users to write queries using familiar
SQL syntax. This makes it accessible to analysts, data scientists, and
other users who are already proficient in SQL, thereby lowering the
barrier to entry for querying and analyzing large datasets.
3. Batch Processing: Hive is optimized for batch processing workloads,
making it suitable for running complex analytical queries over large
volumes of data. It leverages distributed processing frameworks like
Apache Tez or Apache Spark to execute queries in parallel across a
cluster of nodes, enabling efficient processing of big data workloads.

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4. Metadata Management: Hive maintains metadata about the data stored
in HDFS, including information about tables, partitions, columns, and file
locations. This metadata is stored in a relational database (e.g., Apache
Derby, MySQL, PostgreSQL), known as the Hive Metastore. By
managing metadata separately from the data itself, Hive provides a
centralized catalog that facilitates data discovery, schema evolution, and
query optimization.
5. Data Integration: Hive integrates with various data ingestion tools, such
as Apache Flume, Apache Sqoop, and Apache NiFi, allowing users to
easily import data from external sources into the Hadoop ecosystem for
analysis and processing.
6. Scalability and Fault Tolerance: Hive is designed to scale horizontally
across a cluster of commodity hardware, allowing organizations to store
and process petabytes of data cost-effectively. It also provides fault
tolerance mechanisms to handle node failures gracefully and ensure high
availability of data and query processing capabilities.

Overall, Hive's combination of SQL-like querying, schema-on-read

flexibility, batch processing capabilities, metadata management, data
integration, scalability, and fault tolerance make it well-suited for
building data warehousing solutions on top of Hadoop and other
distributed storage systems.

3. Different ways of loading data in Hive Table?

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4. What are the different types of queries that helps in data analytics
with Hive?

5. Different types of NoSQL database?

NoSQL databases are designed to handle unstructured, semi-structured,
and structured data, providing flexibility, scalability, and high
availability. There are several types of NoSQL databases, each optimized
for specific use cases and data models. Here are some common types of
NoSQL databases:

1. Document Stores: Document-oriented databases store data in flexible,

JSON-like documents. Each document can have its own structure, and the

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 database typically provides indexing and querying capabilities based on
the document contents. Examples include:
• MongoDB
• Couchbase
• CouchDB
• Amazon DocumentDB
2. Key-Value Stores: Key-value stores use a simple schema where data is
stored as key-value pairs. These databases offer high performance and
scalability for simple read and write operations but may lack advanced
querying capabilities. Examples include:
• Redis
• Apache Cassandra
• Amazon DynamoDB
• Riak
3. Wide-Column Stores: Wide-column stores organize data into columns
instead of rows, allowing for efficient storage and retrieval of large
datasets. They are particularly well-suited for analytical workloads and
time-series data. Examples include:
• Apache Cassandra
• Apache HBase
• ScyllaDB
• Google Bigtable
4. Graph Databases: Graph databases model data as graphs consisting of
nodes, edges, and properties. They excel at representing and querying
relationships between data entities, making them ideal for applications
such as social networks, recommendation engines, and network analysis.
Examples include:
• Neo4j
• Amazon Neptune
• TigerGraph
• ArangoDB
5. Column-Family Stores: Column-family stores organize data into
column families, similar to wide-column stores but with additional
features like compression and configurable consistency levels. They are
often used for real-time analytics and time-series data. Examples include:
• Apache Cassandra
• Apache HBase
• Apache Kudu
6. Object Stores: Object stores are optimized for storing and retrieving
binary large objects (BLOBs) and multimedia files, such as images,
videos, and documents. They provide scalable and durable storage for
unstructured data. Examples include:

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 • Amazon S3 (Simple Storage Service)
• Google Cloud Storage
• Azure Blob Storage

These are some of the common types of NoSQL databases, each offering
unique features and capabilities tailored to different use cases and data
models. Choosing the right type of NoSQL database depends on factors
such as the nature of the data, performance requirements, scalability
needs, and application architecture.

6. Explain Architecture of column oriented database?

The architecture of a column-oriented database in Hive, often referred to
as a columnar storage format, revolves around storing data by columns
rather than by rows. This design provides several advantages for
analytical workloads, such as faster query performance, better
compression, and efficient data retrieval. Below is an overview of the
architecture of a column-oriented database in Hive:

1. Data Storage:
• In a column-oriented database, data is stored in columnar format
rather than row-wise. This means that values from the same
column are stored contiguously on disk.
• Each column is stored as a separate file or set of files on the
underlying distributed file system (e.g., Hadoop Distributed File
System - HDFS).
• This storage layout allows for efficient data compression and
encoding techniques tailored to the characteristics of each column,
resulting in reduced storage requirements and faster query
processing.
2. File Formats:
• Hive supports various columnar storage formats optimized for
analytical queries, including ORC (Optimized Row Columnar),
Parquet, and Avro.
• ORC and Parquet are the most commonly used formats in Hive for
columnar storage due to their efficient compression, encoding, and
support for predicate pushdown and column pruning optimizations.
• These file formats store column metadata along with the actual
data, allowing for schema evolution and efficient data access.
3. Query Processing:
• When executing queries in Hive, the query engine leverages the
columnar storage format to optimize query performance.

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 • During query execution, the query optimizer can skip reading
entire columns that are not needed for the query, resulting in
reduced I/O overhead and improved query speed.
• Predicate pushdown optimizations allow the query engine to apply
filters directly to the columnar data files, further reducing the
amount of data that needs to be read from disk.
• Columnar storage also facilitates vectorized query processing,
where operations are performed on entire columns at once, leading
to enhanced CPU efficiency and reduced memory usage.
4. Compression and Encoding:
• Columnar storage formats in Hive typically employ various
compression and encoding techniques to minimize storage space
and improve query performance.
• These techniques include dictionary encoding, run-length
encoding, delta encoding, and compression algorithms such as
Snappy, Zlib, and LZO.
• By compressing and encoding columnar data, the storage footprint
is reduced, and the amount of data transferred over the network
during query execution is minimized, leading to faster query
processing.
5. Metadata Management:
• Hive maintains metadata about the columnar data stored in the
underlying files, including information about column types,
statistics, and storage properties.
• This metadata is stored in the Hive Metastore, which allows the
query engine to efficiently access and manage columnar data
during query execution.
• Metadata management in Hive enables various optimizations, such
as predicate pushdown, column pruning, and statistics-based query
planning.

Overall, the architecture of a column-oriented database in Hive revolves

around storing data by columns in optimized file formats, leveraging
compression, encoding, and metadata management techniques to achieve
efficient query processing and data retrieval for analytical workloads.

7. How do we create an Alter Table in HBase?

In HBase, you can alter an existing table using the HBase shell or
HBase API. Here's how you can create an alter table operation
using the HBase shell:

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1. **Connect to HBase Shell**:
- Start the HBase shell by running the command `hbase shell` in
your terminal.

2. **Alter Table Syntax**:

- Use the `alter` command followed by the `alter` sub-command
to specify the operation you want to perform on the table.
- The general syntax for altering a table is:

alter 'table_name', {operation => 'operation_type', ...}

- Replace `'table_name'` with the name of the table you want to

alter.
- Specify the desired operation type and its parameters within
curly braces `{}`.

3. **Example Operations**:
- Here are some common operations you can perform with
`alter`:
- **Add Column Family**:

alter 'table_name', {NAME => 'column_family_name'}

- **Delete Column Family**:

alter 'table_name', {NAME => 'column_family_name',

METHOD => 'delete'}

- **Modify Column Family** (e.g., change compression type

or blocksize):

alter 'table_name', {NAME => 'column_family_name',

'compression' => 'new_compression_type', 'blocksize' =>
'new_blocksize'}

4. **Execute Alter Command**:

- After specifying the alter operation, press Enter to execute the
command.
- HBase will apply the specified changes to the table.
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 5. **Verify Changes**:
- You can verify that the alteration was successful by describing
the table before and after the alteration using the `describe`
command:

describe 'table_name'

- This command displays the schema of the table, including any

modifications made.

Using the HBase shell, you can easily alter existing tables by
adding, deleting, or modifying column families and their
properties. This flexibility allows you to adapt your HBase schema
to changing requirements over time.

8. What are the different ways of retrieving data in HBase?

In Apache HBase, there are several ways to retrieve data from tables,
each suited to different use cases and requirements. Here are the main
methods:

1. Get: The Get operation is used to retrieve a single row from an HBase
table based on its row key.
2. Scan: The Scan operation is used to retrieve multiple rows from an
HBase table, either all rows or a specified range of rows.
3. Filter: HBase supports various filters that can be applied during scans to
selectively retrieve data based on certain conditions. Examples of filters
include SingleColumnValueFilter, RowFilter, ColumnPrefixFilter, etc.
4. Coprocessors: HBase supports coprocessors, which are custom code that
can be executed on region servers alongside HBase operations.
Coprocessors can be used to perform custom data processing,
aggregation, filtering, and retrieval.
5. MapReduce: Apache HBase integrates with Apache Hadoop
MapReduce, allowing you to run MapReduce jobs to process and retrieve
data from HBase tables in parallel.
6. HBase Shell: The HBase shell provides a command-line interface for
interacting with HBase tables. You can use commands like get, scan, and
filter to retrieve data interactively.

These are some of the main methods for retrieving data from Apache
HBase tables. The choice of method depends on factors such as the

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 volume of data, the required latency, the complexity of retrieval
conditions, and the need for custom processing.

9. Queries on Hive?

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10. Queries on HBase?

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Kafka:
1. What are the 2 types of Messaging System?
In Apache Kafka, there are two main types of messaging systems:
publish-subscribe and message queue. These messaging paradigms cater
to different use cases and provide distinct communication patterns:

1. Publish-Subscribe:
• In a publish-subscribe (pub-sub) messaging system, messages are
published to topics, and multiple consumers can subscribe to these
topics to receive messages.
• Each message published to a topic is broadcasted to all subscribers.
• Subscribers can consume messages independently and
concurrently, and they don't affect each other's message
consumption.
• This pattern is well-suited for scenarios where multiple consumers
need to receive and process messages independently, such as real-
time analytics, event-driven architectures, and data distribution.
• Kafka implements the pub-sub pattern through its topics and
consumer groups.
2. Message Queue:
• In a message queue messaging system, messages are sent to a
queue, and consumers pull messages from the queue in a first-in-
first-out (FIFO) manner.
• Each message is typically consumed by only one consumer. Once a
message is consumed, it is removed from the queue.
• Message queues are often used to implement point-to-point
communication between producers and consumers, where each
message is processed by exactly one consumer.
• This pattern is suitable for scenarios where messages need to be
processed in a sequential order, such as task distribution, job
processing, and request-reply interactions.
• While Kafka primarily follows the pub-sub pattern, it can also be
used to emulate message queue behavior by having each consumer
group consume messages from a topic.

In summary, the two types of messaging systems in Kafka are publish-

subscribe and message queue. Kafka primarily follows the publish-
subscribe pattern, but it can also support message queue-like behavior
depending on how consumers are configured to consume messages from
topics.

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2. Explain with diagram Apache Kafka as a messaging system?

Explanation of components:

1. Kafka Cluster/Broker:
• Consists of one or more Kafka brokers forming a cluster.
• Each broker is responsible for handling incoming and
outgoing messages, as well as storing and replicating data.
• Brokers collectively manage the topics, partitions, and
replication of data across the cluster.
2. Topics:
• Kafka topics are logical channels for organizing and
categorizing messages.
• Each topic is divided into one or more partitions to allow for
parallel processing and scalability.
• Topics can have multiple producers and consumers.
3. Partitions:
• Each topic is divided into partitions, which are individual
logs of messages.
• Partitions allow for parallel processing and scalability by
distributing data across multiple brokers.
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 • Messages within a partition are ordered and immutable,
meaning that new messages are appended to the end of the
partition.
4. Producers:
• Producers are responsible for publishing messages to Kafka
topics.
• Producers can send messages to one or more topics, and
Kafka ensures that messages are evenly distributed across
partitions.
5. Consumers:
• Consumers subscribe to one or more topics to receive
messages published by producers.
• Consumers can consume messages from one or more
partitions within a topic.
• Kafka provides consumer groups to allow multiple
consumers to work together to consume messages from a
topic.

In summary, Apache Kafka operates as a distributed messaging

system with topics, partitions, producers, and consumers. It
provides high throughput, fault tolerance, and horizontal
scalability, making it suitable for handling large volumes of real-
time data streams.

3. Explain with diagram Apache Kafka Architecture?

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Explanation of components:

1. Kafka Cluster:
• Consists of one or more Kafka brokers forming a cluster.
• Each broker is a Kafka server responsible for handling client
requests, storing data, and replicating data across the cluster.
• Brokers collectively manage the topics, partitions, and
replication of data.
2. Broker:
• A Kafka broker is a single Kafka server instance within the
cluster.
• Each broker is identified by a unique broker ID and can
handle a portion of the data and client requests in the cluster.
• Brokers communicate with each other to maintain cluster
metadata, handle partition leadership, and replicate data for
fault tolerance.
3. Topics:
• Kafka topics are logical channels for organizing and
categorizing messages.
• Each topic is divided into one or more partitions to allow for
parallel processing and scalability.
• Topics can have multiple producers and consumers, and
Kafka ensures that messages are evenly distributed across
partitions.
4. Partitions:
• Each topic is divided into partitions, which are individual
logs of messages.
• Partitions allow for parallel processing and scalability by
distributing data across multiple brokers.
• Messages within a partition are ordered and immutable,
meaning that new messages are appended to the end of the
partition.
5. ZooKeeper:
• Kafka relies on Apache ZooKeeper for distributed
coordination and management of cluster metadata.
• ZooKeeper maintains information about brokers, topics,
partitions, and consumer groups.
• It handles tasks such as leader election, cluster membership,
and configuration management.

In summary, Apache Kafka's architecture revolves around a cluster

of brokers, topics, partitions, and ZooKeeper for coordination and

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 management. This architecture provides fault tolerance, horizontal
scalability, and high throughput, making Kafka suitable for
handling large-scale real-time data streams.

4. What are the different types of Kafka APIs?

Apache Kafka provides several APIs that allow developers to interact
with Kafka clusters, produce and consume messages, and manage Kafka
resources. Here are the main types of Kafka APIs:

1. Producer API:
• The Producer API is used to publish (produce) messages to Kafka
topics.
• Producers can send messages synchronously or asynchronously
and can specify message keys and partitions.
• Messages are sent to Kafka brokers for storage and replication
across the cluster.
• Producers can handle message retries, acknowledgments, and
batching for improved performance and reliability.
2. Consumer API:
• The Consumer API is used to consume messages from Kafka
topics.
• Consumers subscribe to one or more topics and receive messages
published to those topics by producers.
• Consumers can specify the starting offset, partition assignment
strategy, and group ID for message consumption.
• Kafka provides both low-level and high-level consumer APIs,
allowing consumers to control message fetching, processing, and
offset management.
3. Streams API:
• The Streams API enables developers to build real-time stream
processing applications using Kafka.
• It allows developers to create and manipulate streams of data from
Kafka topics, perform transformations, aggregations, and join
operations, and produce output streams to other Kafka topics.
• The Streams API is built on top of the Producer and Consumer
APIs and provides a high-level DSL (Domain-Specific Language)
for stream processing.
4. Admin API:
• The Admin API is used to manage Kafka resources such as topics,
partitions, and consumer groups.

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 •It allows administrators to create, delete, modify, and describe
topics, as well as configure broker settings, offsets, and quotas.
• The Admin API provides programmatic access to administrative
tasks that were previously performed through command-line tools
or configuration files.
5. Connector API:
• The Connector API allows developers to build and deploy Kafka
Connect connectors for integrating Kafka with external systems.
• Connectors are used to import data into Kafka topics (source
connectors) or export data from Kafka topics to external systems
(sink connectors).
• Kafka Connect provides a framework for building scalable, fault-
tolerant data pipelines between Kafka and various data sources and
sinks.

These are the main types of APIs provided by Apache Kafka for
interacting with Kafka clusters, producing and consuming messages,
processing data streams, managing resources, and integrating with
external systems. Each API serves different use cases and provides
distinct functionalities for building robust and scalable distributed
systems with Kafka.

5. Explain the terms: streams, topic and offset in Kafka?

1. Streams:
• In Kafka, a stream refers to an unbounded, continuously
flowing sequence of data records.
• Streams represent the real-time flow of events or messages from
producers to consumers within a Kafka cluster.
• Streams can be processed in real-time to perform various
transformations, aggregations, and computations, allowing
developers to build complex stream processing applications.
• Kafka Streams is a Java library provided by Apache Kafka for
building scalable and fault-tolerant stream processing
applications using Kafka topics as the source and sink of data.
2. Topic:
• A topic is a named category or channel to which records
(messages) are published by producers and from which records
are consumed by consumers within a Kafka cluster.
• Topics in Kafka serve as the primary abstraction for organizing
and categorizing data streams.

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 • Each topic is identified by a unique name and can have one or
more partitions, which allow for parallel processing and
scalability.
• Producers publish messages to specific topics, and consumers
subscribe to topics to receive and process messages.
3. Offset:
• An offset is a unique identifier assigned to each message within
a partition of a Kafka topic.
• Offsets are used to track the position of a consumer within a
partition, indicating which messages have been consumed and
processed by the consumer.
• Kafka retains message offsets even after messages have been
consumed, allowing consumers to resume processing from the
last consumed offset in case of failure or restart.
• Offsets are managed by Kafka consumers and are stored either
locally (in consumer memory or disk) or remotely (in Kafka
brokers or external systems) depending on the consumer's
configuration.

In summary, streams represent the continuous flow of data records in

Kafka, topics serve as named channels for organizing data streams,
and offsets are unique identifiers used to track the position of
consumers within partitions of Kafka topics. These concepts are
fundamental to understanding how data flows and is processed within
Kafka clusters.

6. What are the different Kafka Components?

1. Broker:
• A Kafka broker is a single Kafka server instance within the Kafka
cluster.
• Brokers are responsible for handling client requests, storing and
replicating data, and maintaining cluster metadata.
• Each broker is identified by a unique broker ID and can
communicate with other brokers to manage topics, partitions, and
data replication.
2. Topic:
• A topic is a named category or channel to which records
(messages) are published by producers and from which records are
consumed by consumers within a Kafka cluster.
• Topics serve as the primary abstraction for organizing and
categorizing data streams.

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 • Each topic can have one or more partitions, which allow for
parallel processing and scalability.
3. Partition:
• A partition is a subset of a Kafka topic's data, consisting of an
ordered sequence of messages.
• Partitions allow Kafka to distribute and parallelize message storage
and processing across multiple brokers and consumers.
• Messages within a partition are immutable and ordered by their
offset within the partition.
4. Producer:
• A Kafka producer is a client application responsible for publishing
(producing) messages to Kafka topics.
• Producers can send messages to one or more topics and can specify
message keys and partitions.
• Producers can send messages synchronously or asynchronously
and handle message retries, acknowledgments, and batching.
5. Consumer:
• A Kafka consumer is a client application responsible for
consuming messages from Kafka topics.
• Consumers subscribe to one or more topics and receive messages
published to those topics by producers.
• Consumers can specify the starting offset, partition assignment
strategy, and group ID for message consumption.
• Kafka provides both low-level and high-level consumer APIs for
controlling message fetching, processing, and offset management.
6. ZooKeeper:
• Apache ZooKeeper is a centralized coordination service used by
Kafka for distributed management and synchronization of cluster
metadata.
• ZooKeeper maintains information about brokers, topics, partitions,
and consumer groups.
• It handles tasks such as leader election, cluster membership, and
configuration management.
7. Kafka Connect:
• Kafka Connect is a framework and runtime environment for
building and deploying Kafka connectors.
• Connectors are used to integrate Kafka with external systems by
importing data into Kafka topics (source connectors) or exporting
data from Kafka topics to external systems (sink connectors).
• Kafka Connect simplifies the development, deployment, and
management of scalable, fault-tolerant data pipelines between
Kafka and various data sources and sinks.

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 These are the main components of Apache Kafka that work together to
provide a distributed streaming platform for building real-time data
pipelines. Each component plays a specific role in managing, producing,
and consuming data within Kafka clusters.

7. Write any 5 features of Kafka?

1. Scalability:
• Kafka is designed to scale horizontally across multiple servers
(brokers) to handle large volumes of data and high throughput.
• Additional brokers can be added to a Kafka cluster to increase
capacity and handle increasing data loads.
• Kafka partitions data across multiple brokers, allowing for parallel
processing and improved scalability.
2. Fault Tolerance:
• Kafka provides fault tolerance by replicating data across multiple
brokers within a cluster.
• Each partition of a topic can have multiple replicas, with one
replica designated as the leader and others as followers.
• If a broker fails, Kafka automatically fails over to the replica
partition leaders on other brokers, ensuring continuous data
availability and reliability.
3. Durability:
• Kafka persists data to disk, providing durability and fault tolerance
even in the event of broker failures.
• Messages published to Kafka topics are stored in immutable logs,
and replicas are kept in sync across brokers to ensure data
consistency and integrity.
4. High Throughput:
• Kafka is optimized for high throughput and low-latency data
processing, making it suitable for handling real-time data streams.
• Kafka uses efficient disk-based storage and batch processing
techniques to achieve high message throughput and low message
latency.
5. Real-Time Stream Processing:
• Kafka supports real-time stream processing and analytics using
Kafka Streams, a lightweight library for building scalable and
fault-tolerant stream processing applications.
• Kafka Streams allows developers to process, transform, and
analyze data streams in real-time using familiar programming
constructs like Java streams and functions.
6. Pub-Sub Messaging:

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 • Kafka follows the publish-subscribe messaging pattern, allowing
producers to publish messages to topics and consumers to
subscribe to topics to receive messages.
• Kafka topics serve as named channels for organizing and
categorizing data streams, providing a flexible and scalable
messaging model.
7. Extensibility:
• Kafka provides a plugin system for extending its functionality
through third-party plugins and connectors.
• Kafka Connect allows developers to build and deploy connectors
for integrating Kafka with external systems, enabling seamless data
import and export between Kafka and various data sources and
sinks.
8. Operational Simplicity:
• Kafka is designed for ease of deployment, management, and
operation, with built-in tools and APIs for monitoring,
management, and diagnostics.
• Kafka integrates with Apache ZooKeeper for distributed
coordination and management of cluster metadata, simplifying
cluster management and configuration.

These features make Apache Kafka a powerful and versatile platform for
building real-time data pipelines, stream processing applications, and
event-driven architectures at scale.

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