Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration

Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration
Contents
Introduction………………………………………………………..3
Chapter 1: Sedimentary Rocks …………………………………....4
Chapter 2: Depositional Environments ……………………………14
Chapter 3: Structural Geology …………………………………….18
Chapter 4: Petroleum Geology …………………………………....27
Chapter 5: Seismic Survey …………………………………….….32
Chapter 6: Seismic Data Processing ………………………………38
Chapter 7: Seismic Data Interpretation ……………………………45
Chapter 8: Well Logging & Mud Logging ………………………..53
By:
Geophysicist: Mahmoud Ahmed Sroor

Mob: 002-0129990480
E‐mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
2 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Introduction
Contouring: Process at which we make matching between points which have the same values on map to estimate
certain feature (ex: thickness, Depth)
Gridding: Process at which we divide area into smaller cells (Software is doing grid to make a contour)
Grid Cell: The smallest unit in the grid with certain dimension
Cell dimension: The dimension of the cell in the grid
Grid dimension: Dimension which bound the grid
Gridding Algorithm: Mathematical method done by software used to calculate values of the grids (ex: Triangle method)
Location
Longitude: dividing the earth longtidually by imaginary lines starts from zero
The direction of subdividing starts from middle to East West
We divide also between each Degree to Minutes & minutes also to Seconds
For example: We can describe a location as 33.30/33//W(Degree Minute System DMS)
Or 33.53 (Decimal System)
Latitude: Dividing the earth horizontally by imaginary lines starts with Equator to North South
We divide it also to Minutes & Seconds (ex: 33.30/45//N)
X‐Y System
A local system used to determine locations with respect to a reference
point
For Example: in Egypt we have 3 zones each one has its reference point
At the figure, the point location 150km North, 170 km east

Ch1: Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rock is a type of rock that is formed by sedimentation of material at the Earth's
surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes
that cause mineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals
to precipitate from a solution. Particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are
called sediment. Before being deposited, sediment was formed by weathering and erosion
in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, mass
movement or glaciers.
The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for scientific knowledge about the Earth's history,
The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology. Sedimentology is
both part of geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences, such as
geomorphology, geochemistry or structural geology.
Classification of sedimentary Minerals:
• Detrital:
A‐Residual detrital: are those of source rocks which survive from the process of weathering & mechanically
transported & redeposit (Some of them stable like Quartz or unstable like Clay minerals)
B‐Secondary detrital: are those generated by weathering process
• Chemical Precipitates:
Deposited from solutions by chemical & biochemical process
Example: Aragonite, Calcite, Gypsum, Anhydrite & Opal
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:
• Clastic or Mechanical Sediments: such as Conglomerate, Sandstone, Mudstone

• Non Clastic Sediments:
Chemical: Limestone, Chert, Gypsum, Rock salt
Biological: Fossilferous Limestone
Classification of clastic sediments based on Size of fragments:
Boulder: >256mm Cobble: 64:256mm Pebble: 4:64mm Granule: 2:4mm
Sand: 1/16:2mm Silt: 1/256:1/16mm Clay: <1/256mm

Textural elements of clastic Rocks:
• Grain Size: ‐Coarse ‐Medium ‐Fine ‐Very fine

• Grain Shape:
• Sphericity: Ratio of surface area of grain to a sphere of the same volume
• Roundness: Degree of grain rounding (Rounded, Sub rounded, Angular)
• Grain surface texture:
• Rough: indicates that the rock is Brocken & transport for short distance
• Smooth: indicates that the rock was broken & transport for long
distance
• Printed: indicates that the rock supposed to wind with sands
• Particle orientation Sedimentary Fabric:
• Fabric: is the arrangement of grains (‐Oriented ‐Disoriented)
• Packing: is grain to grain relationships & controlled by Digenesis
• Sorting: is the grain size distribution
• Well sorted: Narrow size range
• Medium Sorted: Wide size range
• Poorly Sorted: Large size range
Terms to describe texture of most Sedimentary Rocks:
• Fragmental texture: in Clastic or Mechanical sediments from very fine Clay to Blocks
• Crystalline texture: in Evaporites & Rock precipitated from Aqueous solutions
• Oolitic: in Limestone which is spherical or non spherical grains concentrated around nucleus
• Pisolitic: exactly like Oolitic but the grains have bigger size > 2mm diameter
• Colloform texture: result from coagulation of Colloid or Gel, which loose water, Shrinks & hardness
Sedimentary Structures:
• Primary Sedimentary Structures:

• Stratification: the arrangement of sediments in layers or strata
• Cross Bedding: produced due to the rapid deposition Graded bed
• Graded bedding: occur when a mixture of particles deposited
• Lenticular Bedding: Massive beds decrease rapidly in thickness (ex: S.S & L.S)
• Mud Cracks: occurs due to shrinkage of Mud
• Ripple Marks: formed by waves over bottom of shallow water
• Rill Marks: as the tide retreats, water left the beach finds its way back to
the sea producing a little Rivulets Ripple Mark
• Wave Marks: formed on sloping Sands of a beach by Spent wave
• Biogenic Sedimentary Structures: is fossil traces
• Secondary Sedimentary Structures:
• Concretions: ‐Spherical or irregular masses occur in sedimentary rocks
• Septaria: occur when Concretion is cracked then cracks possible to be filled of
Mud Cracks
materials
• Geodes: are cavities partially filled with crystals(composed of Qz or Calcite)

Sedimentary Structures: (due to Tukar book)
• Erosional Sedimentary Structures:

• Flute Marks:
• Groove Marks:
• Impact Marks: Groove Marks Flute Marks
• Depositional Sedimentary Structures:
• Bedding & Lamination
• Current Ripples, Sand dunes, Wind ripples
• Post Depositional Sedimentary structures:
• Slump Structures & Load Casts
• Biogenic Sedimentary Structures
Types of Sediments:
1. Terrigenous clastic sediments

2. Carbonate Rocks
3. Evaporites
4. Ironstones
5. Phosphate deposits
6. Siliceous sediments
7. Volcanic Rocks
1‐Terrigenous Clastic Sediments
A‐Sandstones:
Sandstone (sometimes known as Arenite) is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand‐sized minerals or rock grains.
Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earth's
crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, gray and white.
Cement is Light colored CaCO3 & Red Iron Oxide
There are many types of Sandstones such as
• Black Sandstone: if Sand contain Tin Oxide

• Argillaceous S.S.: if Sand contain Clay
• Calcareous S.S.: if Sand contain CaCO3
Grain Supported Sandstones: (Arenite)
• Arenite: when Qz > 90%

• Arkosic Arenite: Feldspar > 25% & exceeds the rock fragment
content
• Lith Arenite: Feldspar > 25% but less rock fragment content
• Phyll Arenite: is Lith Arenite but rock fragments are Shale or Slate
• Calc Lithite: is Lith Arenite but rock fragments are Limestone
Matrix Supported Sandstones: (Wacke)
• Wacke or Dirty Sandstone: when Matrix>30%

• Grey Wacke: is a heterogeneous mixture of lithic fragments and angular grains of quartz and feldspar
• Arkosic Wacke: Arkose with proportion of Matrix
Hybrid Sandstones: (S.S. which contain non clastic components)
• Glauconitic S.S.: Glauconite occurs as sand‐sized Pellets

• Phosphatic S.S.: Phosphate may be present as a cement, coprolites, or bone fragments
• Calcareous S.S.: Terrigenous clastics cemented by Calcite
B‐Conglomerates:
Conglomerates are sedimentary rocks consisting of rounded fragments and are

thus differentiated from breccias, which consist of angular clasts
Made up mainly by Qz Pebbles, Flint, Chert, & Jasper
Both conglomerates and breccias are characterized by clasts larger than sand
(>2 mm)
There are many types of Conglomerate:
• Limestone Conglomerate:
• Polymictic Conglomerate: Variety of Pebbles & Boulders are contained
• Monomictic Conglomerate: Consists of one pebble type
• Intraformational Conglomerate: composed of Clasts derived from the basin of deposition
• Extra formational Conglomerate: composed of Clasts derived from Beyond area of Sedimentation
C‐Breccia:
Sedimentary breccias are a type of clastic sedimentary rock which is composed of angular
to sub angular, randomly oriented clasts of other sedimentary rocks. They are formed by
submarine debris flows, avalanches, mud flow or mass flow in an aqueous medium.
Technically, turbidities are a form of debris flow deposit and are a fine‐grained peripheral
deposit to a sedimentary breccia flow.
Breccias are common along fault zones
Slumping Breccias: consist of broken beds derived from down slope slumping
Solution Breccias: resulting from Dissolution of Evaporites & collapse of overlying

strata
Breccia

D‐Mud Rocks:
Mudstone (also called mud rock) is a fine grained sedimentary rock

whose original constituents were clays or muds. Grain size is up to
0.0625 mm with individual grains too small to be distinguished without a
microscope. With increased pressure over time the platy clay minerals
may become aligned, with the appearance of facility or parallel layering.
This finely bedded material that splits readily into thin layers is called
shale, as distinct from mudstone. The lack of facility or layering in
mudstone may be due either to original texture or to the disruption of
layering by burrowing organisms in the sediment prior to lithification.
Mud rocks, such as mudstone and shale comprise some 65% of all
sedimentary rocks. Mudstone looks like hardened clay and, depending
upon circumstances under which it was formed, it may show cracks or fissures, like a
sun‐baked clay deposit. They can be separated into these categories
There are many types of Mud Rocks:
• Clay & Clay Stone: is a hydrous Aluminum Silicates with a specific sheet
structure (<4µm)
• Mud & Mudstone: is a mixture of Clay & Silt grade material (4:62µm),
Mudstone is a black non fossil rock, where Shale is laminated & thin sheets
• Argillite: is a mud rock but more indurate Clay stone
• Slate: Mud rocks metamorphose into Slate
• Shale: formed from clay that is compacted together by pressure
• Loess: yellow to buff-colored clastic deposits composed of silt-sized
grains
Well sorted nature, angular shape, unstartified but may contain Shells &
concretions
• Organic Rich Mud rock: are black shale & Carbonaceous Mud rock which contain
3:10% organic carbon
Their importance lies in their potential as source rocks for oil
• Siltstone: Clay stone contains more Silt‐sized particles Argillite
Siltstone lacks to the fissility & lamination
Mineral components of Mud Rocks:
• Clay minerals (si2O5)

• Kandite group (Kaolinite, Dickite, Nacrite)
• Smectic group (Montmorillonite)
Shale
• Vermiculite, Illite, Glauconite, Sepotite
• Quartz, Feldspars, Muscovite
Silt Stone

2‐Carbonate Sediments
A‐Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium

carbonate: CaCO3). Like most other sedimentary rocks, limestones are comprised of
grains, however, around 80‐90% of limestone grains are skeletal fragments of marine
organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones
are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts. Some limestones do not consist of grains at
all and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite. I.e.
Travertine.
Limestone
Components of Limestone:
1. Grains:
• Non Skeletal grains: Ooids: spherical or sub spherical grains concentrated around
a nucleus (0.2:.5mm), Pisolites: is Ooids with diameter> 2mm, Peloids is
spherical grains composed of Microcrystalline carbonates but with non inertial
structure
• Skeletal grains: Mollusca, Brachiopods, Cnidarians, Foraminifera, Sponges, Ooids
Arthropods & Calcispheres
• Algae: Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, Chyrophyta, Cyanophyta
2. Matrix:
• Micrite: formed of calcareous particles ranging in diameter from 0.06 to 2 mm
that have been deposited mechanically rather than from solution
3. Cement:
• Sparite: is coarser than Micrite, with a grain size of > 4µm and is crystalline Peloids
Classification of Limestone:
1. According to grain size: ‐Calci Rudite(2>mm) ‐Calci Renite(2mm:64µm) ‐Calci Lutite(<64µm)

2. According to Dunham1962: a‐Grain Stone(grains without matrix) b‐Grains in contact with matrix
c‐Wacke Stone: Coarse grains floating in matrix d‐Mud Stone: Matrix with few grains
3. According to Embry&Klovan 1972: a‐Coarse grain size: Float stone & Rud stone
b‐Organic bending during deposition: Baffle Stone, Bind Stone & Frame stone
B‐Dolomite
composed of calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg(CO3)2 (known as magnesium L.S) Dolomite
C‐Chalk
It is a soft, white, porous, a form of limestone forms under relatively deep marine conditions
from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite plates
Chalk is composed mostly of calcium carbonate with minor amounts of silt and clay.
It is common to find Chert nodules embedded in chalk.

Chalk
Chalk can also refer to other compounds including magnesium silicate and calcium sulfate.

D‐Marl
It is a calcium carbonate or lime‐rich mud formed from porous mass of shells & shell
fragments accumulate on the bottom of fresh water lakes
E‐Coquina Marl
L.S composed of loosely aggregated shells & shell fragments
F‐Travertine
Travertine is a terrestrial sedimentary rock, formed by the

precipitation of carbonate minerals from solution in ground
and surface waters
Travertine forms the stalactites of limestone caves Travertine Coquina
3‐Evaporites
Evaporites are water‐soluble mineral sediments that result from the evaporation of water. Evaporites are considered
sedimentary rocks.
A‐Gypsum
It is a major rock forming mineral that produces massive beds, usually from precipitation out
of highly saline waters, composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate, with the chemical formula
CaSO4∙2H2O
B‐Anhydrite
From aqueous solution calcium sulfate is deposited as crystals of gypsum, but when the Gypsum
solution contains an excess of sodium or potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited if
temperature is above 40°C Chemical formula: CaSO4
C‐Halite
It is commonly known as rock salt. Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically
colorless or white
It commonly occurs with other evaporite deposit minerals such as several of the sulfates, Anhydrite
halides, and borates.
Chemical formula: NaCl
D‐Potassium & Magnesium Salts
Halite

4‐Ironstones
Ironstone is a fine‐grained, heavy and compact sedimentary rock. Its main components are the carbonate or oxide of iron,
clay and/or sand. It can be thought of as a concretionary form of siderite. Ironstone also contains clay, and sometimes
calcite and quartz. Freshly cleaved ironstone is usually grey. The brown appearance is due to oxidation of its surface.
A‐Iron Oxides
• Hematite:
It is the mineral form of iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), colored black to steel or silver‐gray,
brown to reddish brown, or red
• Magnetite:
Hematite
It is a ferrimagnetic mineral with chemical formula Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides
• Goethite:
It is an iron oxyhydroxide (FeO (OH)), is an iron bearing oxide mineral found in soil
and other low‐temperature environments, often forms through the weathering of
other iron‐rich minerals
Magnetite
• Limonite:
Limonite is an ore consisting in a mixture of hydrated iron (III) oxide‐hydroxide of

varying composition ( FeO(OH)∙4H2O)
It is never crystallized into macroscopic crystals, but may have a fibrous or
microcrystalline structure, and commonly occurs in concretionary forms
Goethite
B‐Iron Carbonates
• Siderite:
It is composed of iron carbonate FeCO3, it is 48% iron and contains no sulfur or

phosphorus. Both magnesium and manganese commonly substitute for the iron
Limonite
C‐Iron Silicates
• Chamosite: Fe3Al2Si2O10.3H2O
• Greenlite: Fe2SiO3.4H2O
• Glauconite: (K,Na,Ca)1.2‐2.0(Fe+3,Al,Fe+2,Mg)4 (Si7‐7.6Al1‐
0.4O20)(OH)4∙7H2 Chamosite Siderite
D‐Iron Sulphides
• Pyrite: FeS2
• Marcasite: FeS2
Marcasite Pyrite Glauconite

5‐Phosphate Rocks
Phosphorite, phosphate rock or rock phosphate is a non‐detrital sedimentary rock which

contains high amounts of phosphate bearing minerals. The phosphate content of
Phosphorite is at least 20% which is a large enrichment over the typical sedimentary
rock content of less than 0.2%.The phosphate is present as fluorapatite typically in
cryptocrystalline masses (grain sizes < 1 μm) referred to as collophane. The dark
brown to black beds has range from few centimeters to several meters in thickness.
The layers contain the same textures and structures as fine grained limestones and
may represent digenetic replacements of carbonate minerals by phosphates.
Phosphate
Mineralogy:
• Fluro Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3F

• Carbon Hydroxyl Fluro Apatite: Ca10(PO4.CO3)6F2
• Dahillite: is Carbon Hydroxyl Fluro Apatite with less than 1% Flourine
• Franolite: is Carbon Hydroxyl Fluro Apatite with more than 1% Flourine
Guano:
Guano
It is type of phosphate rocks which is the excrement of seabirds, bats, and seals. Guano
consists of ammonia, along with uric, phosphoric, oxalic, and carbonic acids, as well as some earth salts and impurities.
Guano also has a high concentration of nitrates.
6‐Siliceous Sediments
The siliceous rocks are those which are dominated by silica (SiO2). They
commonly form from silica-secreting organisms such as diatoms, radiolarians,
or some types of sponges. Chert is formed through chemical reactions of silica
in solution replacing limestones.
Chert:
Chert
Chert is a fine-grained silica-rich microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or micro
fibrous sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. It varies greatly in color
(from white to black), but most often manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and
light green to rusty red
Flint:
Flint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, Flint

categorized as a variety of Chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in
sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and limestones
Jasper:
Jasper, a form of chalcedony , is an opaque, impure variety of silica, usually red,

yellow, brown or green in color. Blue is rare. This mineral breaks with a smooth
surface, and is used for ornamentation
Jasper

7-Volcanic Sediments
Some volcanic particles are generated by weathering and erosion

(epiclastic) and therefore differ only in composition from
nonvolcanic clasts. Other volcanic particles are formed instantly
by explosive processes and are propelled at high velocities (>100
m/s) along the surface of the earth or high into the atmosphere
(>40 km above the earth).
• Pyroclastic Deposits: It refers only to volcanic materials

ejected from a volcanic vent, Volcanologists also refer to
airborne fragments as pyroclasts
• Pumice is a highly vesicular glass foam, generally of
evolved and more rarely of basaltic composition with a
density of <1 gm/cm3 & may have porosity >50%
• Scoria (also called cinders), usually mafic (Basic magma),
are particles less inflated than pumice. They readily sink in
water. They are generally composed of tachylite, that is,
glass rendered nearly opaque by microcrystalline
iron/titanium oxides.
• Tephra: is fragmental material produced by a volcanic Scoria
Pumice
eruption regardless of composition, Tephra fragments are
classified by size:
• Ash: particles smaller than 2 mm (0.08 inches) in

diameter
• Lapilli or volcanic cinders: between 2 and 64 mm
in diameter
• Volcanic bombs or volcanic blocks: > 64 mm
• Accretionary Lapilli: are special kinds of Lapilli-
size particles that form as moist aggregates of ash in
eruption clouds, by rain that falls through dry
Ash Tephra
eruption clouds or by electrostatic attraction
• Armored Lapilli form when wet ash becomes
plastered around a solid nucleus such as crystal,
pumice or lithic fragments during a hydro volcanic
eruption
• Pyroclastic breccia is a consolidated aggregate of
blocks containing less than 25% Lapilli and ash.
• Volcanic breccia applies to all volcaniclastic rocks
composed predominantly of angular volcanic
particles greater than 2 mm in size. Bombs Vol. Breccia
Lapilli

Ch2: Depositional Environment

Sedimentary depositional environment describes the
combination of physical, chemical and biological
processes associated with the deposition of a particular
type of sediment and, therefore, the rock types that will
be formed after lithification, if the sediment is preserved
in the rock record. In most cases the environments
associated with particular rock types or associations of
rock types can be matched to existing analogues.
However, the further back in geological time sediments
were deposited
1‐Continental deposits:
A‐Terrestrial deposits:
• Desert deposits:
Sediments accumulated by (Wind blown sediments, Wash

from upland slopes, Ephermal streams).
Most sediments are etched & polished.
Aeolian sediments are characterized by Wedge‐shaped cross Desert
bedded units
• Glacial deposits:
A glacier is a perennial mass of ice which moves over

land. A glacier forms in locations where the mass
accumulation of snow and ice exceeds over many
years. Glacial deposits are composed of different
amounts and shapes of till. Till is a general term used
to describe all the unsorted rock debris deposited by
glaciers. Till is composed of rock fragments ranging from
clay to boulder size. Till is generally identified by being
unsorted (all the rock is jumbled together) and
unlayered. The glacier will often carry large boulders,
sometimes as large as cars or small homes, as they
advance. When the glacier retreats, these large
boulders are left behind, often dropped among much
smaller glacial till. These large boulders are called
erratics. Since erratics are rarely derived from the local
bedrock, identifying the source rock for the erratic can Glacier
tell you about the direction the glacier travel from.
Cold Glaciers: are dry‐based & have much rock debris
Temp. Glaciers: are wet‐based & have less sediments, but more powerfully erosive

B‐Fluvial deposits:
• Alluvial Fan
An alluvial fan is a fan‐shaped deposit formed

where a fast flowing stream flattens, slows, and
spreads typically at the exit of a canyon onto a
flatter plain
Fan surface is usually desiccated by network of

channels & has 3 main zones:
1‐Proximal: coarse grains

2‐Intermediate grains: Medium grains
3‐ Dital: fine grains
• River & Stream
It comprises the motion of sediment and erosion of or

deposition on the river bed.
Types of river deposition:
1‐Meandering: with high sinuosity streams make a

distinct channel
2‐Braided: with low sinuosity are frequent & braided

Braided Meandering
• Piedmonts Sediment
Accumulate in the basis of mountains as a result of soil creep, Rain Wash, Rock streams & Mud flow
• Valley flat Sediments
Differ from Piedmonts is that they show better sorting, stratification & more
organic matters
C‐Lake deposits (Lacoustrine):
Lakes are well‐suited to the development of deltas. Deltas are built up by

sediment‐laden streams, & they drop their load of sediment as they loose velocity. Lake
• Bottom Set Beds: Fine sediment is carried by feeble current to basin bottom
• Top set Beds: as the delta builds, gradually filling the basin over its deposits
D‐Cave deposits (Spelal):
Water seeping through cracks in a cave's surrounding bedrock may dissolve certain
compounds, usually calcite and aragonite, or gypsum. When the solution reaches
an air‐filled cave, a discharge of carbon dioxide may alter the water's ability to
hold these minerals in solution, causing its solutes to precipitate. Over time, Cave
which may span tens of thousands of years, the accumulation of these precipitates may form speleothems.

2‐Transitional deposits
A‐Lagoons:
A lagoon is a body of comparatively shallow salt or brackish water separated from the
deeper sea by a shallow or exposed barrier beach or coral reef. The water salinity
ranges from fresh water to water with salinity greater than that if sea.
In stagnant lagoons, Activity of bacteria loads to form H2S which causes precipitation of
Black Iron Sulphides
In lagoons with extensive evaporation, Salinity may become too great & form Salt & Lagoon
Gypsum
B‐Deltas:
A delta is a landform that is created at the mouth of a river where that river flows into
an ocean, sea, estuary, lake. . Deltas are formed from the deposition of the sediment
carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth of the river. Over long periods of
time, this deposition builds the characteristic geographic pattern of a river delta.
Delta is divided to Delta front which include Sand Bars at the mouth of distributy &
Delta plain which include channels, bays & flood plains
Types of Deltas: Mississippi Delta
• River‐dominated Deltas:
In this case, the river is stronger than Sea waves. When a single channel is
occupied for a long period of time, its deposits extend the channel far offshore,
and cause the delta to resemble a bird's foot (ex. Mississippi River Delta)
• Wave‐dominated Deltas:
In this case, the sea waves are stronger than river. Wave erosion controls the
shape of the delta (ex. Nile Delta)
Nile Delta
• Tide‐dominated Deltas:
In this case, Erosion is also an important control in tide dominated deltas. New
distributaries are formed during times when there's a lot of water around ‐ such
as floods or storm surges (ex. Ganges Delta, India)
Ganges Delta

3‐Marine deposits
Life of the Sea zones:
Littoral or Tidal Zone: Difficult living conditions because of the

strong wave action so organisms must be attached or buried
Neritic Zone: It is the most life area in marine, Sea in this area is
lighted & abundance of food
Bathyal Zone: No light or very little, so plant life is rare but it

has animal population which called Bottom Living Seavengers
Abyssal Zone: No light, near freezing temp. & pressure reach to

1 Ton/inch2 (specialized creatures can live at this depth)
Marine Sediments:
• Marine Shoreline Environments:
Much siliclastic sediments can be deposited in marine

shoreline. Beaches & Barriers developed in areas of high
wave action. Beaches are linear belts of sand along beach
where Barriers are separated from land by lagoon
• Shallow Marine (Neritic Zone):
Coarser materials are deposited near shore & grade into

finer deposits upward. Shallow marine sediments is made
of sediments derived from land by ways of Stream,
Glaciers or Aeolian. Sediments may consist of remains of
organisms & chemical precipitates.
Structural features: usually lenticular beds. Ripple, currents

marks have great variation in trend & extension. Sea
floor has steep slopes, so sediments may slump &
develop crimpled & irregular bedding planes
• Intermediate Seas (Bathyal deposits)
At the continental slope, & covered by fine sediments of

land origin which called Blue Muds. The presence of Blue
Muds color is due to presence of organic matter & also
to De‐Oxided conditions of Iron. Blue Muds may cover
over 20 million Km2 of the ocean basin
• Deep Marine (Abyssal Deposits)
Many sediments are Volcanic, pelagic & meteoric origin. Very poorly sorted, Set in motion by storms and quakes,
Calcareous and siliceous oozes. In greatest depth of ocean, the bottom is covered by Fine Red Clay which
composed of Calcareous to siliceous to terrestrial clay, Shells & other organic matters

Geo
ology & Geophysi
G cs in Oil Explorattion
Ch3: Structtural Geologyy

Structtural geology is the study of
o the three‐ddimensional distribution
d of rock units with
w respect to their deform mational
hisstories. The prrimary goal of
o structural geology is to use
u measurem ments of pressent‐day rock geometries to t uncover
information abo out the historry of deformaation (strain) in
i the rocks, and
a ultimatelly, to understtand the stresss field that
ressulted in the observed
o straain and geometries. This understandingg of the dynam mics of the sttress field can
n be linked to
imp portant events in the regioonal geologic past; a comm mon goal is to
o understand the structuraal evolution ofo a particularr
areea with respect to regionally widespreaad patterns off rock deform mation (e.g., mountain
m building, rifting) due to plate
tecctonics. The study of geoloogic structures has been off prime imporrtance in economic geologgy, both petro oleum
geo ology and minning geology.. Folded and faulted
f rock strata
s commo only form trap
ps for the acccumulation an nd
con ncentration of
o fluids such as petroleum m and natural gas.
Folds:
The teerm fold is wh
hen one or a stack
s nally flat and planar surfacces, such as
of origin
sed dimentary strrata, are bentt or curved ass a result of plastic deformation. Folds
in rocks
r vary in size from miccroscopic crinnkles to moun ntain‐sized folds. Folds
forrm under variied conditions of stress, hyydrostatic preessure & poree pressure
Fold terminology:
• Hiinge(Axis): is the point of minimum rad dius of curvatture for a fold

d
• Axxial Plane: is the surface defined
d by con nnecting all the hinge lines
• Crrest(Apex): iss the highest point
p of the fold
f surface
• Crrest Surface: is a plane con nnected all crrests
• Trrough: the lowwest point in a cross sectio on
• Trrough surface e connecting all troughs
e: is the plane
• Pllunge: is the attitude
a of the axial line off fold
Typess of Folds:
• Annticline: foldeed upward, and the two lim mbs dip awayy from the hin nge of fold
• Syyncline: foldeed downward, & two limbss dip inward toward t the hiinge of fold.
• Syymmetrical Fold: If the two limbs dip aw way from axis with the sam me angle
• Assymmetrical fold: If the lim mbs dip awayy from axis at different anggles
• Isoclinal Fold: the limbs havve the same angle a & equall direction
• Ovverturned Fo old: Axial planne is inclined & Both limps in the same direction
• Reecumbent Fo old: is overturrned fold with h an axial plan
ne is nearly horizontal
• Boox Fold: the crest
c is broad & flat
• Kiink fold: narrow bands in which
w dip is steeper
s or gen
ntler than adjjacent beds
• M
Monocline: a local steepingg of dip in areea which has a very low dip
• Hoomocline: areen't really folds, rocks slop pes in same direction
d overr a large area..
• Open Fold: anggle between the t fold's limbs range from m 120° to 70°
• Cllosed Fold: an ngle between n the fold's limmbs range fro om 70° to 30°
• Tight Fold: anggle between the t fold's limb bs range fromm 30° to 0°
• Non Cylindricaal: Curved hin nge lines & do oes not contain fold axes
• Chhevron Fold: planar limbs meeting at an angular axis (with straight limbs and
sm
mall angular hinges
h & interrlimb angles 70 7 to 10 degrrees)
• Paarallel Fold: Thickness
T of beds
b is constaant, where Sim milar Fold, lim
mb thinning; hinge thicken
ning
18 Geolog
gy & Geophysics in
n Oil Exploration Mahm
moud Sroor
Examples for Folds:
Anticline Syncline
Isoclinal
Overturned Recumbent
Box Fold Kink Chevron
Monocline
Homocline
Monocline

Folds in seismic sections:

Faults:
Fault is a planar fracture in rock in which the rock on one side of the fracture has
moved with respect to the rock on the other side. Large faults within the Earth's
crust are the result of differential or shear motion and active fault zones are the
causal locations of most earthquakes. Earthquakes are caused by energy release
during rapid slippage along a fault. A fault that runs along the boundary between
two tectonic plates is called a transform fault.
Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, the term fault zone is
used when referring to the zone of complex deformation that is associated with
the fault plane. The two sides of a non‐vertical fault are called the hanging wall
and footwall. By definition, the hanging wall occurs above the fault and the
footwall occurs below the fault. This terminology comes from mining. When
working a tabular ore body the miner stood with the footwall under his feet and
with the hanging wall hanging above him.
Fault Terminology:
• Hanging wall: occurs above the fault.

• Foot wall: occurs below the fault.
• Fault plane: is the fault surface
• Fault zone: instead of single fracture, numerous of faults in area
• Fault trace: is fault outcrop or fault line
• Fault Block: is rock mass bounded at least by two opposite faults
• Fault Scrap: is the formation on the earth due to earth quakes
• Fault heave: amount of horizontal displacement on a fault
• Fault throw: amount of vertical displacement on a fault
• Branch line: Line of intersection of two faults
• Tip line: the dimension of fault
Nature of the movement along fault:
• Transitional movement: no rotation occurred

• Rotational movement: Rotation occurred
• Relative movements: in this case, fault never offer any direct evidence as to which
blocks actually moved
• Slip: The term used to indicate the relative movements of adjacent points
on opposite sides of fault
• Net Slip: is the total slip along fault
• Strike slip: is component of net slip parallel to strike
• Dip Slip: is component of net slip parallel to dip
• Vertical slip(Throw): amount of vertical movement associated with
fault
• Heave: is the horizontal component of the dip slip

Fault Classification:
1‐Geometrical classification:
A‐Geometrical classification based on rake of net slip:
• Dip slip fault: net slip is up or down the slip of fault

• Strike slip fault: net slip is parallel to strike of fault
• Diagonal slip fault(Oblique): net slip is diagonally up or down fault plane
B‐Geometrical classification based on Fault pattern:
.Parallel .Peripheral .Radial .Enechlon
C‐Geometrical classification based on value of dip of fault:
• High angle fault: Dip>45

• Low angle fault: Dip<45
2‐Genetic classification:
A‐Classification based on movement along fault:
• Normal fault:
• Reverse fault
• Thrust fault: dip<15
• Strike slip fault:
• Sinstral strike slip
• Dextral strike slip
B‐Classification based on absolute movements: Sinstral Dextral
• Normal fault classification: The movement may have five

• Foot wall didn’t move (hanging wall moved up)
• Foot wall moved up (hanging wall remain stationary)
• Both blocks moved up but hanging wall moved slower than foot wall
• Both blocks moved down but the hanging wall moved faster than foot wall
• Thrust fault classification:
• Can be defined in the same way like normal fault classification
• Up thrust: the uplifted block is the active element
• Under thrust: the foot wall is the active element

Wrenching:
Is strike slip fault & occur usually in basement. It affects the

younger layers above it due to presence of horizontal
movements at basements. Its importance because of its
presence forming new structures can be good reservoirs for oil.
Theoretical Wrench movement:
The block affected by a strike slip fault & this causes:
• Tension in length for one axis

• Compression in length for the other axis
Divergent & convergent Wrenching:
In real, the fault is usually deviated (not straight line) & this
type of fault forming two zones:
• Convergent Wrench: zone in which a compression

occurred& forming folds
• Divergent Wrench: zone in which a tension occurred &
forming faults. Sometimes Blocks may slump in this zone which called Interblock Tension
Effect of Wrench on Upper layers:
• left lateral(Sinstral): will form right stepping faults in Tension zone

& left stepping folds & thrust faults in compression zone
• Right Lateral(Dextral): will form left stepping normal faults in
tension zone & right stepping folds & reverse faults in compression
zone
Wrench
Roll over Structure:
Rollover systems are extremely common structures of

thin‐skinned extensional systems resulting from
gravity force.
Rollover anticline is fold resulting from extension force

(not tension like other folds) due to gravity
Rollover structure usually associated with Crestal

collapse forming Grabens & half Grabens

Geo
ology & Geophysi
Some types
t of faults:
Antith
hetic & Synthetic Faults Horsst & Grabens
Plann
ner Extension
nal fault systeem Listric fault systeem
Rollover with Crestal collapse

ttry rertty
e
Floweer structure fault

f
‘
Horrse tail Fault Ramp
p‐Flat
Relay‐Ram
mp
24 Geolog
gy & Geophysics in
moud Sroor
Faults in seismic sections:
Flower structure

Listric fault
Graben

CH4: Petroleum Geology

Petroleum geology refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons. Oil
and gas fields are geological features that result from the coincident occurrence of four types of geologic features
(1) oil and gas source rocks, (2) Migration, (3) reservoir rocks, (4) seals, and (5) traps.
1‐Source rock:
In petroleum geology, source rock refers to rocks from which
hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of being
generated. They form one of the necessary elements of a working
petroleum system. They are organic‐rich sediments that may have
been deposited in a variety of environments including deep water
marine, Lacoustrine and deltaic. Oil shale can be regarded as an
organic‐rich but immature source rock from which little or no oil has
been generated and expelled.
Types of source rocks: are classified from the types of kerogen that
they contain
• source rocks are formed from algal remains deposited under

anoxic conditions in deep lakes: they tend to generate waxy crude
oils when submitted to thermal stress during deep burial
• Source rocks are formed from marine planktonic remains
preserved under anoxic conditions in marine environments: they produce both oil and gas when thermally cracked
during deep burial.
• Source rocks are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic
or sub‐oxic conditions: they tend to generate mostly gas with associated light oils when thermally cracked during
deep burial. Most coals and coaly shales are generally Type 3 source rocks.
Maturation and expulsion

When temperatures of the organic‐rich sedimentary rocks exceed 120o C (250o F) the organic remains within the rocks
begin to be "cooked" and oil and natural gas are formed from the organic remains and expelled from the source rock.
It takes millions of years for these source rocks to be buried deeply enough to attain these maturation temperatures
and additional millions of years to cook (or generate) sufficient volumes of oil and natural gas to form commercial
accumulations as the oil and gas are expelled from the source rock into adjacent reservoir rocks.
If the organic materials within the source rock are mostly wood fragments, then the primary hydrocarbons generated
upon maturation are natural gas. If the organic materials are mostly algae or the soft parts of land plants, then both
oil and natural gas are formed.
Gas can be generated in two ways in the natural systems; it can be generated directly from woody organic matter in the
source rocks or it can be derived by thermal breakdown of previously generated oils at high temperatures.
Oil window: oil maturation begins at 120`F (50`C) peaks at 190`F (90`C) & ends at 350`F (175`C). Above and below Oil
Window, natural gas is generated. At higher temperatures above 500°F (260°C), the organic material is carbonized &
destroyed as a source material. So, if source beds become too deeply buried, no hydrocarbons will be produced.

2‐Migration
Migration is the process of the oil and gas moving away from the source rock.
This is a slow process. Migration is caused by burial, compaction, and
increase in volume and separation of the source rock constituents. There
must be space ‘porosity’ within the rocks to allow for movement. In
addition, there is should be Permeability’ within the rocks.
There are two types of migration:
• Primary migration: is the process of movement from source rock. As
sediments build up to greater thickness in sedimentary basins, Fluids
are squeezed out by the weight of the overlying sediments. Fluids tend
to move toward the lowest potential energy. Initially this is upwards,
but as compaction progresses; there is lateral as well as vertical
movement. Finally the mechanism that oil migrates is uncertain
• Secondary migration: is movement to or within the reservoir entrapment.
Once the water, oil and gas migrate into the trap, it separates according to density. Gas being the lightest, goes to the
top of the trap to form the free gas cap. Oil goes to the middle and water that is always present, on the bottom
3‐Reservoir rocks
It is a rock that contains connected pore spaces used to reserve the fluid
inside
To be commercially, productive it must have sufficient thickness, a real
extent, and pore space and this pores must be interconnected
(Permeable)
Once oil and gas enter the reservoir rock, they are relatively free to move.
Most reservoir rocks are initially saturated with saline groundwater.
Saline ground water has a density of slightly more than 1.0 g/cm3.
Because oil and gas are less dense than the ground water (density oil =
0.82‐0.93 g/cm3 and density gas = 0.12 g/cm3), they rise upward
through the water‐saturated pore spaces until they meet a barrier of
impermeable rock.
Classification of the reservoir rocks: is based on
1. Type of rock:
• Igneous Rocks: can be part of reservoirs (fractured rocks)
• Metamorphic Rocks: Formed by action of temp. &/or pressure on sedimentary
or igneous
• Sedimentary Rocks: the most important for the oil industry as it contains most
of the source rocks and cap rocks and virtually all reservoirs. Sedimentary rocks
come from the debris of older rocks ; and are split into two categories:
• Clastic rocks: Formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of
erosion, transportation and deposition. (Mechanical process). Such as conglomerate, sandstone, shale.
• Non clastic rocks: are formed by chemical precipitation (settling out from a solution). Such as Limestone,
calcite and halite.

2. Origin of rock:
• Fragmental reservoir rocks:

Aggregates of particles and fragments of the older rocks (called also detrital rock). Fragmental reservoir rocks:
(sandstones, Conglomerates, Arkoses, gray wakes) are the most common reservoir rocks. Most of these rocks
are siliceous, but many are carbonates such as Oolites and Coquinas.
• Chemical reservoir rocks:
It is composed of chemical or biochemical precipitates such as limestone and dolomite not transported as clastic
grains. Limestone and dolomite are by far the most important of the chemical reservoir rocks, because they
contain nearly half of world's petroleum reservoir.
• Miscellaneous reservoir rocks:
It includes igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is geologically important but rarely important commercially. The
reservoir space is usually in fractures in the brittle basement rocks.
3.Depositional environment
Sedimentary reservoir rocks may be subdivided into those of marine origin and those of nonmarine, or continental
origin but between these classes there are many gradations and intermixtures
Most petroleum found in rocks believed to have been deposited under marine conditions, but substantial deposits
have also been found in rocks of nonmarine origin.
4.Geologic time scale.
• Pleistocene: 0% of reservoir rocks
The short time the exposed sediments have had to form and to
accumulate petroleum. General lack of an impervious cover to create
traps conditions. General nonmarine character of the sediments.
• Precambrian:<1% of reservoir rocks
General metamorphism. Lack of permeability. Most of the pre‐Cambrian

occurrences are found in fractures and secondary openings resulting
from weathering and deformation.
• Cambrian: <1% of reservoir rocks

• Triassic: <1% of reservoir rocks
• Paleozoic: 15% of reservoir rocks
• Cretaceous: 18% of reservoir rocks
• Tertiary: 58% of reservoir rocks
Rocks of Tertiary age continue to dominate in the total productivity, and several reasons may be suggested to
account for this: It contains thick sequences of un‐metamorphosed marine sediments characterized by lateral
gradation, permeable reservoir rocks, adequate impervious cover, numerous traps and an adequate supply of
petroleum.
Since it is late in the geologic time scale, only a minor part of it has been removed by erosion.
It consists of material eroded from per‐Tertiary anticlines, which include some of the oil that seeped out from
the larger oil pools in the eroded rocks.

Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir:
Physical characteristics of a reservoir include original deposition

and subsequent changes, the type of reservoir, sandstone or
carbonate, which was discussed previously, depth, area,
thickness, porosity, permeability, and capillary pressure.
1. Depth
• Shallow reservoir: Created by the folding of relatively
thick, moderately compacted reservoir rock with
accumulation under an anticline or some trap. The hydrocarbons would generally be better separated as a result
of lower internal reservoir pressures, less gas in solution and oil of increased viscosity, resulting from lower
temperatures.
• Deep reservoir: Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be less separated with more gas
in solution and oil of reduced viscosity because of higher temperatures. There is often a reduction in porosity and
permeability due to increased compaction.
2. Area and Thickness
The total area of a reservoir and its thickness are of considerable importance in determining if a reservoir is a
commercial one or not. The greater the area and thickness of the reservoir, the greater the potential for large
accumulations of oil and gas. However, there are reservoirs that produce substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that
are not of considerable size.
3. Porosity
It is the percentage of pore volume or void space to the total volume of rock.
• Primary porosity: The porosity preserved from deposition through

lithification. Primary porosity
• Secondary porosity: created through alteration of rock, commonly by
processes such as dolomitization, dissolution and fracturing.
• Total porosity: is the total void space and as such includes isolated
pores and the connected pores
• Effective porosity: The interconnected pore volume or void space in
a rock that contributes to fluid flow or permeability in a reservoir.
Secondary porosity
4. Permeability
It is the ability of the rock to transmit fluids, to be permeable; a formation must have interconnected porosity (Unit
is Darcie)
• Absolute permeability: ability to flow or transmit fluids through a rock, conducted when a single fluid, or
phase, is present in the rock.
• Effective permeability: The ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid when other immiscible
fluids are present in the reservoir. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0
• Relative permeability: is the ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to
absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation.

4‐Seal (Cap rock):

A relatively impermeable rock that forms a barrier, cap or seal
above and around reservoir rock so that fluids cannot migrate
beyond the reservoir. The permeability of a cap rock must equal
zero.
Some examples are Shales, Evaporites such as Anhydrite & Salt, &
Zero-porosity Carbonates.
5‐Traps:
It is configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by a relatively impermeable formation through
which hydrocarbons will not migrate.
Types of Traps:
A-Structural Traps:
It is formed where the space of petroleum is limited

by a structural feature
• Anticline traps: trap whose closure is Fault trap Anticline trap
controlled by the presence of an anticline.

• Fault trap: in which closure is controlled by the presence of at least one fault
surface.
B‐Salt domes traps:
Salt domes traps are caused when plastic salt is forced upwards through layers Salt dome
C‐Stratigraphic traps:
It is the trap created by the limits of reservoir rock itself, without any structural control.
It is formed by changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or sedimentary
features such as reefs.
Pinch‐out
• Pinch-out trap: The termination by thinning or tapering out ("pinching out") of a
reservoir against a nonporous sealing rock creates a favorable geometry to trap
hydrocarbons.
• Unconformity trap: trap whose closure is controlled by the presence of an
unconformity.
• Reef trap: sedimentary rock, most commonly produced by organisms that secrete
shells such as corals. Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ in Reef
composition and permeability, porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for
hydrocarbons.
D‐Combination Traps:
It is a combination trap is where two (or more) trapping mechanisms come together to
create the trap.
Unconformity

Ch5: Seismic Survey

Seismic surveys use reflected sound waves to produce a scanning of the Earth’s subsurface. Seismic surveys can help
locate ground water, are used to investigate locations for landfills, and characterize how an area will shake during an
earthquake, but they are primarily used for oil and gas exploration (Seismic acquisition)
Before starting discussion about Seismic acquisition, we must know some concepts about the seismic theory.
Seismic waves:
Seismic waves are sound waves that travel through the Earth or other elastic bodies, for example as a result of an
earthquake, explosion, or some other process that imparts forces.
Types of seismic waves:
1‐Body waves: A wave that propagates through a medium rather than along an interface. It is faster than Surface waves
• P‐wave:
An elastic body wave in which particles motions are parallel to the direction the
wave propagates. It`s velocity is faster than S-wave. P-waves incident on an
interface at other than normal incidence can produce reflected and transmitted S-
waves, in that case known as converted waves.
• S‐wave:
An elastic body wave in which particles motions are perpendicular to the direction
the wave propagates. S-waves are generated by most land seismic sources, but not
by air guns.
2‐Surface waves: A wave that propagates at the interface between two media.
• Rayleigh wave:
It is a surface wave in which particles move in an elliptical path. Because

Rayleigh waves are dispersive, with different wavelengths traveling at different
velocities, they are useful in evaluation of velocity variation with depth. It is
called Ground Roll in seismic exploration.
• Love wave:
It is a surface wave in which particles oscillate horizontally and perpendicularly to the direction of wave propagation.
• Stoneley wave:
It is a surface wave generated by a sonic tool in a borehole. It can propagate along a solid-fluid interface, such as
along the walls of a fluid-filled borehole. It can allow estimation of the locations of fractures and permeability of the
formation. It is a major source of noise in vertical seismic profiling (VSP).
• Tube waves: It occurs in cased wellbores when Rayleigh waves encounters a wellbore & perturbs the fluid in
wellbore. It suffers little energy loss & very high amplitude which interferes with reflected arrivals occurring later in
time on vertical seismic profile (VSP) data.

Seismic Anisotropy:
It is the variation of seismic velocity with the direction or with wave polarization.
Transverse Isotropy: is the most common & important type of anisotropy in seismic studies.
• Vertical Transverse Isotropy (VTI): the main cause of VTI is the thin layering of shales in subsurface
• Horizontal Transverse Isotropy(HTI): main cause of HTI is the presence of vertical aligned fractures
Mediums affect on seismic waves:
1‐Geometrical spreading: The energy intensity decreases when wave front gets farther from the source.
2‐Absorption: Transformation of elastic energy to heat as seismic wave passes through a medium, causes amplitude to
decrease
3‐Dispersion: is dependence of seismic velocity on the frequency (is negligible for body waves but very important for
surface waves)
4‐Interface‐related effects: when a wave finds an abrupt change in elastic properties, some of energy reflected & some of
energy refracted.
Seismic noises:
It is anything other than desired signal. Noise includes disturbances in seismic data caused by any unwanted seismic
energy.
• Random noise: random on all traces & includes wind, rain, human & machines (Environment noise)
• Coherent noise: include surface waves, refractions, diffractions & multiples
Seismic trace:
It is the seismic data recorded for one channel. A seismic trace represents the response of the
elastic wave field to velocity and density contrasts across interfaces of layers of rock or
sediments as energy travels from a source through the subsurface to a receiver or receiver array.
Seismograph:
It is the instrument that measure motions of the ground, including those of seismic waves
generated by earthquakes, nuclear explosions, and other seismic sources.
Seismogram:
It is a graph output by a seismograph. It is a record of the ground motion at a measuring station as a function of time.
Fresnel zone:
A frequency- and range-dependent area of a reflector from which most of the energy of a reflection
is returned and arrival times differ by less than half a period from the first break.
Subsurface features smaller than the Fresnel zone usually cannot be detected using seismic waves.
Spherical divergence and attenuation of seismic waves causes a Fresnel zone. The size of Fresnel
zone can be calculated to help interpreters determine minimum size feature that can be resolved.

Seismic Resolution:
It is the ability to distinguish between separate points or objects, such as sedimentary sequences in a seismic section.
High frequency and short wavelengths provide better vertical and lateral resolution.
• Vertical resolution: is minimum separation in time or depth to distinguish between two interfaces to show two
separate reflectors & depends on dominant frequency, magnitude of events, & Separation between events
• Horizontal resolution: is minimum distance between two features required to distinguish them as two separate
features on seismic record. It depends on Receiver spacing, dominant frequency, Velocity, and dip angle.
Seismic events:
Primary events: (Reflections)
It is generated by waves that have been reflected from interface. It

carries useful information about velocity structure. Anything else but
reflections considered as unwanted noise.
Non primary events:
• Direct waves: (T‐X curve is straight line with intercept=0)
It is P‐wave that travel directly from source to receiver along earth`s

surface. It arrives before the reflected wave of first layer. It is
usually attenuated by Muting & Stacking.
• Ground roll: (T‐X curve is straight line with intercept=0)
It is Surface waves (Rayleigh) travelling along ground surface & have velocity 100:1000ms
& frequency <10Hz. It is usually attenuated by F‐K filter & arrays in the field.
• Head wave: (T‐X curve is straight line with intercept not equal 0)
It is refractions generated when angle of incidence equals the critical angle. It travels in
refraction medium along the interface, and arrives before direct wave. It is usually
attenuated by Muting & Stacking. Diffractions
• Diffraction: (T‐X curve is Hyperbola)
It occurs at the edge of layers & attenuated by Seismic Migration.
• Multiples: (T‐X curve is Hyperbola)
It is event in seismic data that has incurred more than one reflection
in its travel path. It is usually attenuated by NMO & Deconvolution.
• Short path: arrive so soon after primary reflection from same

deep reflector
• Peg‐Leg: reflected successively from top & base of thin layer.
• Ghost waves: reflected from base or surface of weathered layer in land survey
• Long path multiples:
• It involves water reverberations in deep water layer & reflections at the base of thick weathered layer.

Seismic equipments:
1‐Determining location:
• Land:
• Conventional survey instruments such as Thelodolite
• Electromagnetic distance devices (EDM)
• Global positioning system (GPS), which is commonly, used method.
• Marine:
• Radio positioning, Transit satellite positioning
• Streamer locations by using Tail Buoy
• Global positioning system
2‐Seismic sources:
Weight drop
• Land Sources:
• A‐Impulsive sources: which are divided to Explosive sources such as Dynamite
(common in Petroleum exploration), and Non Explosive such as Weight drop &
Hammers (common in shallow seismic investigation).
• B‐Non impulsive sources: the main common is Vibroseis which is a designed
vehicle lift its weight on large plate in contact with ground surface in sweeps.
• Up Sweep: Frequency begins low & increase with time.
• Down Sweep: Frequency begins high & decrease with time.
• Marine sources: Vibroseis
• Air gun: the common in offshore survey (first produced in 1960). This gun
releases highly compressed air into water. It uses a compressed air at 2000‐
5000PSI to produce an explosive blast of air. Several air guns with different sizes
are fired to enhance their initial pulses & reduce their bubble effects.
3‐Seismic detectors:
• Land detectors (Geophone): Air gun
It is a device is used to detect the sound waves. It consists of coil of wire suspended from spring
& surrounded by (W) shaped magnet. Upward energy from seismic
source is recorded as electrical current generated by movement of coil.
• Marine detectors (Hydrophone):

Geophone
It is a device used to detect the pressure waves. Upward energy is
recorded as electrical current generated by piezoelectric device (which
generates a voltage if acted with pressure).
Hydrophone cable

Seismic acquisition:
It is the generation and recording of seismic data. Acquisition
involves many different receiver configurations, including
laying geophones or seismometers on the surface of the Earth
or seafloor, towing hydrophones behind a marine seismic
vessel to record the seismic signal. A source, such as a vibrator
unit, dynamite shot, or an air gun, generates acoustic or
elastic vibrations that travel into the Earth, pass through strata
with different seismic responses and filtering effects, and
return to the surface to be recorded as seismic data.
Seismic Crew:
A seismic crew is a team of people who conduct seismic tests to gather information about the geology of an area of
interest. The biggest employer of seismic crews is the oil industry, which conducts extensive seismic research before
drilling new wells for oil.
• Party Chief: is the manager of the crew

• Camp Boss: is responsible for camp services such as food & beverages.
• Company Representive: is a person from the owner company to follow the
acquisition survey.
• Mine Clearance: responsible for clear the war explosives before survey.
• Recording: Geophysicist who is responsible for data recording.
• Quality Control: Geophysicist receives the data everyday to check the quality.
2‐D Survey
Land Survey:
Two‐dimensional survey (2‐D):
Seismic data or a group of seismic lines acquired individually such that there typically
are significant gaps (commonly 1 km or more) between adjacent lines. A 2D survey
typically contains numerous lines acquired orthogonally to the strike of geological
structures (such as faults and folds) with a minimum of lines acquired parallel to
geological structures to allow line‐to‐line tying of the seismic data and interpretation
and mapping of structures.
3‐D Survey
The seismic data recorded by 2‐D survey is seismic line.
Three‐dimensional survey (3‐D):
The acquisition of seismic data as closely spaced receiver and shot lines such that
there typically are no significant gaps in the subsurface coverage.
The seismic data recorded by 3‐D survey is seismic cube.
Seismic cube

Marine Survey:
2‐D and 3‐D survey in marine differ from land survey by:
‐The seismic source is Air gun & not dynamite or Vibroseis
‐The seismic detector is Hydrophone & not a geophone
‐The sources and detectors are always at depth below the sea
2‐D marine
level & the depth of the cable is controlled by Streamer‐Birds
‐The receivers are connected together by streamer.
Tail buoy: A floating device used in marine seismic acquisition to

identify the end of streamer. It allows the seismic acquisition
crew to monitor location and direction of streamers.
Streamer Bird: A device connected with the streamer to control

the depth of streamer.
3‐D marine
Types of Seismic arrays (spread):
A‐Split dip Spread: the source in center of spaced geophone groups
• Split dip Spread: source is inline with geophone groups with no gaps
• Deviated dip Spread: source is deviated by small distance perpendicular

to the line
• Gapped dip Spread: geophone groups near the source is turned off
B‐End on Spread: the source is at one end of geophone groups
C‐Broad side Spread: source has offset 500‐1000m perpendicular to seismic line
• T‐Broad side spread: source is opposite the line center

• L‐Broad side spread: source is opposite one end of the line
Some definitions:
• Geophone Station: no. of geophones related to one recording unit.

• No. of channels: no. of geophone stations.
• Geophone interval: is distance between geophone stations.
• Shot point interval: is distance between shots (if more than one shot).
• Line number: is specific name for line of survey.
• File No.: The number of file or shot for this line.
• Reel No. =Tape No.: number of tape for certain line (if line is recorded at more than one file).
• Record No.: number of shot within one reel (if the reel contains more than one shot).

Ch6: Seismic Data Processing

Alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate location in
space. Processing steps typically include analysis of velocities and frequencies, static corrections, Deconvolution,
normal moveout, dip moveout, stacking, and migration, which can be performed before or after stacking. Seismic
processing facilitates better interpretation because subsurface structures and reflection geometries are more apparent.
Multiplex & Demultiplex:
Signals from all receivers arrive at the recorder at the same time. However
recorder is only capable of measuring one receiver at the same time, so we use
the Multiplex technique.
Multiplexer: rotary switch rotates every few Millie seconds to sample each trace.
Multiplex cycle: one turn of the switch.
Sample rate: is time taken to complete one multiplex cycle (generally 2 or 4 ms).
To collect all of these samples back again to its original place, we use Demultiplex
technique.
Gain Recovery:
It is a step in seismic processing to compensate for attenuation of the amplitude of

data.
As shot fired, Waves spread as a cone in 3 dimensions. This spreading of energy is

called Spherical divergence. This spreading of energy from source point causes the
energy to decrease with increasing depth. High frequencies are more rapidly to
absorb than low frequencies by the rock. So, seismic energy reflect from deep
geological event will be received at geophone as weak signal, & near surface will
be received as strong signal.
We use the Gain Recovery to enhance these weak signals
True amplitude: means the real amplitude on seismic trace without any gain applied.
Equalization Scaling (Trace scaling):
It is known also as Normalization. It is used because after all seismic traces is stacked, strong amplitude will carry more
weight than weak ones, So we run this step to scale up weak traces & scale down strong traces (normalize the trace
with itself).
Automatic Gain Control & Balance:
AGC & Balance are used to build up weak signals (differ from Trace scaling that they are based on smaller time
analysis window where Trace scaling applies gain at large time window).
Balance divides trace into several windows which may overlap & AGC uses a sliding window instead of set of windows

Editing
Editing:
Step is used to remove bad traces, noisy channels or open channels.
Muting:
Muting
Zero out arrivals that are not primary P-wave reflections.
Deconvolution:
A step in seismic signal processing to recover high frequencies,

attenuate multiples, equalize amplitudes, produce a zero-phase
wavelet or for other purposes that generally affect the wave shape.
Let’s consider a simple case as shown in figure.
In ideal case, Geophone still stationary until the first reflection

arrived, then it makes one movement & return to its stationary
position again so the ideal seismogram reflections shows a series
of spikes.
In real case, Seismogram for these layers would be presented by

short wavelets. Because spike passes through earth layers which
act as a filter & applies an operator to Spike & transform it into
short wavelets, applying this operator known as Convolution.
The process used to return short wavelets to spikes known as Deconvolution.
Types of Deconvolution:
1. DBS & DAS

• DBS: is Deconvolution before stack (standard process applied to all data)
DBS removes any short multiples & reverberations (relatively short

200-400ms)
• DAS: is Deconvolution after stack (mainly used in marine data)
DAS removes long period multiple
2. Spike Deconvolution & Predictive Deconvolution

• Spike Deconvolution: used for sources as air gun & Dynamite (used before stack).
• Predictive Deconvolution: used for sources as Weight drops (which doesn’t generate many high frequencies)
3. Minimum phase & Zero phase

• Minimum phase Deconvolution: whiteness spectrum & correct the phase lags (shift the data).
• Zero Phase Deconvolution: just whiteness spectrum without any shift of data.

Filtering:
A process or algorithm using a set of limits used to eliminate unwanted portions of seismic data, commonly on the basis
of frequency or amplitude, to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of the data or to achieve Deconvolution.
The common use of digital filter in data processing is to filter out unwanted frequencies.
Types of filters:
• Band-Pass filter:
This filter doesn’t alter phase, only extract a defined band of frequencies
Any high or low frequencies outside this range will be attenuated.
• Low-Cut filter (High pass):
In this case, the analysts only want to eliminate low frequencies
Low-cut filter is used to filter out low frequency Ground Roll.
• High-Cut filter (Low-Pass):
In this case, the analysts only want to eliminate high frequencies
• Notch filter:
It is used to filter out narrow band of frequencies within frequency range of

data
The most common use of this filter is to attenuate noises caused by power
lines.
• Variable amplitude spectrum filter:
In this case, the analysts don’t want to keep the amplitude of filter constant
This type of filters is used for special processing.
• Phase filter:
In some cases, instead of filtering out frequencies, it may be necessary to adjust the phase of data. Ex: Survey in
coastal area, the survey runs in land & marine together. On land, the field crew will use velocity geophones & in
lagoon they will use a Pressure hydrophone. Where geophones & hydrophones are used together, the traces were
recorded by geophones will be out of phase with those recorded by hydrophones. Its necessary to phase shift the
traces of hydrophones before stacking
We apply Phase filter to change the phase of all frequencies without altering amplitude.
• Shaping filter:
It is a filter by which the analysts can alter both the phase & frequency content of seismic trace.
• Inverse filter:
It is any type of filters which reverse the effects of filter has already been applied to data

Static correction:
It is often called statics, a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time during seismic
processing. A common static correction is the weathering correction, which
compensates for a layer of low seismic velocity material near the surface of
the Earth. Other corrections compensate for differences in topography and
differences in the elevations of sources and receivers.
1-Elevation method
For each station, there is an elevation is measured. This difference in elevation

causes the horizontal reflector appears as curved. So this method is used to
shift all of data up or down to datum level (Sea level for example).
2-Uphole method:
This method is used to estimate the thickness & velocity of weathered layer.
This method involves drilling a hole into the weathering layer (up to 300ft)
An uphole geophone placed near the hole & a seismic source (usually charges
of dynamite) are set in the hole
The geophone records seismic waves at each depth. These depths & times can
be plotted on Time-distance curve
From time-distance curve, we can estimate the thickness & velocity of LVL
(low velocity layer)
3-Refraction method:
The refractions or first breaks can be used to calculate statics
By measuring ∆t & ∆d values for the first refraction line, we can estimate the velocity of LVL.

CDP Gathering & Stacking:
Common depth point defines as sum of traces which correspond to the same
subsurface reflection point but have different offset distances.
At this step, we gather these CDP traces & then integrate all of these traces as
one trace (Stacking).
The main reason of using CDP method is to improve the signal to noise ratio
of data because when trace is summed, signals can be built where random
noise can be canceled. After Gather After NMO After Stacking
Before stacking, the traces must be shifted to its original place by NMO
Normal Move out (NMO):
The effect of the separation between receiver and source on the arrival time
of a reflection that does not dip, abbreviated NMO. A reflection typically
arrives first at the receiver nearest the source. The offset between the
source and other receivers induces a delay in the arrival time of a reflection
from a horizontal surface at depth. A plot of arrival times versus offset has
a hyperbolic shape.
Move out correction is time correction applied to each offset.
Velocity Analysis:
The determination of seismic velocity is the key to seismic method.
The process of calculating seismic velocity is to do better process seismic data. Successful stacking, time migration and
depth migration all require proper velocity inputs
Velocity estimation is needed also to convert time section into depth section.
Kinds of velocity:
• Average velocity: at which represent depth to bed (from surface to layer). Average velocity is commonly calculated
by assuming a vertical path, parallel layers and straight ray paths, conditions that are quite idealized compared to
those actually found in the Earth.
• Pseudo Average Velocity: when we have time from seismic & depth from well
• True Average Velocity: when we measure velocity by VSP, Sonic, or Coring
• Interval Velocity: The velocity, typically P-wave velocity, of a specific layer or layers of rock,
• Pseudo Interval Velocity: when we have time from seismic & depth from well
• True Average Velocity: when we measure velocity by VSP, Cheak shot
• Stacking Velocity: The distance-time relationship determined from analysis of normal moveout (NMO)
measurements from common depth point gathers of seismic data. The stacking velocity is used to correct the arrival
times of events in the traces for their varying offsets prior to summing, or stacking, the traces to improve the signal-to-
noise ratio of the data.
• RMS Velocity: is root mean square velocity & equivalent to stacking velocity but increased by 10%
• Instantaneous Velocity: Most accurate velocity (comes from sonic tools) & can be measured at every feet
• Migration Velocity: used to migrate certain point to another (usually > or < of stacking velocity by 5-15%)

Migration:
A step in seismic processing in which reflections in

seismic data are moved to their correct locations in the
x-y-time space of seismic data, including two-way
travel time and position relative to shot points.
Migration improves seismic interpretation and mapping

because the locations of geological structures,
especially faults, are more accurate in migrated seismic
data.
It attends to deal with diffractions & dipping interfaces.
Types of Migration:
• Time Migration: A migration technique for

processing seismic data in areas where lateral velocity
changes are not too severe, but structures are complex.
Time migration has the effect of moving dipping
events on a surface seismic line from apparent
locations to their true locations in time.
• Depth Migration: A step in seismic processing in
which reflections in seismic data are moved to their
correct locations in space, including position relative to shot points, in areas

where there are significant and rapid lateral or vertical changes in velocity that
distort the time image. This requires an accurate knowledge of vertical and
horizontal seismic velocity variations.
• Pre Stack Depth Migration: if the migration process occurred before
stacking
• Post Stack Depth Migration: if the migration occurred after stacking
Before Migration
After Migration

Post Stack Processing:
Sometimes, we have a seismic section & already had been processed in past but we need to enhance & filtering this data
again.
Usually, this data came in seismic section papers (not in tapes), So at first we scan this data & convert it to SEG-Y format
by Victorization process.
Sometimes also, we digitize the shot point maps & put X-Y directions in the SEG-Y trace header.
Post Stack Processing steps:
• Resampling: convert the trace into digital form (or from 2ms to 2ms for example).
• Interpolation: is to estimate a synthetic trace between two traces.
• AGC & Trace Balance: is automatic gain control is used to build up weak signals.
• Trace Mix: control the gain like AGC but laterally (from trace to other).
• Migration: apllies both Prestack Migration & Poststack Migration.

Ch7: Seismic Data Interpretation
Seismic interpretation & subsurface mapping are key skills that are used
commonly in the oil industry.
It is used to generate reasonable models and predictions about the

properties and structures of the subsurface.
To start interpretation, We must have:
• Base Map: shot point location

• Seismic sections: Inline & Crossline
• Available Wells:
• Velocity data from wells:from Cheak Shot, VSP.
• Formation Top of the well: to determine the top of horizon
• Logs & reports: Sonic,GR,Density & other logs
Before starting the interpretation steps, first we will define some definations & processes related to seismic interpretation .
Check Shot survey:
A type of borehole seismic data designed to measure the seismic traveltime from the
surface to a known depth. P-wave velocity of the formations encountered in a
wellbore can be measured directly by lowering a geophone to each formation of
interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the Earth, and recording
the resultant signal.
From this survey, we will have velocity & depth, we estimate the time & plot result in
Time/Depth Scale.
At this case, the reading will be taken at every 100ft.
Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP):
A class of borehole seismic measurements used for correlation with surface seismic data,
for obtaining images of higher resolution than surface seismic images and for looking
ahead of the drill bit; also called a VSP. Purely defined, VSP refers to measurements
made in a vertical wellbore using geophones inside the wellbore and a source at the
surface near the well.
Most VSPs use a surface seismic source, which is commonly a vibrator on land and an
air gun in offshore or marine environments.
Recording at any level will contain both upgoing & downgoing waves. Both upgoing &
downgoing waves will be associated with multiples due to reflection both above &
below the geophone. VSP data is also has its processing which called VSP processing.
Another advantage for VSP is the ability to give good results in deviated wells, where
synthetic Seismiogram are often unrealiable.
VSP produces Time/Depth Scale & VSP image, where Check-shot just produces time/depth scale
VSP has higher resolution than Check-shot survey ( reading every 10ft)
The total waves recorded at detectors in borehole consists of:
• Signals arrive from above the tool: which is direct arrival &
downgoing multiples
• Signals arrive from below the tool: which is direct reflections
& upgoing multiples Zero‐offset
Offset VSP
There are many types of VSP survey:
• Zero-offset VSP: n which the energy source is positioned

directly above the receivers, typically very close to the
wellbore.
• Offset VSP: in which the source is located at an offset from
the drilling rig during acquisition. This allows imaging to
Walk‐above
some distance away from the wellbore.
Walk‐away
• Movable source VSP: in this case the source is not stationary.
• Walk-away VSP: in which the source is moved to progressively farther offset at the surface and receivers are
held in a fixed location, effectively providing a mini 2D seismic line that can be of higher resolution than surface
seismic data and provides more continuous coverage than an offset VSP
• Walk-in VSP: originating from successive shots fired from far offset source with decreasing offset.
• Walk-above VSP: accommodate the geometry of a deviated well; sometimes called a vertical incidence VSP.
Each receiver is in a different lateral position with the source directly above the receiver for all cases. Such data
provide a high-resolution seismic image of the subsurface below the trajectory of the well.
Synthetic Seismogram:
It is a result of one of many forms of forward modeling to predict the

seismic response of the Earth. A more narrow definition used by
seismic interpreters is that a synthetic seismogram, commonly called
a synthetic.
it is a direct one-dimensional model of acoustic energy traveling
through the layers of the Earth.
The synthetic seismogram is generated by convolving the reflectivity
derived from digitized acoustic and density logs with the wavelet
derived from seismic data. By comparing marker beds or other
correlation points picked on well logs with major reflections on the
seismic section, interpretations of the data can be improved. The
quality of the match between a synthetic seismogram depends on
well log quality, seismic data processing quality, and the ability to
extract a representative wavelet from seismic data
The acoustic log is generally calibrated with check-shot or vertical
seismic profile (VSP) before combining with the density log to
produce acoustic impedance.
Synthetic seismigram indicates also if the target horizon is peak or
trough in seismic sections.

Interpretation steps:
1-Loading the data:
• Seismic sections: (poststack data).

• Available Wells data: Well logs & formation tops
• Velocity Data of wells: from Check-shot survey or Vertical Seismic Profiling.
2-Well Tie:
We create a Synthetic Seismogram to know the accurate location of the formation

tops of intersested horizonthen tie it with the seismic section. Synthetic indicates
also that if the horizon response is peak or trough.
From the well, we know the depth of the event (Formation tops).
From plotting values of depths & times which came from the check-shot survey, we
can extract the time value for certain depth ( to mark that depth on seismic section).
We repeat these steps with all wells to get the true depth of the horizon.
NOTES:
• We must know the datum of survey (datum survey in seismic called Seismic
refrence datum).
• If the Check-shot time is one way time, we must convert it to two way time.
• We must know the type of well depth (TVD, MD, or TVDsubsea).
3-Picking intersted Horizon:
Picking is a reflection on a seismic section. It involves deciding what

wiggles from trace to trace are from the same reflection
a-Arbitrarly Line:
it is a seismic line contains the data of the available wells (called also
Key line in 2-D interpretation)
Time Structure with Arbitrary Line in Yellow
This line contain the most accurate data because it contains a real data
about the depth of intersted horizon became from already drilled
wells.
This arbitary line is determines from a map view of data then flatterned
as one seismic section in section view.
Then, we determine the formation tops under each well to mark the
horizon location.
In 2-D interpretation case, we use the Key line as a refrence line. The
Key Line is a seismic line passes through which contain many wells
data as much as possible.
Arbitrary Line flattened

Structure:
It is finding & marking structures at the horizon (Faults for

example).
We pick the fault on seismic section & find it at the other

seismic lines.
The fault in seismic section is called Fault Segment.
The fault on map view is called Fault Polygon.

Fault segments
Picking
We start marking of interseted horizon under each well in the

arbitary line.
Then, complete picking the horizon in the seismic line
b-Loop
loop is tie between Inline & Crossline.
The main idea of loop, is to correlate between two line have

the same shot point (one of them is accurate data) to detect
the interested horizon accuratly at the unknown one.
Horizon picking
we start to pick the horizon at the crossline. Then we repeat
this process to complete the loop, & run the process to pick
the horizon at all lines.
Mis-Tie:
The same event doesn`t have the same absolute values. A

situation in interpretation of seismic data in which predicted
and actual values differ, or when an interpreted reflection
does not close, or tie, when interpreting intersecting lines.
Static Shift: when the difference is constant at all horizons &

fixed easily by Mis-Tie analysis Correction.
Dynamic Shift: the difference is not constant & fixed by

Fault Polygons
specific softwares & sometimes, we just adjust the intersted
horizon & don’t care about the other horizons.
NOTES:
• If there is no wells, we choose the section which has most clearly structures & keep it as a refrence line
• The direction of faults in arbitary line depend on level of formation tops at each well
• The dip angle of faults depend on th bottom of horizon.
• The seismic line must be prepindicular to fault to show fault on seismic section.

4-Two Way Time Map: (TWT)
At first, we take the time values of horizon at

each shot point
Then, put these values at the line on base map.
Repeat this stpe at each line.
After that, Contour these values to get TWT

map with suitable contour interval.
NOTES:
• Before contouring, First we load the fault

polygons on map
• The contour map must have:
• Map name: (ex: Al-Dol time map)
• Contour Interval: (ex: 20ms)
• Scale: (ex: 1:100000)
• Scale Bar: . 5km .
5-Velocity map:
First, put the average velocity determined at

each well. The average velocities in well
became from Check-shot survey or VSP (from
time/depth scale in check-shot we can
determine the velocity).
then, we repeat this step at each well in survey

area & contouring the velocity values of wells
to get Velocity map.
NOTES:
• The velocity required for the map is Average

velocity
• If there is no wells in area, we use velocity extracted from seismic data
• In this case, we use the Stacking Velocity or RMS velocity.
• These velocities is estimated by Velocity Analysis.
• In case of determining velocity from check-shot survey, the result velocity will multiplying by 2 (to convert it to one-
way time).
• Ex: if the time is 1980ms & depth is 8000ft, so the velocity will equal

6-Depth contour map:
We extract the depth map values from the velocity

& one way time map.
The depth converted map shows the depths of

intersted horizon.
we usually prefer to drill at the higher areas

(which called hot areas) .
NOTES:
• At most cases, the shape of two way time map

is look like the Depth map
• If there is a closure occurred in TWT map &
not existed in Depth map, the error usually
come from the velocity map then try to fix it.
• If there is a closure occurred in Depth map &
not existed in TWT map, so there is a big error
occurred & can`t to drill in this closure
depending on Depth map only.
• The values in TWT map must be divided by 2 (to convert it to One Way Time map).
…………………………………………………………………………..
Original Oil in Place (OOIP):

Oil in place is the total hydrocarbon content of an oil reservoir and is often abbreviated STOOIP, which stands for Stock
Tank Original Oil in Place, or STOIIP for Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place, referring to the oil in place before the
commencement of production.
OOIP under Reservoir conditions:
It is measuring the OOIP where oil is compressed by pressure in layers.
In this case, the OOIP is calculated by:
OOIP=k*Thickness*A*Φ*(1‐Sw)*(Net/Gross)
Where: k→ unit convergent constant Φ→ Total porosity
Thickness→ thickness of reservoir Sw→ Water saturation
A→ Area of reservoir Net/Gross→ Effective porosity to the total volume of reservoir

OOIP under surface conditions:
In this case, we care about the expansion of oil at the surface (due to the pressure decreasing at surface). Also at surface
conditions, bubbles escape out of the oil. As the gas bubbles out of the oil, the volume of the oil decreases.
Stabilized oil under surface conditions is called stock tank oil. Oil reserves are calculated in terms of stock tank oil
volumes rather than reservoir oil volumes.
The Formation Volume Factor (FVF) or Beta Oil (Bo) is used to solve this problem.
The ratio of stock tank volume to oil volume under reservoir conditions is called the formation volume factor (FVF). It
usually varies from 1.0 to 1.7 (Reservoir engineer determine value of FVF from Pressure Volume Temperature Log).
OOIP=k*Thickness*A*Φ*(1‐Sw)*(Net/Gross)*FVF
Where: FVF→ Formation Volume Factor
Producable Oil in Place:
In real case, not all of oil in reservoir can be estimated. Amount of oil still in pores by Capillary pressure
In this case, Recovery Factor is used to solve this problem.
OOIP=k*Thickness*A*Φ*(1‐Sw)*(Net/Gross)*FVF*Recovery Factor
NOTES:
• The Unit Convergent Factor (K) is used to avoid the problem of difference in units between Area & Depth
• The area of reservoir (closure for example) is determined in map then measured by software (Planimeter).
• This type of calculation is called Rough Calculation because it is not 100% accurate (we consider that the reservoir
layer is flat & it is not always true).
Original Gas in Place (OGIP):

The steps for calculating OGIP is exactly like OOIP except:
• Beta Oil (Bo) will be Beta Gas (BG)

• Recovery factor will have different values (Gas can move & extract more easily than oil).

Geo
ology & Geophysi
Lead
d Evalu
uation:
It is an evaluation foor structure orr closure
after studying & before
b drilling
g.
The Leead is called Prospect

P after
calcuulations.
The evaluation depeends on study ying where

the soource, Migrattion path, trap
ps.
This figgure shows ann evaluation for

f 22
Leadds.
Lead: is column for number of structures

s or closures
c whicch are interestted
Prelim
minary Risk
k: Are the resuults for the closure or struccture evaluation.
• Coolumn1 (Stru
ucture): is a general
g evaluaation for struccture (Size forr example).
• Coolumn2 (Migrration & Sou urce): if the area
a has a souurce rock or noot, the migrattion also passes to structure or not.
• Coolumn3 (Sealing): if the sttructure is seaaled by a cap rock
r or not (bboth Vertical Sealing & Hoorizontal Sealling).
• Coolumn4 (Reseervoir): evaluuation dependds on Porosityy, Permeabilitty, fractures (for
( Limestonne & basemennt reservoir).
• Coolumn5 (Oppportunity of Success):
S is percentage
p of reservoir success (multiplyying columnss 1, 2, 3 & 4)..
OOIP
P MMBLS: is Origina2l Oil
O in Place inn million Barrrels.
• Coolumn1 (un risked):

r is thee OOIP expeccted before thee lead evaluattion.
• Coolumn2 (Risk
ked): is the OOIP after Leaad Evaluationn (by multiplyying of Opporrtunity of succcess with un risked
r OOIP)).
Reservvoir qualityy: is column for

f another vision fro reserrvoir (by supeervisor for exaample).
Oppoortunitty of Su
uccess:
It is another table foor structure orr lead evaluatiion
This evvaluation depeends also on Migration,

M Soource,
Sealiing and Reserrvoir.
52 Geolog
gy & Geophysics in
moud Sroor
Ch8: Well Logging & Mud Logging

In this chapter, we will know some concepts in well logging, logging tools & mud logging, but it’s necessary to know
some definitions about the drilled well.
Vertical Well:
RT: is the Rotary Table
MD: is the Measured Depth which is the distance between the rotary table to KB
the end of well.
KB: is the Kelly Bushing which is the distance between rotary table & the
mean seal level (MSL)
MDss: is the Measured depth sub sea which is the distance between mean sea
level (MSL) to the end of well (MDss=MD-KB). MDss
Deviated Well (Directional):
TVD: True Vertical Depth which is the vertical distance from a point in the
well to a point at the rotary table.
TVDss: true Vertical Depth Sub Sea which is the vertical distance from a
point in the well to the mean seal level. KB
MD: Measured Depth (always>TVD)
Ө: Angle of inclination which is angle of deviated well with respect to its TVDss
vertical origin
TVD
A: Azimuth which is angle of deviated well with respect to Magnetic North
Pole.
NOTES:
• If the well is vertical, TVD = MD

• The difference between TVD & TVDss is always = KB
• Most of wells are not 100% vertical (have a deviation about 1 or 2 degree at
the end of well).
• The best algorism calculation used in deviation survey is Minimum Curvature
Algorism.
• KB & GL values sometimes have negative (-ve) values if the survey area
location if it below the Mean Sea Level (MSL).

Geo
ology & Geophysi
Well Logging:
L
Historyy:
• 19912 Conrad Schlumberger

S gave the ideaa of using electrical
measurem ments to map subsurface
s roock bodies.
• Inn 1919 Conradd Schlumberg ger and his brrother Marcel begin
work on well
w logs.
• Thhe first electrical resistivity
y well log waas taken in Fraance, in
1927.
• Thhe instrumentt which was use u for this puurpose is calleed
SONDE
• Inn 1929 the eleectrical resistivity logs are introduce on
commerciial scale in Veenezuela, USA A and Russiaa.
• Thhe photographhic – film reccorder was deeveloped in 19936 the
curves weere SN, LN AND A LAT.
• Thhe dip meter log
l was developed in 19300.
• Thhe Gamma Ray on Log were begun in 19441.

R and Neutro
Well loggging:
It is allso known as borehole logging is the prractice of makking a detailedd record (a

welll log) of the geologic
g form
mations penetrrated by a borrehole. The loog may be
baseed either on visual
v inspectiion of samplees brought to the
t surface (ggeological
logss) or on physiical measurem ments made byy instrumentss lowered intoo the
boreehole (geophyysical logs). AnA interpretattion of these measurements
m s is then
madde to locate annd quantify po otential depthh zones contaiining oil and gas
(hyddrocarbons). Logging
L toolss developed over
o years to measure
m the electrical,
e
acouustic, radioactive, electrom magnetic, and other propertties of the roccks and
theirr contained flluids.
It is caalled also wirreline logging

g due to the wireline
w cable which carriess at its end
the instruments
i & lower it intoo the well.
The measured
m welll log consists of:
• LOG HEADEER: includes all

a informationn about the well
w logged annd
informationn necessary to describe the environment the measurem ment has
been inform
med in (e.g. drrilling mud paarameters). Toool sketches and
a
remarks info
forming aboutt specific evennts during thee logging operration
complete thhe header.
• MAIN LOG: main display y of measurem ment performeed.
• LOG TRAILEER: includes toool/computatiion parameterr table and caalibration recoords.
Wireliine cables connsist mainly of

o two layers::
•OOuter Wire rope:

r to proviide strength too cable to carrry the instrum
ments.
• Inner
I Wire: to
t provide eleectric power to
t downhole equipments
e & for data telemetry.
Wireline Cable
54 Geolog
gy & Geophysics in
moud Sroor
Wireline Unit:
The cabin that contains the surface hardware needed to make wireline logging
measurements. The logging unit contains at the minimum the surface
instrumentation, a winch, a depth recording system and a data recorder. The
surface instrumentation controls the logging tool, processes the data received
and records the results digitally and on hard copy. The winch lowers and raises
the cable in the well. A depth wheel drives the depth recording system. The
data recorder includes a digital recorder and a printer.
Onshore
1-Onshore:
The logging company sends Truck Logging Unit which contains the
computers, winch and recorders.
2-Offshore:
The logging unit is stored as small house on the rig.
Offshore
Logging While Drilling (LWD):
In the 1980s, a new technique, logging while drilling (LWD), was introduced which
provided similar information about the well.
Instead of sensors being lowered into the well at the end of wireline cable, the sensors
are integrated into the drill string and the measurements are made while the well is
being drilled.
While wireline well logging occurs after the drill string is removed from the well,
LWD measures geological parameters while the well is being drilled.
However, because there are no wires to the surface, data are recorded downhole and
retrieved when the drill string is removed from the hole. A small subset of the
measured data can also be transmitted to the surface in real time via pressure
pulses in the well's mud fluid column. This mud telemetry method provides a
bandwidth of much less than 100 bits per second, although, as drilling through
rock is a fairly slow process, data compression techniques mean that this is an
ample bandwidth for real-time delivery of information.
Measuring While Drilling (MWD):
It is the evaluation of physical properties, usually including pressure, temperature and

wellbore trajectory in three-dimensional space, while extending a wellbore. MWD
is now standard practice in offshore directional wells. The measurements are made
downhole, stored in solid-state memory for some time and later transmitted to the
surface. Data transmission methods vary from company to company, but usually
involve digitally encoding data and transmitting to the surface as pressure pulses in
the mud system.
Some MWD tools have the ability to store the measurements for later retrieval with
LWD tool
wireline or when the tool is tripped out of the hole if the data transmission link fails.

Logging Tools:
These are electronic devices that records data over depth. The
tool is attached to the end of wireline cable & lowered to the
borehole.
There are many types of tools such BHC tool, GR tool,

Density tool and many others
Usually, these tools are integrated as measurement sensors in

one tool called Sonde.
Cartridge: The section of a wireline logging tool that

contains the telemetry, the electronics and power supplies
for the measurement, as distinct from the sonde that contains
the measurement sensors.
Caliper Tool:
The Caliper Tool is a 3 armed device that measures the internal

diameter (I.D.) of casing or open borehole completions. This
information is crucial to all types of production logging.
The caliper probe provides a “first look” at borehole conditions in

preparation for additional logging.
The log is used to measure borehole diameter, locate fracture zones,

assess borehole quality and stability, and for calculation of bore
volume for pile construction.
Increasing in diameter of borehole indicates about Wash out Process

(ex: Shale).
Decreasing in diameter of borehole indicates about Invasion process

(ex: Porous Sand).

Acoustic Tools:
Borehole Compensated Sonic (BHC):
Sonic logging shows a formation’s interval transit time designated ∆t. It is a measure of a
formation’s capacity to transmit sound waves.
Tool is consists of two transmitters & four receivers. Transmitter 1 starts to emit waves which
received by two receivers. Then this process repeats again with transmitter 2 and the other two
receivers. Tool is putted in center of borehole (no contact with hole).
Quantitatively, the sonic log is used to evaluate porosity in liquid filled pores. The tool is only
capable of measuring travel time. Many relationships between travel time and porosity have been proposed, the most
commonly accepted is the Wyllie time average equation. The equation basically holds that the total travel time recorded
on the log is the sum of the time the sonic wave spends traveling the solid part of the rock, called the rock matrix and
the time spent traveling through the fluids in the pores.
Фs= (∆t‐∆tma) / (∆tp‐∆tma)

Where: Фs is sonic porosity, ∆t is Transit time in formation, ∆tma is Transit time
through 100% of the rock matrix, ∆tp is that through 100% of the pore
fluid.
Calibration:
The tool is calibrated inside the borehole opposite beds of pure and known
lithology, such as anhydrite (50.0 ms/ft.), salt (66.7 ms/ft.), or inside the casing
(57.1 ms/ft.).
Values for ∆t and V in Wyllie’s time average equation:
Names and mnemonics of common industry sonic tools:

Radioactive Tools:
Density Tool: Litho-Density Tool (LDT)
These tools have a caesium-137 or cobalt-60 source emitting gamma rays at 0.662 MeV,
a short-spaced and a long-spaced detector in the same way as the basic formation
density tool. However, the detectors are more efficient, and have the ability to
recognize and to count separately gamma rays which have high energies (hard gamma
rays: 0.25 to 0.662 MeV) and gamma rays which have low energies (soft gamma rays:
0.04 to 0.0 MeV).
Gamma ray enters the formation, then scattering & looses some of its energy then
absorbed by a formation. Then, the detectors detect γ ray which emitted from excited
atoms which related to the formation.
Notes:
• The borehole must be perfectly vertical (no washout) because in this case, the tool
will measure air response & causing errors in data.
• Drilling muds with high density will absorb gamma rays efficiently, such as barite filled muds, will effect the detector
readings. However, the effect of these muds is compensated for automatically by the spine and ribs correction.
ФD= (ρb‐ρma) / (ρf‐ρma)

Where: ρb = the bulk density of the formation ρma = the density of the rock matrix
ρf = the density of the fluids occupying the porosity ФD = the porosity of the rock.
Calibration:
The primary calibrations are made by inserting the tool into a block of pure
limestone saturated with fresh water of accurately known density.
Secondary (check) calibrations are made in the wireline tool workshop by inserting
the tool into large blocks of aluminum, sulphur and magnesium of known density.
Tool operation:
The tool is physically very similar to the formation density tool. It has enhanced
detectors, and the distance between the long spacing and the short spacing
detectors has been decreased. This decrease has increased the vertical resolution
of the tool and improved its overall counting accuracy. The accuracy of the
density measurement of the litho-density tool is approximately 0.01 to 0.02
g/cm3, whereas that of the formation density tool is approximately 0.02 to 0.03
g/cm3.
The density measurement has a vertical bed resolution of 50 to 60 cm, which is
slightly better than the formation density tool. The enhanced resolution results
from the shorter distance between the short and the long spacing detectors.
The log is commonly referred to as the photo-electric factor log (PEF).

Neutron Tools: (CNL & SNP)
(SNP): Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool.

(CNL): Compensated Neutron Log Tool.
The neutron log is sensitive mainly to the amount of hydrogen atoms in a formation. Its
main use is in the determination of the porosity of a formation. The tool operates by
bombarding the formation with high energy neutrons. These neutrons undergo scattering
in the formation, losing energy and producing high energy gamma rays. The scattering
reactions occur most efficiently with hydrogen atoms. The resulting low energy neutrons
or gamma rays can be detected, and their count rate is related to the amount of hydrogen
atoms in the formation.
The source which emit neutrons is (Am-Be) source.
Calibration:
These tools are calibrated in blocks of limestone, sandstone and dolomite of high
purity and accurately known porosity. The tools are calibrated, not to give readings
in API neutron porosity units, but to give the porosity directly in percent.
The calibration of the CNL tool is checked at the well site before and after each
logging run by the use of a neutron source of accurately known activity placed a
standard distance from each detector.
Tool Operation:
SNP: This tool is designed for use in open holes only. The tool has a source and a
single detector with 16 inch spacing, which are mounted on a skid that is pressed
against the borehole wall. Because the tool is pressed against the borehole wall, the
drilling mud does not affect the measurement, and the attenuation due to the mud
cake is reduced. The detector is sensitive to epithermal neutrons so the SNP tool
readings are unaffected by the presence of chlorine in high salinity muds and
formation fluids.
CNL: This tool is designed to be sensitive to thermal neutrons, and is therefore

affected by the chlorine effect. It has two detectors situated 15 inch and 25 inch
from the source. The CNL tool has a very strong source of neutrons to ensure that the
measured count rates are sufficiently high to obviate any significant errors
associated with statistical fluctuations.
The Hydrocarbon Effect:
The presence of hydrocarbon liquid (oil) does not affect the tool response as it
has approximately the same hydrogen index as fresh water. Hydrocarbon gas,
however, has a much lower hydrocarbon index resulting from its low density,
and its presence will give rise to underestimations in porosity.

Gamma Ray Tools:
Total Gamma Ray: (GR)
The gamma ray log measures the total natural gamma radiation emanating from
a formation. This gamma radiation originates from potassium-40 and the
isotopes of the Uranium-Radium and Thorium series. The gamma ray log is
commonly given the symbol GR.
Its main use is the discrimination of shales by their high radioactivity.
Note that shales, organic rich shales and volcanic ash show the highest gamma
ray values, and halite, anhydrite, coal, clean sandstones, dolomite and
limestone have low gamma ray values. Care must be taken not to generalize
these rules too much. For example a clean sandstone may contain feldspars
(Arkose sandstones), micas (micaceous sandstones) or both (greywacke), or
Glauconite, or heavy minerals, any of which will give the sandstone higher
gamma ray values than would be expected from a clean sandstone. Gamma ray
may come from the drilling mud itself (some drilling muds are very
radioactive).
Calibration:
The gamma ray log is reported in pseudo-units called API units. The API unit
is defined empirically by calibration to a reference well at the University of
Houston. This reference well is an artificial one that is composed of large
blocks of rock of accurately known radioactivity ranging from very low
radioactivity to very large radioactivity.
Spectral Gamma Ray: (SGR)
The spectral gamma ray log measures the natural gamma radiation emanating
from a formation split into contributions from each of the major radio-isotopic
sources.
The spectral gamma ray tool uses the same sensor as the total gamma ray tool.
The output from the sensor is fed into a multi-channel analyzer that calculates
the amount of radiation coming from the energies associated with each of the
major peaks. This is done by measuring the gamma ray count rate for 3
energy windows around the energies 1.46 MeV for potassium-40, 1.76 MeV
for the uranium-radium series, and 2.62 MeV for the thorium series. These
readings represent the gamma ray radioactivity from each of these sources.
Their sum should be the same as the total gamma ray value measured by the
total gamma ray tool.
Calibration:
The spectral gamma ray tool is calibrated using 4 sources of accurately known
composition, one each containing only K40, U238, and Th232, and one
containing a mixture. Each of the sources is placed next to the detector and
the tool is used to make a measurement. The calibration is designed such that
the calibrated readings of the tool accurately report difference in the amount
of radiation from each of the radiation sources.

Spontaneous potential: (SP)

The spontaneous potential log (SP) measures the natural or spontaneous potential
difference (sometimes called self-potential) that exists between the borehole and
the surface in the absence of any artificially applied current.
It is a very simple log that requires only an electrode in the borehole and a reference
electrode at the surface. These spontaneous potentials arise from the different
access that different formations provide for charge carriers in the borehole and
formation fluids, which lead to a spontaneous current flow, and hence to a
spontaneous potential difference.
The spontaneous potential log is given the generic acronym SP.
Origin of SP current:
• Electrochemical components
• Electro kinetic components
Tool Operation:
The tool is extremely simple, consisting of a single electrode that is connected to a
good surface earth point via a galvanometer for the measurement of DC potential. A
small 1.5 V battery is also included commonly to ensure that the overall signal is
measured on the correct scale.
Uses of SP:
• The detection of permeable beds
• The determination of Rw
• The indication of the shaliness of a formation
• Correlation
Notes:
• The SP tool has a poor resolution. So it can be used for correlation.
• The drilling mud salinity will affect the strength of the electromotive forces (EMF)
which give the SP deflections. If the salinity of the mud is similar to the formation
water then the SP curve may give little or no response opposite a permeable
formation; if the mud is more saline, then the curve has a positive voltage with
respect to the baseline opposite permeable formations; if it is less, the voltage
deflection is negative. In rare cases the baseline of the SP can shift suddenly if the
salinity of the mud changes part way down hole.
• Mud invasion into the permeable formation can cause the deflections in the SP
curve to be rounded off and to reduce the amplitude of thin beds.
• A larger wellbore will cause, like a mud filtrate invasion, the deflections on the SP
curve to be rounded off and decrease the amplitude opposite thin beds, while a
smaller diameter wellbore has the opposite effect.

Resistivity Tools:
Resistivity logging is a method of well logging that works by characterizing the rock or
sediment in a borehole by measuring its electrical resistivity.
Resistivity is a fundamental material property which represents how strongly a
material opposes the flow of electric current.
The log must run in holes containing electrically conductive mud or water.
1-Electrode tools:
Modern Resistivity Log:
Laterologs: (LL)
It is a type of modern electrodes which have a number of

electrodes.
• LL3 has 3 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is
1ft).
• LL7 has 7 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is
3ft).
• LL8 is similar to the LL7, but has the current return electrode LL3 LL7
(vertical resolution is 1ft).
Dual Laterologs: (DLL)
It is the latest version of the laterolog. As its name implies, it is a

combination of two tools, and can be run in a deep penetration (LLd)
and shallow penetration (LLs) mode.
These are now commonly run simultaneously and together with an
additional very shallow penetration device. The tool has 9 electrodes.
Both modes of the dual laterolog have a bed resolution of 2 feet.

The resistivity readings from this tool can and should be corrected for
borehole effects and thin beds, and invasion corrections can be SFL
applied.
The dual laterolog is equipped with centralizes to reduce the borehole effect on the LLs. A
micro resistivity device, usually the MSFL, is mounted on one of the four pads of the
lower of the two centralists.
NOTE: Separation of the LLs and LLd from each other and from the MSFL is indicating
the presence of a permeable formation with hydrocarbons.
Spherically Focused Log: (SFL)
The spherically focused log (SFL) has an electrode arrangement that ensures the current is
focused quasi-spherically. It is useful as it is sensitive only to the resistivity of the
invaded zone.

Micro-Resistivity Logs
Micro Log: (ML)
It is a rubber pad with three button electrodes placed in a line with 1 inch
spacing
The result from this tool is two logs called the 2”normal curve (ML) &
the1½“inverse curve (MIV).
The difference between the two curves is an indicator of mudcake (so it is used
in making sand counts).
Micro laterolog: (MLL)
It is the micro-scale version of the laterolog. The tool is pad mounted, and has a central
button current electrode. The depth of investigation of the MLL is about 4 inches.
Proximity Log: (PL)
This tool was developed from the MLL. It is used to measure RXO. It has a depth of penetration of
1½ ft., and is not affected by mudcake. It may, however, be affected by Rt when the invasion
depth is small.
Micro Spherically Focused Log: (MSFL)
It is commonly run with the DLL on one of its stabilizing pads for the purpose of measuring
RXO.
It is based on the premise that the best resistivity data is obtained when the current flow is
spherical around the current emitting electrode
The current beam emitted by this device is initially very narrow (1”), but rapidly diverges. It has
a depth of penetration of about 4” (similar to the MLL).

2- Induction Tools:
These logs were originally designed for use in boreholes where the drilling fluid was
very resistive (oil-based muds or even gas). It can, however, be used reasonably
also in water-based muds of high salinity, but has found its greatest use in wells
drilled with fresh water-based muds.
The sonde consists of 2 wire coils, a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). High
frequency alternating current (20 kHz) of constant amplitude is applied to the
transmitter coil. This gives rise to an alternating magnetic field around the sonde
that induces secondary currents in the formation. These currents flow in coaxial
loops around the sonde, and in turn create their own alternating magnetic field,
which induces currents in the receiver coil of the sonde. The received signal is
measured, and its size is proportional to the conductivity of the formation.
Calibration:
Induction logs are calibrated at the wellsite in air (zero
conductivity) and using a 400ms test loop that is placed
around the sonde. The calibration is subsequently checked in
the well opposite zero conductivity formations (e.g.,
anhydrite), if available.
1- The 6FF40 Induction-Electrical Survey Log (IES-40)

It is a 6 coil device with a nominal 40 inch Tx-Rx distance, a
16 inch short normal device and an SP electrode.
2- The 6FF28 Induction-Electrical Survey Log (IES-28)

It is a smaller scale version of the IES-40. It is a 6 coil device
with a nominal 28 inch Tx-Rx distance, a 16 inch short
normal device and an SP electrode.
3- The Dual Induction-Laterolog (DIL)

It has several parts: (i) a deep penetrating induction log (ILd)
that is similar to the IES-40, (ii) a medium penetration
induction log (ILm), a shallow investigation laterolog (LLs)
and an SP electrode. The ILm has a vertical resolution about
the same as the ILd (and the IES-40), but about half the
penetration depth.
4- The Induction Spherically Focused Log (ISF)

It combines (i) IES-40, (ii) a SFL, and (iii) an SP electrode. It
is often run in combination with a sonic log.
5- Array Induction Tools (AIS, HDIL)

It consists of one Tx and four Rx coils.
Intensive mathematical reconstruction of the signal enables
the resistivity at a range of penetration depths to be
calculated, which allows the complete invasion profile to be
mapped.

2-Mud Logging:
Mud logging, also known as hydrocarbon well
logging, is the creation of a detailed record
(well log) of a borehole by examining the
bits of rock or sediment brought to the
surface by the circulating drilling medium.
This provides well owners and producers
with information about the lithology and
fluid content of the borehole while drilling.
Functions of drilling Mud:

• Cleaning the hole
• Cooling the drill bit
• Lifting cuttings to the surface
• Control the formation pressure
• Stabilizing the well bore
• Carrying information about formations.
• Helps in the invasion process.
Types of Drilling Fluids:

1-Water-Base Mud:
Water is the liquid phase of water-base Mud.
Water is used may be Fresh water or Saline Water.
2-Oil-Base Mud:
Oil is the liquid phase of oil-base Mud.
Advantages of oil-base Mud:
• Stabilizing formation
• Reduce downhole drilling problems
3-Drilling with air:

Dry air or natural gas is used.
In this case, we use arrangements of air compressors instead of mud
pump.
Advantages of this technique:
• Prevent formation damage.
• Allows the bit to drill fast.
• Severe lost circulation problems.
4-Foam drilling:
This technique is used if small amount of water are present in
formation is been drilled
Drilling foam is water containing air or gas bubbles, much like shaving foam

Mud additives:
• Bentonite: which used to increase the Viscosity
• Barite: which used to increase the Density
• Caustic Soda: which used to increase the Alkalinity
NOTES:
• The drilling mud must be dense & viscous to carry cuttings & keep it from filling
• Drilling mud should have PH of at least 9
Mud Storage, Tanks & Reverse Pit:

• Mud House:
It is called also Sack House which is the place in which Mud sacks & other additives are
stored.
Mud house keeps the sacks dry & organized.
• Bulk Tanks:
It is called also P-tanks which hold additives like Barite & Bentonite.
It is connected to Hopper to transfer additives to Mud System.
• Active Tanks:
The mud pump takes the mud to Active tanks and circulates to the
system.
Number of Active tanks depends on:
• Amount of mud needed to keep the hole full
• Volume required on surface to keep mud properly circulated
• Settling Tanks:
It lets the solids in mud to settle out (not widely use these days).
• Reserve Tanks:
It is used to:
• Hold excess Mud,
• Mix different types of mud
• Store Heavy Mud for emergency Well control operations.
• Slug Tank:
It is used to mix small amount of mud for special purpose
For example, driller may need a small amount of mud with high
viscosity
• Suction Tank:
It contains the mud is already to circulate downhole
It should be clean & properly conditioned
• Chemical Tank:
It is used to mix special chemicals such as Caustic Soda
It is connected to Active Mud Tank
• Reserve Pit:
It holds excess Mud, Waste Mud and Runoff.
In emergency, it can also used as a place to put more mud than the
tank can hold
We use a Plastic Sheet to prevent Liquid to reach soil

Mud Tests:
The tests are done on mud by the Mud Engineer before circulating.
Mud engineer:
• Runs tests on drilling fluid
• Monitors & maintains mud`s properties
• Recommends changes to improve drilling
Mud Balance:
It is a device is used to determine the mud density.
Density of drilling Mud determines hydrostatic pressure of Mud Column.
Mud Density reads in Pounds/Gallon (PPG), Pounds/Cubic Feet or Millie
Gram/Liter.
Marsh Funnel:
It is a device is used to measure the viscosity of Mud.
Funnel Viscosity is 35 sec/quart
• Less viscous if the Funnel viscosity less than 35 sec/quart
• More viscous if Funnel viscosity more than 35 sec/quart
Rotational Viscometer:
It is a device is used to:
• Measure viscosity (Viscosity is measured in Centipoises)
• Measure Yield Point (it is resistance to flow)
• Measure Gel strength (if strength is low, it cant carry particles)
Filter Press:
Equipment is used to measure the filtration under dynamic conditions.
It is considered as simulation for the invasion process in borehole.
There are two commercial dynamic filtration testers:
• The first one, using thick walled Cylinder with rock as a filter medium to
simulate the flow into a borehole.
• The other way, using flat porous disks such as paper or fused ceramic
plates.
Chloride Test:
It is a test for Salt Chlorides in Mud.
It is used to know if the bit reaches a Salt Domes or Salt water.

Mud Conditioning:
The mud must be cleaned from fine solids and gases before entering the mud
system circulation again
Fine solids must be removed because:
• Increase weight of Mud more than required
• Reduce penetration rate of bit
• Increase circulating equipment wear
Shale Shaker:
It has a rapidly vibrating screen
The vibrating screen catches the cuttings & sends it to the
Reverse Pit & liquids go to Sand Trap.
Sand Trap:
It traps the sand & small particles that Shale Shaker can`t
trap it.
It locate directly below the Shale Shaker (must be cleaned
regularly to remove the built up solids)
D-Gasser:
It is used to remove gases from the Mud
If gas is not removed from Mud, Mud will be too light & Gas
will lock the Mud Pump
The vacuum makes very easy to gas to escape from mud.
Gas Vented is used to remove the Gases from the system.
Hydrocyclone:
Hydrocyclone system consists of several cones.
Mud with small unwanted particles swirls in cone
This makes the particles forced to side of cone. Then the particles move to the
bottom of the cone & the clean Mud goes out to top.
This movement creates a Vortex in center with low pressure, so this vortex
sucks the liquid Mud through the center.
There are three types of cones in Hydrocyclone system:
• De-sanders: has a large cones & remove particles is small about 40
microns
• De-silters: has a smaller cones & remove particles down to 20 microns
• Mud cleaner: has smallest cones & remove particles about 7 microns
Centrifuge:
It rotates the mud with high speed which creates centrifugal force.
It removes particles as small as 2-5 microns.
Sometimes, crew members run Centrifuge at specific speed to remove Barite so it
can be used again.
Usually, two Centrifuges can be run
• One is used to remove Barite
• The other is used to remove the smaller particles
Pit Volume Totalizer: (PVT)

PVT displays the change in Mud level in tanks (floating in each tank).
Mud level in tanks is important information
• If level rises, indicating that the well has kicked (kick fluid cause mud to rise)
• If level falls, indicating that the mud was stored in formation (Lost circulation)

Mud Logging & Testing:

Drilling Mud carries the cuttings to the surface.
It carries also traces about any Hydrocarbons & other substances
The cuttings give great information to geologists about what’s going on in the well.
Analyzing the drilling fluid is called Mud Logging.
Rig Monitors:
It shows:
• Rate of Penetration (ROP)
• Weight on Bit (WOB)
• Total Hook Load (the total force pulling down on the Hook)
• Rotary Speed or RPM
• Rotary Torque ( the twisting force on drill string)
• Pit Volume PVT (the level of Mud tank)
• Mud Weight ( in & out the hole)
• Mud temperature & Pump Strokes
• Casing & Stand Pipe Pressure
Mud logger can combine Rig information with other information from Drillers & Chromatograph
Wireline Operator
Chromatograph:
It displays the percentage of Hydrocarbon gases in Mud returns to the surface.
It consists of sensors integrated in Mud Return Line to detect gases.
Core Plugging Apparatus:

It is apparatus takes a small plug out from the Core Sample.
Mud logger can analyze the plug to give idea what a large Core Sample contains. Vacuum Oven
Fluoroscope:
It is a device contains Ultraviolet lamp.
When mud logger or geologist puts cuttings or Plug in the Fluoroscope, it will glow
or flours when contain hydrocarbons.
Microscope:
It helps the mud logger or geologists to identify formations, & know very small
characteristics & fossils also.
Vacuum Oven:
It is used to dry up formation samples
Analytical Balance:
It is a device used to calculate the rock density & porosity for a fixed weight.
Porosimeter:
It measures the porosity of the rock (more pore space is more space for oil).
Gas Analyzer:
It analyzes hydrocarbon gases in mud & detects Hydrogen Sulphide & Carbon
Dioxide (Non hydrocarbon Gases).
• Sour Gas: Gas that contains Hydrogen Sulphide
• Sweet Gas: Gas that contains little or no Hydrogen Sulphide
Porosimeter

Geo
ology & Geophysi
X-Ray Diffractomet
D ter:
It penetrates the rocck samples by y X-Ray to
identifyy the rock struuctures
Differrent types of rocks
r react differently withh
X-ray
HCL Teesting:
The prrocess in whiich we taking a sample &
obserrve its chemiccal reaction with
w HCL
It is ussed to differ between
b Limeestone &
Doloomite
• Reaction is so strong & rapiid with
Liimestone (CaaCO3)
• Reaction is moore slower witth Dolomite
(C
CaMgCO3)
fuge:
Centrifu
The geologist puts the sample in n test tube theen
put thhe tube in cenntrifuge apparratus
It rotaates with highh speed to separate fluid
fromm its componennts.
Heaviier componennts collect on bottom
b of tubbe
(ex: water)
w while lighter
l compo onents collectt
at topp (Oil).
Mud Loogs:
Mud logs
l record:
• Rate of Penetraation (ROP)
• Prresent of hyddrocarbons at various depthhs
• Peercentage of rock
r types at Shale Shakerr
• Amount
A & typees of Gases
• Other characterristics
With my best
b wishes
Mahmou
ud Sroor
70 Geolog
gy & Geophysics in
moud Sroor

Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration

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Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration

Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration

Geophysicist: Mahmoud Ahmed Sroor

2 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Cell dimension: The dimension of the cell in the grid

Grid dimension: Dimension which bound the grid

The direction of subdividing starts from middle to East West

For example: We can describe a location as 33.30/33//W(Degree Minute System DMS)

Or 33.53 (Decimal System)

We divide it also to Minutes & Seconds (ex: 33.30/45//N)

At the figure, the point location 150km North, 170 km east

3 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Ch1: Sedimentary rocks

Classification of sedimentary Minerals:

B‐Secondary detrital: are those generated by weathering process

Deposited from solutions by chemical & biochemical process

Example: Aragonite, Calcite, Gypsum, Anhydrite & Opal

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:

• Clastic or Mechanical Sediments: such as Conglomerate, Sandstone, Mudstone

Chemical: Limestone, Chert, Gypsum, Rock salt

Biological: Fossilferous Limestone

Classification of clastic sediments based on Size of fragments:

Boulder: >256mm Cobble: 64:256mm Pebble: 4:64mm Granule: 2:4mm

Sand: 1/16:2mm Silt: 1/256:1/16mm Clay: <1/256mm

4 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Textural elements of clastic Rocks:

• Grain Size: ‐Coarse ‐Medium ‐Fine ‐Very fine

Terms to describe texture of most Sedimentary Rocks:

• Primary Sedimentary Structures:

5 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Sedimentary Structures: (due to Tukar book)

• Erosional Sedimentary Structures:

1. Terrigenous clastic sediments

1‐Terrigenous Clastic Sediments

There are many types of Sandstones such as

• Black Sandstone: if Sand contain Tin Oxide

Grain Supported Sandstones: (Arenite)

• Arenite: when Qz > 90%

Matrix Supported Sandstones: (Wacke)

• Wacke or Dirty Sandstone: when Matrix>30%

Hybrid Sandstones: (S.S. which contain non clastic components)

• Glauconitic S.S.: Glauconite occurs as sand‐sized Pellets

Conglomerates are sedimentary rocks consisting of rounded fragments and are

Made up mainly by Qz Pebbles, Flint, Chert, & Jasper

There are many types of Conglomerate:

Breccias are common along fault zones

Solution Breccias: resulting from Dissolution of Evaporites & collapse of overlying

7 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Mudstone (also called mud rock) is a fine grained sedimentary rock

There are many types of Mud Rocks:

Mineral components of Mud Rocks:

• Clay minerals (si2O5)

8 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium

1. According to grain size: ‐Calci Rudite(2>mm) ‐Calci Renite(2mm:64µm) ‐Calci Lutite(<64µm)

composed of calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg(CO3)2 (known as magnesium L.S) Dolomite

It is common to find Chert nodules embedded in chalk.

9 Geology & Geophysics in Oil Exploration Mahmoud Sroor

L.S composed of loosely aggregated shells & shell fragments

Travertine is a terrestrial sedimentary rock, formed by the