Geography - Notes - English

GEOGRAPHYE
BOOK
ENG
https://t.me/abhinaymaths
GEOGRAPHY
1. INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
2. WORLD GEOGRAPHY
3. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
For More Study Material

 Join Abhinay MathsTelegram Channel: - https://t.me/abhinaymaths
 Download Abhinay Maths App: https://bit.ly/abhinaymathsapp
1
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
1. Geographical Introduction of India
2. Geological Structure of India
3. Physiographical Regions of India
4. Drainage System.
5. Climate
6. Soil
7. Mineral Resources
8. Industry
9. Transport
10. Census

2
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
1. Seven Continent of the Word
(i) Asia
(ii) Europe
(iii) Africa
(iv) North-America
(v) South America
(vi) Australia
(vii) Antarctica

3
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
1. The Universe & Solar System 11. Insolation & Temperature
2. Motions of Earth 12. Air Pressure
3. Internal Structure of Earth 13. Wind
4. Rocks 14. Clouds
5. Volcanoes 15. Weather & Climate
6. Earthquake 16. Cyclones, Jet Streams & Anticyclone
7. Mountain Building 17. Ocean
8. Plateau 18. Salinity, Ocean Tides & Ocean Currents
9. Plains 19. Lakes
10. Composition & Structure of the

Atmosphere

4
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
LOCATION
India is located latitudinally in the northern hemisphere and longitudinally, in the eastern hemisphere.
Latitudinal expanse – from 6º4’N to 37º6’N latitude.
Longitudinal expanse – from 68º7’E to 97º25’ E longitude.
The northern most point of India is the Indira Col which is in the state of Jammu & Kashmir. The
southernmost point of India is the Indira point which is the southern point (6º4’N latitude) of great Nicobar
Island.
Shepe and Size: The shape of India is not totally triangular but quadrangular. If its total land area is
32,87,263 sq.km. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km & a coastline of 7516.6 km. The coastline of the
mainland is 6100 km. Gujarat has the longest coastline Area wise Rajasthan is the largest & Goa is the
smallest.
Important Facts: Puducherry is the only are union territory which is spread in three states. It includes
Puducherry (Tamil) Yaman (Andhra), Karaikal (Tamil) & Mahe (Kerala). Narcondam Island (situated in
the north-eastern part of north Andaman) is a volcanic Island. 10º Channel (10ºN latitude) separates
Andaman from Nicobar. Duncan pass is between South Andaman and little Andaman. Coco strait is
between coco Islands (Myanmar) & North Andaman) is a volcanic Island. 10º Channel (10ºN latitude)
seperates Andaman from Nicobar. Duncan pass is between South Andaman and little Andaman. Cow strait
is between cow Islands (Myanmar) and North Andaman. The Grand Channel is between great Nicobar &
Sumatra (Indonesia).

1
Lakshadweep is a group of Islands made of coral reefs. Minicoy is the largest Island of the Lakshadweep.
The Palk Strait is situated between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. A dam’s Bridge is situated between Tamil
Nadu and Sri Lanka. Panbam Island is a part of the Adman’s Bridge. Rameshwran is situated on this Island.
FRONTIERS OF INDIA
India is situated in South Asia. It is the largest country in south Asia in area and population. There are
seven neighbouring countries on the frontiers of India. Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar,
Bhutan & Afghanistan.
 Radcliffe Line: Border line b/w India & Pakistan, India & Bangladesh.
 Mc Mohan Line: Border line b/w India & China.
 Durand Line: Border line b/w India & Afghanistan.
Pak Occupied Kashmir (POK): In 1947, after Independence Pakistan invaded the princely state of Jammu
& Kashmir with the help of local tribesmen and occupied some of its areas. Later on the princely states of
Jammu & Kashmir declared accession of India. India did not take the occupied territory because the matter
had reoffered to the UNO.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
The geological history of the earth is divided into fine main eras– Azoic (non-living era), Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic, Cenozoic & Neozo ic era. The Azoic era is the era of the origin of the continental shely. At that
time the origin of the continental Shely (Pangeaea) was formed by silica rich granite rocks of less density.
Classification of Indian Rocks

2
1. Rocks of the Archaean System: These rocks have been formed as a result of the hot molten earth
becoming cold. These are the oldest and primary rocks. There are no fossils found in them. Mainly found
in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, MP, Orissa, Chotanagpur Plateau in Jharkhand.
2. Rocks of Darwar System: These rocks have been formed as a result of the erosion and Sedimentation
of the rocks of the Archaean system. These are the oldest sedimentary rocks. No fossils are found here.
Mainly found in Aravali Mountain range, districts of Darwar & simoga in Karnataka, Ladakh, Zaskar
etc.
3. Rocks of Cuddapah System: These rocks have been formed as a result of the erosion and sedimentary
rocks. These rocks are famous for sandstone, limestone & found in Rajasthan.
4. Rocks of the Vindhyan System: These have been formed after the Cuddapah rocks by the deposition
of silt of river valleys and shallow oceans. Thus, these rocks are also sedimentary rocks. The evidences
of fossils of microorganisms are found in this structure. Mainly found in Malwa plateu, the Semari range
in the Son Ialley, Bundelkhand etc.
5. Rocks of Gondwana System: The word Gondwana has originated from the grand region of M.P. 98%
of coal in India is found is this structure. These rocks have been formed b/w the carboniferous and
Jurassic perods.
6. The Deccan Trap: The volcanic action in the peninsular India began in the last period of Mesozoic era.
Thus, the Deccan trap has been formed as a result of fissure eruption. This structure is made up of basalt
and dolerite rocks. These rocks are very hard and their weathering has resulted in the formation of the
black soil. This structure is found in the most parts of Maharashtra and some parts of Gujarat, M.P. &
Tamil Nadu.
7. Rocks of the Tertiary System: These rocks have been formed b/w the Eocene and philocene period.
Mineral oil in Assam and Gujarat is found in the structures of the Eocene and Oligocene period.
3
8. Rocks of the Quaternary System: These rocks are found in the plains of the Indus and the Ganga. The
Quaternary epoch is divided chronologically into two parts– Pleistocene & Holocene periods. During
the upper and middle Pleistocene periods, old alluvial soil was formed which is known of ‘Banger’. The
formation of alluvial soil began at the end of the Palestine period & it is still going on in the present
Holocene period. It is known as ‘Khadar’.
Various River Valley Projects of the Peninsular India
1. Project related to the rivers flowing towards the west (draining into the Arabian Sea).
(i) The Narmada Valley Project: It is a multipurpose river valley project which benefits Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
(ii) The Ukai Project: It is a joint project of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The dam has been built on the
Tapi at the place named Ukai (Gujarat).
(iii) The Kakrapar Project: It is a project of Gujarat.
(iv) The Mahi Project: A dam has been built on the river Mahi in M.P. under this project.
(v) The Sharavati Hydel Power Project: This project has been executed on the river sharavati in
Shimoga district of Karnataka.
(vi) The Kalinadi Project: This project has been executed on the Kalinadi in Kanataka.
(vii)The Idukki Project: It is Kerala’s largest hydel power project.
(viii) The Sabarigiri Project: It is a hydel power project of Kerla which is an the river Pamba.
(ix) The Parim bakalam Aliyar Project: Joint Project of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
(x) The Pallivasal Project: This project has been executed on river Madirakpuzha in Kerala.

4
2. Projects related to the rivers flowing towards the east (draining into the Bay of Bengal).
(i) The Hirakual Project: A dam has been built on the Mahanadi in Orissa under this project. The
Hirakual dam is the world’s longest river dam.
(ii) The Balimala Project: On river Sileru in Orissa.
(iii) The Nizam Sagar Project: On river Manjra in Andhra.
(iv) The Ramagundam Project: On Godavari in Andhra.
(v) The Machkund Project: A joint project of Andhra and Orissa.
(vi) The Pochampad Project: On Godavari (in Andhra).
(vii) The Tata Hydel Power Project: In Maharashtra.
(viii) The Shivasamudram Project: It is India’ oldest hydel power project established (1902) on the
Kaveri in Karnataka. The reservoir built here is known as Krishnaja Sagar Reservoir.
On the basis of geomorphology, India can be divided into the into the following four regions–
1. Northern Mountain Region.
2. The Deccan Plateau.
3. The Great Plains between the above two.
4. The Coastal plains and the Islands.
1. The Northern Mountain Region
This mountain region of 2500 km is spread uninterruptedly from Jammu & Kashmir in the west to
Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The Himalayas are the result of the collision between the Eurasian plate
(Angarland) and the Indo-Australian plate (Gondwanaland). The Himalayas originated from the Tethys sea
& is one of the youngest folded mountains of the world.
5
Angaraland Compressive
(Eurasian Plate) Force
The Himalayas
Compressive Mountain Range
Force
The northern mountain region can be devided into three parts.

1. The Himalayan Mountain Region.
2. The trans-Himalayan Mountain Region.
3. The Eastern or Purvanchal Hills.
1. The Himalayan Mountain Region.
Three main mountain ranges under this.
(a) The great Himalayas or Inner Himalayan Range.
(b) The lesser Himalayas or the Himachal Range.
(c) The outer Himalayas or the Shiwalik Range.
(A) The Great Himalayas: It is also known as Himadri. The highest peak of this range is mount Everest.
The Indus, the Brahmaputra and Alaknanda rivers have made antecedent valleys by passing through this
range. The average height of the great Himalayas is 6000 m.
The highest mountain peak of the Himalayas is mount Everest (8848 m).
The highest mountain peak in India is Mount K2 or Godwin Austin.
The highest mountain peak of the Himalayas in India is Kanchenjunga.

6
(B) The Lesser Himalayas or the Himachal Range: Its extension is in the south of the great Himalayas.
It is 80 to 100 km wide & its average height is between 3700 & 4500 km. Its Important Ranges:
(i) Pir Panjal Range: The two main passes in the Pir Panjal range are “Banihal” & “Pir Panjal”. ‘Jawahar
tunnel’ is in this range.
(ii) Dhauladhar Range

(iii) Nag Tibba Range
(iv) Mahabharta Range
Kashmir Kathmandu
Valley e Valley
l R ang Les
ser
P anja mal Hi
Pir ayas
(C) The Outer Himalayas or the Shiwalik Range: The Shiwalik range is situated to the south of the
lesser Himalayas. It is the newest part of the Himalayas. Its average height is 600 to 1500 meters. The
valley that separates the Shiwalika range from the lesser Himalayas is known as ‘dun’ (e.g. Dehradun)
in the west & ‘duar’ (eg. Hardwar in the east.
2. Trans-Himalayas Mountain Region or the Tibet Himalayan Range: It is situated to the north of the great
Himalayas. It has Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar & Kailash mountain Ranges. The Karakoram range is
called the “back bone of high Assia”.
3. The Eastern or Purvanchal Hills: These are extended in the north-eastern states of India. Several of these
hills are extended along the border of India and Myanmar while others are inside India.
IMPORTANT PASSES IN INDIA

7
(i) Zoji La (Pass): It is in the Zaskar range of Jammu & Kashmir.The road route from Srinagar to Leh goes
through this pass. It has been created by Indus river.
(ii) Banihal Pass: It is in J & K. The National Highway No. 1A that links Srinagar to Jammu goes through
it. It has been created by Indus river.
(iii) Shipki La (Pass): It is Himachal Pradesh. Road from Shimla to Tibet goes through this pass.
(iv) Bara Lacha Pass: It is also in Himachal Pradesh. It links Mandi and Leh by road.
(v) Rohtang Pass: It is Himachal Pradesh. It cuts through Pir Panjal range. It links Manali & Leh.
(vi) Mana and Niti Pass: They are in Uttarakhand & route to the Kailash and the Manasarovar.
(vii) Nathu La (Pass): It is in Sikkim and gives way to Tibet from Darjeeling & Chumbi Valley.
2. The Deccan Plateau

It is the oldest plateau not only in India but also in the world. The hills of Aravali, Kaimur, Rajmahal &
Shillong make the northern border of the peninsular plateau. It is divided in following sub-heads.
(a) The Aravali Mountain Range: It is a residual mountain range. It is one of oldest fold mountain ranges
in the world. The length of the Aravalis is 1110 km which extends from Delhi to Ahmadabad. It’s highest
peak is “Guru Shikhar”.
(b) The Western ghat Mountain Range: This is the India’s second largest mountain after Himalaya. Its
length is 1500 km. “Kalsubai”, & “Pushpagiri” & “Kudremukh” are its famous peaks. The Nilgiri is the
physiographic knot where the Eastern ghats and the western ghats meet together. The highest peak of
Nilgiris is “Dodabetta” (2623 m) which is the second highest peak of south India, the highest being
‘Anaimudi’ (2695 m) peak of Annamalai Mountain. The famous hill station ‘Kodai kanal’ is on the

8
Palni hill whereas ‘Ooty’ is located on the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu. The Mahatma Gandhi waterfall is an
Sharavati river in Western ghats. This is India heighest waterfall.
Its main passes:

1. Thal Ghat – It links Nasik to Mumbai.
2. Bhor Ghat – It links Mumbai to Pune.
3. Pal Ghat – This pass is located between the Nilgiris and the Annamalai Mountain.
4. Senkota Pass – Between the Nagercoil and the Cardamom hills.
(c) The Eastern Ghat Mountain Range: This Mountain range extends from Orissa to Tamil Nadu. Its
highest peak is ‘Vishakhapatnam peak’ (1680 m) & second highest is ‘Mahendragiri’ (1501 m). The
Satpura range is famous among the inner hills. It is a group of the Satpura, the Mahadev and the Maikal
Hills. The Satpura range is a block mountain which has Narmada River its Nothern side & the Tapi
River on its Western side.
The highest peak of Mahadev Hills is ‘Dhoop Garh’ (1350 m) which is also the highest peak of the
Satpura range. The highest peak of the Maikal Hills is ‘Amarkantak’ from where ‘Son’ and ‘Narmada’
originates. The famous hill station ‘Pachmarhi’ in MP is near Dhoopgarh. The rivers in the Satpura range
make several waterfalls among which the ‘Dhuandhar’ waterfall on the Narmada is Important. The
second most prominent mountain range among inner hills is the Vindhyachal Mountain Range. This
range is a group of Vindhyachal, the Bhander, the Kaimur & Porasnath hills.
The peninsular India is divided into several small plateau.
(i) The Malwa Plateau: It is a lava plateau and at present, is the paneplain of black soil.
(ii) The Bundelkhand Plateau: This plateau is between the Guwalior plateau and the Vindhyas.
(iii) The Chotanagpur Plateau: This plateau is highly rich in mineral resources.
9
(iv) The Deccan Plateau: It is divided into three parts:
(a) The Deccan lava plateau
(b) The Telangana plateaus

(c) The Karnataka (Mysore) plateau
(v) The Dandakaranya Plateau – The expansion of this plateau is in south Chhattisgarh and Eastern
Maharashtra.
(vi) The Meghalaya Plateau: It is originally the eastern extension of the Deccan plateau. The Garo, the
Khasi, and the Jaintia hills are located in this plateau from the west to the east respectively. ‘Cherrapunji’
and ‘Mawasynaram’ are situated to the South of the Khasi hills.
3. The Great Plains of India

This plain is located between the Himalayas and the Peninsualr India. The rivers originating from the
Himalayas (e.g. Ganga, Yamuna, Indus, Brahmaputra, Kosi etc.) and those originating from peninsular
India (eg. Son, Chambal etc) have created this fertile plain by depositing alluvial soil there. The plain is
divided into four parts: –
(a) Bhabar
 It lies all along the foothills of the Shiwaliks with a remarkable continuity from the Indus to the
Tista.
 It is porous and pebbled plain.
 The rivers froloing through this region disappear.
(b) The Tarai Region

10
 Its expansion is exactly to the south of the Bhaber region. The deposition of fine sand & mud is
found here.
 The rivers that disappear in the bhabar region, reappear on the surface in terai region.
 This region is very much plane and was covered with dense forests is now being changed into
agricultural loud.
(c) Bangar (Bhangar)
 It is made of old alluvial soil. Normally flood water does not reach this region.
 The development of ‘bhur’ has occurred in the upper Ganga Yamuna Doab.
 A white layer of salt is deposited here and there on the bhangar soil known as ‘reh’ or ‘kallar’.
(d) Khadar
 This plain has been made by the deposition of new alluvial soil and is rather low land. Here, the flood
water reaches almost every year making this plain fertile. On regional basis, it is divided into many
sub-heads.
 It is spread in the Indus River valley. The plain west to the Indus is made up mainly of bangar. The
plain lying to the east of the river is typically deltaic in relief.
 The plain of Punjab: The significant characteristics of this plain is Panch-doabs.
 The Plain of Rajasthan: It’s expansion is from the west of the Aravallis do the Indo-Pakistan border.
The main river of this plain is Luni which disappears in the Rann of Kachchh. The Sambhar and the
didwana are major salt lakes of this plain. The Sambhar is the largest inland Salt Lake in India (190
sqr km).
 The Gangetic Plain: The expansion of this plain is in the state of U.P., Bihar & West Bengal. This
plain running from the origin of the Ganga to its mouth can be divided into three parts.

11
a) The upper genetic plain: Western U.P.
b) The middle genetic plain: Eastern U.P. & Northern Bihar.
c) The lower genetic plain: West Bengal.
 The Brahmaputra Plain: It is a long and narrow plain situated between the Himalayas and Meghalaya
plateau. Several islands have originated because of the deposition of soil in the middle of
Brahmaputra. Majuli is such an Island which is in Assam. It is the largest reverie Island in the world.
4. The Coastal Plains and the Island Groups
The coastal plain can be divided into two parts:
(i) The western coastal plain.
(ii) The eastern coastal plain.
(i) The western coastal plain: This plain extends from Surat to Kanyakumari. It can again be divided into
four parts–
(a) The Gujarat plain – coastal area of Gujarat.
(b) The Konkan plain – between Daman and Goa.
(c) Kannad plain – between Goa and Mangalore.
(d) The Malabar plain – between Mangalore and Kanyakumari.
(ii) The eastern coastal plain: This plain extends between the eastern ghats and the sea coast from
Subarnarekha River to Kanyakumari. It is wider than the western coastal plains due to the formation of
deltas by Krishna, Kaveri & Godavari. It is a deltaic lake. Important lakes on the eastern coast is Chilka

12
lake (in Orissa) and the Pulicat lake (on the border of Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu). The Chilka lake
is the largest salt water lake in India. Its area is 3560 sq km.
THE ISLAND GROUPS
Generally divided into two parts:–
1. The Andaman and Nicobar Island.
2. The Lakshadweep
 The highest peak of Andaman and Nicobar Islands is ‘Saddle Peak’.

 The Indira Point’ is the Southernmost point of India and is situated in great Nicobar.
 The 10º Channel’ separates Andaman from Nicobar.
 The Duncan Pass’ is between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
OTHER PROMINENT ISLANDS OF INDIA
1. Sriharikota: It is situated in the foremost part of Pulicat lake. It is made up of coral reefs.
2. Pamban Island: It is situated in the gulf of Manvar between India and Sri Lanka. It is a part of Adam’s
Bridge.
3. New Moore Island: It is situated in the Bay of Bengal on the Border of Bangladesh & India.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM :
The flow of water through a definite channel is known as drainage. The network of several such channels
is called a drainage system. On the basis of origin, the Indian drainage system can be divided into two parts.
1. Himalayan drainage system.
2. The Peninsular Indian’s drainage system.

13
1. Himalayan Drainage System: The study of the Himalayan rivers can be done under the following river
systems.
(i) The Indus River System.
(ii) The Ganga River System.
(iii) The Brahmaputra River System.
(i) The Indus River System: It is one of the largest river basins of the world. The Indus is the largest river
in this river system. The Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej are its tributaries. The source
of origin of the Indus is near the Manasarovar Lake in Tibet. The Indus drains into the Arabian sea east
of Karachi.
 The Jhelum is the tributary of the Indus. It originates from the Sheshnag Lake near verinag
(Kashmir). It flows through the Wular Lake & join the Chenab.
 The Chenab is made up of two streams called the Chandra and the Bhaga. The Chenab is the largest
tributary of the Indus.
 The Ravi originates from near the Rohtang pass is Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh. It is the tributary
of the Chenab. The Ravi drains water b/w the Dhulandhar and the Pirpanjal Range.
 The Beas originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang pass. It joins the Satluj near a place called
Harike in Punjab. India’s longest canal, Indira Gandhi canal has been drawn out from the confluence
of the two called Harike Barrage.
The Satluj originates from the Rakas Lake near the Manasarover lake. It is an antecedent river which cuts
through the Himalayas at Shipkila (pass).
The river valley project link with the Indus system–

14
(a) The Bhakra Nangal Project: It is the India’s largest multipurpose river valley project. Two dams on
the Satluj have been built at Bhakra and Nangal. The Bhakra is the second highest dam in the world.
Hydro electricity is produced from Bhakra dam & water for irrigation is supplied from Nangal Dam.
(b) The Indira Gandhi Project or the Rajasthan Canal: The Indira Gandhi Canal has been drawn out from
the Harike Barage situated on the confluence of the Beas and the Satluj. It is the longest canal (468
km) in the world.
(c) The Pong Project: It has been executed in the Beas. The Pong reservoir is in Himachal Pradesh.
(d) The Chamera Project: It is a hydel power project begun in Himachal Pradesh on the Ravi.
(e) The Baglihar Project: This project has been executed on Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir.
(f) Tulbul Project: This project has been executed on Jhelum in J & K.
1. The Ganga River System: The Ganga is culturally an important river in India. It is the holiest river of
India. The Ganga originates from Gangotri glacier near Gomukh in Uttarakhand here, it is known as
Bhagirathi. The Alaknanda is an antecedent river which cuts through the Himalayas and form a narrow
gorge. The Bhagirathi meets the Alakanada at Devprayag. From here, the combined stream of both these
river is named as Ganga. The Alaknanda oribinates from the Satopanth glacier. The Pindar river meets
the Alaknanda on its left bank at Karnaprayag. The Mandokini river meets the Alaknanda on its right
bank near Rudra prayag. The Ganga leaves the mountains and enters the plains near Haridwar. When it
reaches west Bengal it gets divided into two main distributaries called the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The
main river goes to Bangladesh where it is firstly called the Padma and then the Meghna which flows
into Bay of Bengal.

15
 The Damodar is the tributary of the Hugli.
 The Yamuna is the longest tributary of the Ganga. It joins the Ganga at Allahabad. The Yamuna
originates from the Yamunotri glacier situated at the Bunderpuch range. The ‘Tons’ originating from
the Himalaya is the largest tributary of Yamuna. In the plains, four main rivers originating from the
Vindhyas join the Yamuna and its right bank. From west do east rivers are Chambal, Sind, Betwa
and Ken.
 The Chambal originates from a place near ‘Mhow’ situated in Malwa plateau in M.P.
 The river Ken originates from the Kaimur hills situated in the district of Satna in M.P. It joins
Yamuna near Banda.
 The Son is a main right-bank tributary of the Ganga. These are particles of gold in its sand, so it is
called the gold river (Swarn Nadi). It originates from the hills of Amarkantak in M.P. The River
Rihand and Koel are its main tributaries.
 The Damodar river flows in the eastern part of Chotangapur Plateu in Jharkand. This river passes
through a rift valley.
 The river Ramganga originates from near Nainital. It joins the Ganga near Kannauj.
 The river Gomati originates from the district of Piliphit. It join Ganga near Glazipur.
 The river Ghaghara originates from the Mapcha Chung glacier situated in the plateau of Tibet. In
Nepal, it is known as Karnali. It joins the Ganga near Chapra. The river Sarda, Rapti and Chhati
Gandak are its main tributaries.
 The river Sarda originates from the Milam glacier in the Himalayas in Nepal. The Gandak & the
Kosi also originates from the Himalayas in Nepal.
 The river Mahananda originates from the hills of Darjeeling. This is the last tributary of Ganga.
 Main tributaries joining Ganga on its left bank-Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda.
16
 Main tributaries joining Ganga on its right bank– Yamuna, Tons, Son.
Various River Valley Projects Related to the Ganga River System
(a) The Tehri Project: The Tehri dam has been constructed at Tehri at the confluence of rivers Bhilangana
and Bhagirathi.
(b) The Ramganga Project: It is an the river Ramganga a tributary of the Ganga.
(c) The Tanakpur Project: It has been executed at Thanakpur (Uttarakhand) on the river Kali that flow on
the Indo-Nepal Border.
(d) The Gandak Project: It is a joint project of Bihar, U.P. and Nepal. Hydro-electricity is produced at
Suratpura (Nepal) on river Gandak.
(e) The Kosi Project: It is a joint project of Nepal and Bihar. Its main objective is flood control & hydro
electricity production.
(f) Rihand Project: It is mainly of U.P. but Bihar and M.P. also get benefit of it.
(g) The Chambal Project: It is the joint project of Rajasthan and M.P. Three dams have been built on
Chambal.
(h) The Damodal Valley Project: It is a project of undivided Bihar and West Bengal. It is India’s first
multipurpose River Valley Project.
(i) The Mayurakshi Project: It is the joint project of undivided Bihar (now Jharkhand) and West Bengal. It
is also known as Canada Dam.
III. The Brahmaputra River System: The Brahmaputra river originates from a glacier in the Kailash range
near the Manasarovar Lake to the north of Himalayas. It is also known as Tsangpo in Tibet. It enters
India with the name Siang and Dihang. It flows in the south-west direction for some distance when its two
main tributaries Dihang and Lohit join it on its left bank. Now this river is called the Brahmaputra. The

17
river Burhi Dihing, Dhansari and Kelang and its other main tributaries which join it on its left bank. The
river Subansari, Kameng and Sankosh are its main tributaries that join it on its right bank. The river
subansari originate from Tibet beyond the Himalayas. The Brahmputra is known as Jamuna in Bangladesh.
The river Tista joins the Jamuna on its right bank. The Jamuna moves further and join the Padma which
itself joins the Meghna. The river Meghna flows into the Bay of Bengal. The river Tista originates from
Sikkim and join Jamuna on its right bank.
The world’s largest riverine Island called the Majuli Island is in the river of Brahmaputra. At present,
its existence is in danger because of soil erosion.
The River Valley Projects Related to the Brahmaputra and the North-East India
a. Ranganadi Hydel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
b. Papumpap Hypel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
c. Dhinkrong Hydel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
d. Paki Hydel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
e. Upper Lohit Hydel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
f. Kameng Hydel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
g. Damway Hydel Power Project – Arunachal Pradesh
h. Kopli Hydel Power Project – Assam
i. Doyand Hydel Power Project – Nagaland
j. Loktak Hydel Power Project – Manipur
k. Tipaimukh Hydel Power Project – Manipur
l. Dhaleshwari Hydel Power Project – Mizoram

18
m. Tuirial Hydel Project – Mizoram
n. Tuibal Hydel Power Project – Mizoram
o. Rangit Hydel Power Project – Sikkim
2. The Peninsular India’s Drainage System
The Peninsular River system is older them that of the Himalaya. The western ghats are the main water
divides in the peninsular India. The general slope of the peninsular plateau is in the east and the south east.
Most of the rivers originating from the western ghats flow towards the east and drain themselves into the
Bay of Bengal. Eg. The Mahandi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri etc.
The Narmada & the Tapi are the two main rivers of the peninsular India which flow exceptionally
towards the west and drain themselves into the Arabian Sea. It happens because the flow through rift valley.
Most of the rivers of the peninsular India flowing into the Arabian sea make estuaries, eg. the Narmada the
Tapi, where as the rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal form deltas, e.g. The Godavari, the Krishna, the
Kaveri etc.
The Godavari: It is the longest river of peninsular India. It originates from Trimbak in the western ghats
in nosik. The rivers Indravati, Pranhita, Purna, Dudhna, Manjra etc. are the tributaries of the Godavari.
The Krishna: The Krishna is the second largest river of the peninsular India that flow towards east. It
originates near Mahabaleshwar in the western ghats. The river Tungabhadra and Bhima are its main
tributaries. The river Koyan, Verna, Panchganga, Ghataprabh, Malprabha, Dudhganga and Musi are its
other tributaries.
The Mahanadi: The Mahanadi originates near Sihawa (Chhattisgarh) to the south of Amarkantak. This
river drains in Bay of Bengal. The river Seonath, Hasdo, Mand, Ib, Janking and Tel are its tributaries. The
19
river Brahmani and Baitarani are the two main rivers that flow through Orissa and drain into the Bay of
Bengal.
The Kaveri: It originates from the hills of Brahmagiri in Coorg district of Kanataka. The river
Laxmanatirtha, Kabani, Suvarnavati, Bharani and Amrasrati are its main tributaries joining its right bank &
Herangi, Hemavati, Shimsha and Akrawati join its left bank.
The Narmada: It originate from the hills of Amarkantak in M.P. It flows into the Gulf of Khambhat (the
Arabian Sea) near Bhrauch in Gujarat. This river flow in rift valley. There are the Vindhyas to its North &
Satpuras to its South. It forms the “Dhunadhar Waterfall” by cutting the marble rocks of Bhedaghat near
Jabalpur. The river Orisan is its main tributary.
The Tapi: The Tapi originates from Betul district of M.P. Its main tributary is the river Purna. This river
flows in a rift valley and passing through Surat drains into the Gulf of Khambhat.
 The river ‘Mahi’ originates from Mehal Lake lacated in the western part of Vindhyas & drains in
Gulf of Khambhat.
 The river Sabarmati originate from the Aravalis in Udaipur district in Rajasthan & drain in Gulf of
Khambat.
 The river Luni originates from the Nagpahari (in the Aravalis) to the south-west of Ajmer in
Rajasthan and disappears in the Rann of Kachchh.
 The river Shetrunji originates near Dalkahwa in district of Amrali in Gujarat and Drains into the
Arabian Sea.
 The river Bhadra originates from the district of Rajkot in Gujarat and drain into Arabian Sea.
 The river Vaitarna originates from the hills of Trimbak in Nasik & drains into the Arabian Sea.
 The river Kalinda originates from the district Belgaum & drain in Arabian Sea.
20
 The river Bedti originates from the hills of Hubli-Dharwar.
 The river Sharavati originates from Shimoga district of Karnataka.
 The Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala.
 The river Pamba originates from Annamalai hills and flowing through Kerala joins Vembanad Lake.
 The river Subarnarekha originates from the Chotanagpur plateau & drains into Bay of Bengal.
 The river Baitarni originates from the hills of Kendujhar & drains into Bay of Bengal.
 The river Vamsadhara originates in southern part of Orissa & drain into Bay of Bengal.
The Indian meteorological department has divided the climate of India into four serasons–
1. Winter Season: Its period is from the middle of December to February. During this period, the sun rays
fall perpendicular to the earth in the southern hemisphere. The north-western part of India experiences
the least temperature. A weal high pressure is formed in the North-West India and from there, the winds
blow towards the low-pressure area. It is known as winter monsoon or northeast monsoon or returning
monsoon. There is rain in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu brought by the returning monsoon. During
this season the temperate cyclone rising from the Mediterranean Sea enters India with the help of western
jet stream. It is known as western Disturbance. This rain is useful for Rabi crops.
2. The Summer Season: This season is from march to middle of June. The whole India experiences
increase in temperature because of the summer solstice. During this time, hot violent wind blow day
time in the north and northwest India which is famous as ‘loo’. When the hot and dry land breeze meats
the humid sea breeze during this season, violent cyclone originates in that area. This cyclone is known
as the pre-monsoon cyclone. This cyclone has some local names in India.
Nor Western: Eastern India (West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa).
Kalbaisakhi: In West Bengal, Nor Western is called Kalbaisakhi.
21
Cherry blossom: Karnataka and Kerala (Useful for blooming of coffee flowers).
Mango Shower: South India (useful for early ripening of Mangoes).
Bardoli Chheerha: Assam (in local language, Nor western is called Bordochila).
3. The Raininng Season: This season is from middle of June to September. During this time, a low air
pressure belt is formed in the north-west India and Pakistan. The Inter Tropical convergence Zone
(ITCZ) moves towards the north and reaches up to the foothills of the shiwalik. A greater low pressure
is formed on the Indian peninsula in comparison to that on the Arabian sea because of it. The southeast
trade winds blowing in the southern hemisphere turn towards the east after crossing the equator to fill
this low pressure and take the form of southwest monsoon.
 The origin of the south west monsoon is related to the easterly jet stream.
 The Arabian Sea branch causes more rainfall on the western slope of the western ghats in comparison
to the coastal region of India.
 The Arabian Sea branch passing through. Rajasthan hits the Himalayas and causes rainfall on the
mountainous slopes of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
The hills of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia are expanded in a funnel shape and are opened towards the sea. So
the winds coming from the bay of Bengal hit here and cause excessive rainfall. Mawsynram; located in the
Khasi hills is place getting maximum rainfall (1141 cm) in the world. The Arabian sea branch is stronger
than the bay of Bengal branch. The Bay of Bengal branch enters India through West Bengal and reaches
Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan passing through Bihar and U.P.
4. The Autumn Season: It is from October to the middle of December. It is also known as the season of
retreating monsoon. During this season several sychonic storms develop in the bay of Bengal, which

22
move from the north-east to the south-west causing substantial amount of rainfall on the coast of Tamil
Nadu and Sri Lanka. The maximum rainfall in the coastal regions of Tamil Nadu occurs due to the
northeast monsoon in the months of October and November.
THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE INDIAN MONSOON
There are four main theories:
1. The Thermal Theory
2. The Equatorial Westerly Theory
3. The Jet Stream Theory
4. The Et Nino Theory
1. The Thermal Theory: Acc. To this theory, temperature is the main reason of the origin of monsoons.
In summer, the sun rays fall perpendicularly in the northern hemisphere. It causes a great low pressure
which results in the absence of the northeast trade winds. It is to be noted that the trade winds blow the
whole years b/w 5º and 30º north and south latitudes.
The southeast trade winds which generally blow b/w 30º south to 5º south latitudes, cross the equatorial
line. They bring rainfall in the India peninsula by dividing themselves into two parts. Heavy rainfall
occurs on the western slopes of the western ghats by the Arabian sea branch, and in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and north-east India by the Bay of Bengal branch. It winters, the north east trade winds
once again begin to blow. They bring north east monsoon and cause rainfall on the coast of Tamil Nadu
after getting water vapour from the Bay of Bengal.
2. The Equatorial Westerly Theory: It is the southwest monsoon. It originates because of inter tropical
convergence. It summer, the inter tropical convergence (ITC) happens in the north of the equator because
of the northern movement of the thermal equator. The equatorial monsoon now begins blowing towards
23
the low pressure created on the Indian peninsula. It is the southwest monsoon. In winter, the area of low
pressure changes into that of high pressure because of winter solstices and northeast trade winds once
again become active.
3. The Jet Stream Theory: It is a very fast blowing air current system in the upper atmosphere. Its speed
is max. in the middle part of atmosphere. The southwest monsoon coming in India is related to tropical
easterly jet stream. It blows b/w 8ºN and 35ºN latitudes. The northeast monsoon is related to the
subtropical westerly jet stream. It blows b/w 20º and 35º latitudes in both hemispheres. In winter the
subtropical westerly jet stream blows from the west to the east in the whole west and middle Asia. The
western disturbances which enter the Indian subcontinent in the winter are brought by the westerly jet
stream.
In the summer the westerly jet stream does not blow over the Indian sub-continent. It transits towards
the north of the Tibetan plateau. The pre-monsoon Tropical cyclones visit India because of the tropical
easterly jet stream. They cause heavy rainfall.
4. The El Nino Theory: It is a subsurface warm ocean current which flows from north to south along the
Peruvian coast. The warm water of the El Nino increases the temperature of the southern equatorial
warm oceanic current. Since these oceanic current flows from east to west, water in the whole middle
Pacific Ocean becomes warm and this causes very low atmospheric pressure in that area. Whenever this
low-pressure belt extends to the eastern central part of the Indian Ocean it changes the direction of the
Indian monsoon.
The El Nino effect is unable to provide a complete interpretation of drought in India.
The Distribution of Rainfall
There is 125 cm average rainfall in India and 75% of it is caused by the southwest monsoon.

24
Areas of Heavy Rainfall (>200 cm)
1. The western slopes of the western ghats.
2. The north-east India.
3. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Areas of Scanty Rainfall (< 50 cm)

1. Northern Gujarat, Western Rajasthan and Southern part of Punjab & Haryana.
2. The rain-shadow area of the western ghats.
3. The desert of Ladakh.
Koeppen’s Classification of Climate
1. Monsoon type with short dry season (Amw): Here, the rainfall is more than 250 cm.
2. Tropical Savanah Type: Here Savannah type vegetation is found. Rainfall is b/w 75 and 750 cm. Area
is most part of Tropic of cancer in peninsular India.
3. Monsoon type with dry summers or with rain in winters: Here rain is caused by northeast monsoon in
Tamil and coromandal coast.
4. Semi-arid steppe climate: Raifall in b/w 30-60 cm. There is a lack of rainfall in winter.
5. The hot desert type climate: The rainfall is very scanty and temp is very high. Areas are Rajasthan
Northern Gujarat and some part of Haryana.
6. Monsoon type with dry winters: Rainfall (75-200 cm) in summer. Main areas are great plains of north,
the north-east India.

25
7. Cold-humid winter type with short summers: Mainly found in Northern part of Arunachal Pradesh of
eastern part of Himalaya.
8. Tundra Type Climate: Here, temp is <10ºC the whole year. In winter, there is a rainfall in the form of
snowfall. Areas are Ladakh, Kashmir and areas of Himachal Pradesh at 3000 to 5000 m.
9. Polar Type Climate: Temp (<0ºC) during whole year. Areas having more than 5 km height in western
and the middle parts of Himalaya.
SOIL
The Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) has classified the soils of India into eight groups.
1. Alluvial Soils
2. Black Soils
3. Red and Yellow Soils
4. Literate Soils
5. Mountain Soils
6. Desert or Arid Soil
7. Saline Soils
8. Peaty or Organic Soils
1. Alluvial Soil: These soils cover about 22% parts of the total geographical area of India. There are two
main areas of these soils –
(a) The great plains of the North
(b) The coastal plain.

26
Besides, these soils are also found in the valleys and the deltas of rivers.
 These soils have been formed by deposition of the sediments brought by rivers.
 These soils lacks in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. However, they contain potash & lime.
Zonal Soil: It is that soil which has the mineral properties similar to that of the parent rocks. Eg. Red soils,
black soils, literate soil, desert soil etc.
Azonal Soil: It is that soil which has been developed by the process of deposition by the agents of erosion.
Eg. Alluvial and loess soils.
Intra-Zonal Soils: It the rock of a region is affected by chemical weathering and mainly dissolution like
process occurs; there develops the intra-zonal soil. Eg: limestone soil.
2. Black Soil:
 These are also known as the ‘black cotton soils’ or ‘Regur’ soils. This soil is famous for the
cultivation of cotton.
 The expansion of these soils is mainly in Maharashtra, South Eastern Gujarat, Western M.P. North-
Western Tamil Nadu and South-eastern Rajasthan.
 These soils have been formed by the disintegration of lava. The reason of their being black is the
presence of titan ferrous magnetite compound of iron & aluminum etc.
These soils are very fertile and have more water storage capacity.
 These soils contain high quantities of iron, aluminum, magnesium & lime & poor in Nitrogen,
phosphors and organic matter.
 These soils are zonal.
3. Red and yellow soils:

27
 These soils have been formed by the decomposition of igneous & metamorphic rock.
They are zonal soils.
 These soils are rather sandy and of red-yellow colour.
They are red because of the presence of Iron oxide.
But they look yellow in hydrated form.
 Often their upper layer is red and lower layer is yellow.
 These soils lack in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.
 These soils are found mainly in peninsular India.
 They cover almost whole Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. They are also found
in Santhal Pragana and chotanagpur Plateau of Jharkhand.
 Mainly coarse grains, pulses and oilseeds are cultivated in these soils.
4. Laterite Soils:
These soils are formed due to coming of wet and dry seasons alternately. They are generally found in
the areas of more than 200 cm rainfall. More rainfall causes leaching away of laterite rocaks because of
which parts of silica and lime go down and the compounds of Iron and aluminium are left in the form of
soil. These soils are found mainly on the eastern and the western ghats. Their largest expansion is in Kerala.
 These soil lack in lime, potash and humus.
 These are zonal soil.
5. Mountain of Forest Soils:
 These soil contain thin layers because of their development an the mountain slopes.

28
 These soils are rich in fossils but they are unrecompensed, so, humic acid is formed and the soil
became acidic.
These soils are poor in potash, phosphorus and lime. They are less fertile.
 Plantations are done in these soils because of their being the mountain slopes. Plantations of tea,
coffee, spices and fruits are done in thee soils in India.
 These soils are affected by the problem of erosion.
6. Desert or Arid Soils:
 These soils are also called ‘Reh’, ‘Usar’ or ‘Kallar’.
The development of these soils house happened in those areas where dry climate is found and there
is a lack of proper drainage.
 In this situation, salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium are deposited on the upper layer of the soil
by the capillary action.
Therefore, the quantity of salt in these soils increases too much.
 These soils are also formed when saline water spreads on the land at the time of high tide in coastal
areas.
 Theses soils are deficient in nitrogen and lime.
 These are intra-zonal soil and found in Southern Punjab, Southern Haryana, Western Rajasthan, coast
of Kerala and Sounder bans etc.
 In coastal areas the coconut trees are found in plenty in these soils.
7. Peaty of Organic Soils:

29
 These soils are formed by deposition of too much organic matter in marshy areas.
 These soils are dark, heavy and too much acidic.
 These soils are found mainly in alleppey (Alappucha) district of Kerala, Almora in Uttarakhand, the
Sunderbans delta and other lower deltaic regions.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Mineral Resources
A mineral is a chemical compound that is A resources is a source or supply from
which normally crystalline & that has been formed benefit is produced.
as a result of geological
process.
Several Kinds of minerals are found in India. The presence of minerals is related to the geographical
structure of the country.
Classification of Minerals:
(A) Metallic Minerals: They are of two types–
(i) Ferrous metallic Minerals: These minerals contain Iron. This includes 2/3rd of the total existing
minerals. Ex. Iron, Manganese, pyrite etc.
(ii) Non-Ferrous metallic minerals: This mineral does not contain Iron.
Ex. Gold, silver, copper, tin, etc.

30
(B) Non-Metallic Minerals: Mica, asbestos, pyrite, salt, Sulphur, diamond, lime-stone, gypsum etc come
under this category.
MAJOR MINERALS
Iron Ore: India is the largest reserve of Iron ore in aria. Four kinds of Iron are found here. They are
magnetic, Haematite, limonite and Siderite.
Magnetite: It is the best kind of ore which contain up to 72% metal in it. It is black in colour. Found in
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Orissa etc.
Haematite: It is red & brown in colour. Contains 60-70% metal. 2/3rd of Indian coal is of this category.
Found in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj, Kundujhar, Sundergash (Orissa), Karnataka, Goa etc.
Limonite: It is often yellow in colour, contains, 10-40% metal & found in Raniganj area of West Bengal.
Sidesite: There are more impurities in it & contains metal upto 48%. It is brown in colour & has mixture of
Iron & carbon.
DISTRIBUTION OF IRON ORES IN INDIA
CHHATTISGARH:
Major mining centres
1. Dalli-Rajhara (Durg district)
2. Bailadila (dantewada district)- Iron ore from here is exported to Japan.
KARNATAKA:
31
Major mining centres:
1. Baba Budan hills & Kudremukh Region.
2. Bellary district.
JHARKHAND:
Major mining centres:
1. Gurumahisani, Suleipat, Badam, hills.
2. Kendujhar & Bonai.
Maharashtra: Major mining centres are in Chandrapur, Ratnagiri & Bhandara district.
Andhra Pradesh: Major mining centres are in Warangal, Karimnagar, Kurnool, Cuddapah &
Anantapur.
Tamil Nadu: In Salem district & Nilgiri.
State wise Iron ore Reserve (in descending order):
1. Karnataka (largest)
2. Orissa
3. Jharkhand
4. Chhattisgarh
State wise Iron ore production (In descending order):
1. Orissa (largest)
2. Karnataka
3. Chhattisgarh

32
4. Goa
Manganese: In India, it is used mainly in making stainless steal, ferro alloys of Iron and Manganese,
drycells, paint and in glass industry. 90% manganese of India is found in gondite and kodurite series of the
Dharwar rocks. About 50% is produced by Maharashtra & Madhya Pradesh together.
Major areas:
1. Orissa – Sundergarh, Kendujhar, Bonai.
2. Madhya Pradesh – Balaghat & Chhindwara.
3. Maharashtra – Nagpur, Bhandara & Ratnagiri.
Mineral Resources
Other states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Gujarat.
State wise Manganese Reserve (in descending order):
1. Orissa (Largest)
2. Karnataka
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Maharashtra
State wise Manganese Production (in descending order):
1. Orissa (Largest)
2. Maharashtra
3. Madhya Pradesh
33
4. Karnataka
Bauxite: It is a non-ferrous metallic mineral. It is the ore from which aluminium metal is produced.
Aluminium extracted from the ore is used in making aeroplanes, electrical appliances and goods, household
fittings, utensils etc.
Major Areas:
1. Orissa (more than half of the total reserve of the country).
2. Andhra Pradesh (1/5th of total reserve of the 3
.206country).
3. Madhya Pradesh.
4. Jharkhand.
Copper: Cooper is used in making electric wires, machines, radio, telephone, alloy etc. & mainly found in
ancient crystalline Cuddapah and Aravali structures.
Major copper producing areas:
1. Jharkhand – Mosabani, Rakha, Sonamakhi.
2. Rajasthan – Mandhan – Kundan area of Khetri.
3. Andhra Pradesh – Agnigundala area.
4. Madhya Pradesh – Malanjkhand area (Balaghat District).
State wise copper reserve (in descending orders)
1. Rajasthan
2. Madhya Pradesh

34
3. Jharkhand
State wise copper production (in descending order)
1. Rajasthan
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Jharkhand
There is a lack of copper in India. It is imported from USA, Canada, Zambia etc.
Mica: India produces 60% mica of the world. Mica is found as sheets in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
There are three kinds of mica:
1. Ruby mica – white mica.
2. Muscovite mica – light pink mica.
3. Biotite mica – black or dark coloured mica.
Major Mica Producing Areas:
 Jharkhand – Kodarma (Ruby mica is found in Kodarma).

 Bihar – Nawada – Gaya Area.
 Andhra Pradesh – Vishakhapatnam.
 Rajasthan – Jaipur, Udaipur & Bhilwara districts.
State wise Mica Reserve
1. Rajasthan (largest)
2. Andhra Pradesh
3. Maharashtra

35
4. Bihar-Jharkhand
State wise Mica Reserve
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Rajasthan
3. Jharkhand
Gold: Most of gold in India is found in the quartz veins of schist rocks of the Dharwar structure. ‘It is
known as ‘metal line reserve’. Some gold in the country is found in the sand of rivers. It is known as: placer
deposit.
Major Areas of Gold Production
1. Karnataka – about 70% gold in the country is obtained from the mines of Karnataka.
2. Andhra Pradesh – about 25% gold in the country is obtained from Andhra Pradesh.
Gold is also obtained from the sand of the rivers Subarnarekha (Jharkhand), Son, Indus (near Ladakh)
etc.
Silver: Silver is generally found in a mixed form with ores like zinc, lead & copper. Rajasthan is producing
84% silver of the country.
 Other areas are – Zawar area of Rajasthan

 Kolar & Chitradurg areas of Karnataka.
 Guntur and Kurnool in A.P.
Miner

36
1DIAMOND
Major Diamond Producing Areas:

1. Madhya Pradesh – In Panna district.
2. Andhra Pradesh – (a) Munimadugu Banganapalle Conglomerate (Kurnool district), (b) Wajrakarur
Kimberlite pipe.
Lead: The main ore of lead is ‘galena’. It is found in Sedimentary rocks of limestone and sandstone. The
Zawar area (Udaipur district) of Rajasthan is famous for the production of lead. 80% lead is produced in
Rajasthan.
Zinc: It is used in galvanization, tyre & dry cell industries. Udaipur, Rajsamand & Chittor are major zinc
producing areas in Rajasthan. Almost total production of zinc in country in done in Rajasthan.
Chromite: About 96% Chromite reserve of India is in Cuttack district of Orissa & about 98% of the total
Chromite produced in India is by Orissa.
Asbestos: The major asbestos producing areas areAjmer, Bhilwara, Alwar & Udaipur in Rajasthan,
Cuddapah, Anantapur and Mahbubnagar in A.P. & Singhbum in Jharkhand.
Lime-Stone: It is found in Cuddapath & Vindhayan rocks & is mainly used in cement Industries. Major
producing areas are Satna, Jabalpur & Katni in M.P. Raipur Durg & Bilaspur in Chattisgarh.
Dolomite: It is a mixture of lime-stone & magnesium. Produced at Sundergarh. In Orissa, at Jhabua,
Balaghat and Jabalpur in M.P. & at Bilaspur & Durg in Chhattisgarh.
Gypsum: It is use mainly in the production of cement, plaster of Paris & fertilizers. Rajasthan rank first in
the production of Gypsum followed by Jammu & Kashmir.

37
Marble: It is a metamorphic rock. It is used mainly in building construction & produced in Nagore district
of Rajasthan. M.P. is the second largest producer of marble.
Granite: It is found mainly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Rajasthan.
Slate-Stone: Mainly found in M.P., A.P. & Haryana.
Tungsten: Produced at Nagore district in Rajasthan.

Tin: Chhattisgarh is the foremost producer of tin.
Rock Salt: Produced in the Mandi area of Himachal Pradesh.
Fire Clay: Used mainly in making fireproof bricks. Found in Gondwara structure.
Graphite: Orissa is the major graphite producing state.
Nickel: About 92% nickel of India is found in Orissa. Rest 8% in Nagaland & Karnataka.
POWER RESOURCES
ENERGY
Conventional Energy Resources
Eg: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, Atomic Energy & Hydel-Energy.
These are non-renewable energy resources i.e. these energy resources are limited in availability & cannot
be used again & again.
Non-conventional energy resources.
Eg. Biogas, Biomass, Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Small Hydro-electricity, Tidal & wave energy, OTEC
energy, Geo-thermal energy.
These are renewable energy resources. i.e. these energy resources can be used again & again.

38
Coal:
 The India coal is the force most power resources.
 The share of coal in the total production of electricity is 67% & coal fulfils 61% of total commercial
energy demand of the country. About 96% of total coal reserve in India is found in Gondawara
structure.
Major Kinds of Coal
1. Anthracite: It is the best quality coal contains 80-85% Carbon.
2. Bituminous: It is a medium quality coal & found in India. It contains 42-72% of Carbon in it.
3. Lignite: It is lower quality coal & it is brown in colour. It contains 30-50% Carbon.
4. Peat: It is the process of coal making. Past of wood are remarkably present in it.
State wise Coal Reserve (in descending orders)

1. Jharkhand 2. Orissa 3. Chhattisgarh
4. West Bengal 5. Madhya Pradesh
State wise Coal Production (in descending order)

1. Jharkhand 2. Chhattisgarh 3. Orissa
4. Madhya Pradesh 5. Andhra Pradesh
PETROLEUM & NATURAL GAS

Geological States: Petroleum and Natural Gas are found in the fossil-rich rocks of the Tertiary epoch. In
gold rocks, they are found in the anticline part. Natural gas is found at the top, mineral oil below that &
water at the bottom. Limestone of Miocene period & shale of Eocene period are favourable for their reserve.

39
Distribution of Oilfields
1. Assam: It is expanded in the Brahmaputra River Valley.
(i) Digboi Oilfield.
(ii) Naharkatiya Oilfield.
(iii) Moran – Hugirijang Oilfield.
(iv) Rudrasayar – Lakwa Oilfield.
(v) Surma Valley Oilfield.
2. Gujarat:
(i) Ankaleshwar
(ii) Khambhat & Lewnage Oilfields.
(iii) Kallol Oilfield.
(iv) Mehsana Oilfield.
3. Western Offshore Oilfields
(i) Bombay High Oilfield: Situated 176 km S-W of Mumbai.
(ii) Bassein Oilfield: Situated in South of Bombay High.
(iii) Aliabet Oilfield: Situated near Aliabet Island 45 km away from Bhavnagar, Gujarat in Gulf of
Khambhat.
4. Eastern Coastal Oilfield

Oil is found in both off shore & onshore areas of “The Godavari – Krishna River basin oilfield”.

40
5. The Kaveri Basin Oilfield
Natural Gas: Natural gas is often found with mineral oil.
Distribution of Natural Gas:
(i) Assam – Meghalaya region.
(ii) Gujarat region.
(iii) The Gulf of Khambhat region.
(iv) Bombay high region.
(v) Ravya structure region.
State wise Production of Crude Oil in India (2005-06)
State Percentage
Maharashtra 64.45
Gujarat 19.41
Assam 13.93
Tamil Nadu 1.20
1. Coastal Oil Refineries
(i) Haldia (IOC) – It gets oil from Assam.
(ii) Vishakhapatnam (HPCL)– Based on Imported Crude oil.
(ii) Kachi (KRL; associate company of BPCL)
(iv) Mangalore
(v) Chennai (CPCL)
(vi) Trombay (units both HPCL, BPCL)

41
(vii) Jamnagar (RPL) – A private sector company run by reliance company.
(viii) Tatipaka, A.P. (ONGC).
2. Market Based Oil Refineries
(i) Barauni (IOC) – It has been established with the co-operation of Russia.
(ii) Mathusa (IOC) – This oil is imported from Iraq. It is brought here from Haldia through Pipeline.
(iii) Kashal, Haryana (IOC).
(iv) Bina (M.P.) – Here a refinery is being established for regininy of the Gude oil to be brought from
Oman through pipeline.
(v) Panipat Haryana (IOC).
(vi) Bhatinda, Punjab.
3. Raw Material Based Oil Refineries:
(i) Digboi, Assam (IOC).
(ii) Bongai gaon, Assam (BRPL).
(iii) Noonmati (Guwahati), Assam (IOC).
(iv) Numaligarh, Assam.
(v) Koyali, Gujarat (IOC).
Atomic Minerals in India: Atomic minerals are the most important among non-fossil energy resources.
Uranium and Thorium are major minerals for the production of atomic energy. Uranium is mined directly
whereas thorium is obtained from monazite & Limonite.
1. Mranium – Ores – Pitch Blend (Uranite)
Jharkhand: Most of the Uranium (about 80%) in India is obtained from Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

42
 Rajasthan – Jhunjhunu, Visundih, Umra
 Andhra Pradesh – Sakra Pahar
 Chhattisgarh – Durg
 Maharashtra – Bhandara
 Himachal Pradesh – Kullu district
2. Thorium – Major ore – Monazite, Ilmenite. It is found in coastal sand of Kerala.
3. Beryllium: It reserves are in the states of Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu.
4. Zircon: Found in coastal areas of Keral.
5. Antimony: Found in Himachal Pradesh & M.P.
6. Graphite: Orissa is the largest producer of graphite.
INDUSTRY
The History of Industrial Development in India
There was no proper development of industry in India during the colonial period except sugar & jute
industry. For their own benefit, British would export raw materials from India to Britain & sold finished
products in India. After the first world war, the British capital in the south-east Asia tended to fly from
there. Therefore, the British formulated an industrial policy in 1923 to divert the inflow of capital towards
India. This provided positive impact on Indian History.
Major Industries Established in India Before Independence
Iron & Steel Industry: The fist Iron & steel industry was set up in Areot district of Tamilnadu in 1779 but
it was unsuccessful. In 1872 an iron & steel factory was set up in Kulti-Burnpur which is still working.
Aluminium Industry: The first Aluminium Industry was set up in Jaykaynagar (West Bengal) in 1837.
43
Cement Industry: The first cement Industry was established in Chennai in 1904. Other important industries
were shipping industry. Paper industry, cotton textile industry, jute industry etc.
MAJOR INDUSTRIES
Iron and Steel Industry: The Iron and steel industry is a basic industry because its development is
necessary for other industry. In 1874, for the first time, the Barakar Iron works was set up in Kulti in West
Bengal. The Tata Iron & Steel Company (TISCO) was established in Jamshedpur (Sakchi) in 1907. In
Hirapur Iron and steel plant was set up in 1908.
1. Bhilai (Chhattisgarh): It was set up with the assistance of Russia.
2. Durgapur (West Bengal): It was set up with the assistance of Britain.
3. Rourkela (Orissa): It was set up with the assistant of Germany.
In the Third five-year plan, it was decided to set up an iron and steel company in Bokaro (Jharkhand).
It was set up with the assistance of Russia. In 1973, the steel authority of India limited (SAIL) was set
up as a public sector undertaking for development of the iron and steel industry. At present plants in
Burnpur (IISCO), Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro & Salem come under SAIL.
1. Plant established in Coal Fields:
(a) Kulti-Burnpur (IISCO)
(b) Durgapur
(c) Bokaro All the three plants get coal from Damodar River valley area.
2. Plants established in Iron Ore Areas:
(a) Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)
(b) Raurkela (Orissa)

44
(c) Bhadravati (Karnataka)
(d) Salem (Tamilnadu)
(e) Vijayanagar (Karnataka)
3. Plants established between coal and Iron Ore fields – Jamshedpur.
4. Plants established in coastal regions
(a) Vishakhapatnam (A.P.)
(b) Gopalpur (Orissa)
Aluminium Industry: The first aluminium plant in India was set up in Jaykaynagar (West Bengal). In
second five-year plan, two new aluminium plants in Hirakud (Orissa) and Renukoot (U.P.) were set up.
Aluminium plants were set up in Mettur (T.V.) in third five-year plan and in Belgaum (Karnataka) in fourth
five-year plan. Various companies producing Aluminium in India. And their localization:
1. Hindustan Aluminium Company (HINDALCO): The plant is in Renukoot (UP). If gets bauxite from
mines in Ranchi, Palamau, Lahardaga & Cheap electricity form Rihand Hydel Power Project (U.P.)
2. Indian Aluminium Company Limited (INDALCO): Its plants are at–
(a) Muri (Jharkand)
(b) Alwaye (Kerala)
(c) Belur (West Bengal)
(d) Hirakud (Orissa)
3. Bharat Aluminium Company Limited (BALCO)
(a) Korba (Chhattisgarh)
(b) Koyna (Maharashtra)

45
4. Madras Aluminium Company (MALCO)
(a) Mettur (Tamil Nadu)
Cement Industry: Major raw I materials are coal, limestone and Gypsum. Since the largest reserves of
limestone are in MP, the maximum development of this industry has been in this state.
Major Cement Producing States and Plants

Madhya Pradesh: Satna, Katni, Maihar, Jabalpur, Ratlam, Neemach, Banmor, Akaltara etc.
Chhattisgarh: Jamal Durg, Mandhar etc.
Anadra Pradesh: Vijaywada, Krishna, Guntur, Kurnool, Adilabad, Vishakhapatnam etc.
Other states are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bihar, U.P. etc. India is the
second largest producer of cement in the world.
Chemical Fertilizer Industry: India is primarily an agricultural country. This Industry has grown very fast
here because of a great demand of fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers are of three kinds– Nitrogen, Phosphate
& fertilizers containing Potash. The demand and production of nitrogenous fertilizers are more in India
because of lack of Nitrogen in Alluvial Soil. In plateau region, the demand and production of fertilizers
containing phosphate & potash have increased.
India’s first fertilizer plant was set up in Ranipet (Tamil Nadu) in 1906, the second in Belegula
(Karnataka). Raw materials used in this industries are – Naphtha, coke, coke-oven gas, electrolytic
Hydrogen, Sulphuric acid. Ammonium Sulphate, Natural Gas & rock Phosphate.
Public Sector Undertaking Related to the Production of Chemical Fertilizers:

1. Fertilizers Corporation of India Limited (FCI, 1961).
2. National Fertilizers Limited (NFL, 1974).
3. Hindustan Fertilizers Corporation Limited (HFC, 1978).

46
4. Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (RCF, 1978).
PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
There are of 4 Kinds: —

(i) Polymers: Polymers are made from ethylene and propylene which are obtained during refining of
crude oil. Polymers are used in plastic industries.
(ii) Artificial Fibres: They are used on a large scale in the textile industries. Nylon & polyester are major
artificial fibres.
(iii) Ilustromers
(iv) Artificial detergent.
ENGINEERING INDUSTRY
1. Heavy Engineering Industry: The heavy engineering industry in the country began in 1958 with the
setting up of the Heavy Engineering Corporation Limited (HECL), Ranchi- It was set up with the help
of Russia & Czechoslovakia.
2. Machine Tools: ‘Hindustan Machine Tool’s (HMT), Bangaluru is set up in 1953 with the assistance of
Switzerland.
3. Heavy Electric Machinery: ‘Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited’ (BHEL) has been set up in public
sector for manufacturing electric machinery in the country.
4. Electronic Industry: ‘The Indian Telephone Industries’ was set up in 1950 in Benguluru.
5. ‘Information Technology Industry: Bengaluru is the major centre for information technology. It is
called ‘Silicon Valley of India’.
6. Rail Equipment:

47
(a) Chitranjan Locomotive works, Chitranjan (W.B.) is established in 1995. Here, electric locomotives
are manufactured.
(b) Diesel locomotive works (Varanansi): Set up in 1961 with the assistance of American company Alco.
 Diesel components works; Patiala (Punjab).
 Integral coach factory: Perambur (Tamil Nadu).
 Rail coach factory: Kapurthala (Punjab).
SHIP BUILDING INDUSTRY

Major Shipyards are:
1. The Hindustan Shipyards Limited, Vishakhapatnam.
2. The Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers Limited, Kolkata.
3. The Mazagaon Dock, Mumbai.

4. The Cochin Shipyard Limited, Kochi (Kerala)– Largest Shipyards in the country & has been built
with the assistance of Japan.
5. Goa Shipyard Limited, Vasco da Gama, Goa.
7. Aircraft Manufacturing Industry:

The units of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) which has been formed by merging of Hindustan
Aircraft Limited (Bangalore) and Aircraft manufacturing depot, are at 6 places:
1. Bangalore 2. Kanpur
3. Nasik 4. Korapur

48
5. Hyderabad 6. Korwa (Lucknow)
8. Automobile Industry: The automobile Industry began in India in 1928 when the general motors’
company was set up in Mumbai. The ford company was set up in Uttar Pradesh, Kolkata. In the same
year the premier automobiles limited was set up in Mumbai.
Various Automobile Manufacturing Centres
1. Hindustan motors, Uttar Pradesh, Kolkata.
2. Premier Automobiles Ltd. Mumbai.
3. Standard motor production India Ltd. Chennai.
4. Ashok Leyland Ltd. Chennai.
5. Tata Engineering and Locomotives Company, (TELCO), Jamshedpur.
6. Mahindra and Mahindra Company Ltd. Pune.
Pharmaceutical Industry: Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (IDPL) is a major pharmaceutical
company in the country. Its plants are at Rishikesh, Hyderabad, Gurgaon, Chennai, Muzaffarpur. Other
companies are–
 Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd (HAL).

 Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (BPCL).
 Hindustan organic chemicals Ltd. (HOCL).
Insecticides and Pesticides Industry
 ‘Hindustan Insecticides’ – in Delhi.

 ‘National Institute of Pharmaceuticals Education & Research’ – in Mohali (Chhattisgarh).
 Hindustan organic chemical Ltd. – in Rasayani (Maharasthra).
49
GLASS INDUSTRIES
Major Centres:
 Uttar Pradesh: Firozabad, Shikohabad, Bahzoi, Naini, Hathras.

 West Bengal: Kolkata, Belur, Rishra, Raniganj.
 Maharashtra: Mumbai, Telegaon, Orgalewadi, Nagpur, other states are Gujarat, Tamil Nadu,
Rajasthan Kerala, Delhi, M.P. & Haryana.
Leather Industry: India has the largest number of livestock in the world. Therefore, there has been enough
scope for development of leather Industry. Kolkata, Kanpur, Chennai & Coimbatore are big markets of
hides. Major centres of shoe production are Batanagar (Kolkata), Chennai, Ambur, Ranipet, Dindigul
(Tamil Nadu), Agra, Kanpur (U.P.), Dewas (M.P.)
AGRA-BASED INDUSTRIES
Cotton Textile Industry
Distribution of Cotton Textile Industry —
Maharashtra: There are 122 cotton mills with Mumbai, a major centre with 60 cotton textile mills. Mumbai
is called the ‘Cottonopolis of India'.
Gujarat: There are about 130 cotton mills in Gujarat. Ahmadabad is the major centre where there are 67
mills. Ahmadabad is called the ‘Manchester of India & also called the ‘Boston of the East.
Tamil Nadu: The largest no. of cotton textile mills (about 300) is in Tamil Nadu. Most of the mills here
spin cotton. Tamil Nadu producers 45% of mill.
Uttar Pradesh: These are 50 mills in U.P. with major centre at Kanpur. It’s called the ‘Manchester of North
India’. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh & Punjab are also cotton producing states–
50
Sugar Industry: In India, sugar is obtained from sugarcane. The first successful sugar mill was established
by the British in 1903 in Marhowrah (Bihar). U.P., Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, A.P.,
Bihar etc. are major sugar producing states.
Jute Industry: Jute industry is an agro based industry. The first jute mill in India was set up at a place
called Rishra on the bank of the Hugli River in 1855. Before partition, India had monopoly over world’s
jute industry, but after partition 102 out of 112 mills went to the east Pakistan (Bangladesh). At present this
industry is concentrated in the state of West Bengal. Other industries are in U.P. Andhra Pradesh and Bihar.
FOREST BASED INDUSTRIES IN INDIA

Paper Industry: The first effort of produce paper by modern technique was done in 1816 in Tamil Nadu.
It was unsuccessful. The first successful paper mill was set up in 1879 in Lucknow again in 1881, paper
mills were set up in Titagarh (WB). It is considered the beginning of modern paper industry.
Raw materials used are –
1. Softwood
2. Bamboo – Major raw material (70%)
3. Sabai grass – (15% raw material)
4. Bagasse – (7% raw material)
5. Rags
Distribution of Paper Industries: West Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, M.P.,
Haryana, Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam & U.P.

51
Match Industry: The first match factory in India was set up in 1921 in Ahmadabad. Match factories were
set up in 1924 and 1925 in Bareilly, Kolkata, Chennai, Ambarnath & Dhubri. This Industries has developed
mostly in West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
Silk Industry
There are two stages in silk Industry –
(i) Sericulture and obtaining of silk fibers.
(ii) Production of silk textile from silk fibres.
Sericulture It is completely forest-based industry. Sericulture is mainly done on the mulberry trees. More
than half of the total silk production in the country is done by Karnataka Alone.
Kinds of Silk Produced in India:

Mulberry silk, Muga silk, Taser silk & Eri silk.
Silk Textile Industry

It is indirectly a forest-based Industry. There are three tendencies of its localization.
 Raw material-based centres: Mysore, Bangalore, Coimbatore & Srinagar.

 Demand based centres in religious places (market-based centre) – Varanasi, Tirupati, Madurai,
Kanjivaram.
 Industries set up at commercial or collection centres –Bhagalpur (Bihar), Erode & Chennai (Tamil
Nadu) Mumbai.
Major means of transport in India are Roadways, railways, internal waterways & airways.
ROAD TRANSPORT

52
The road transport has been important in India since ancient times. Its construction & maintenance is
cheaper in comparison to the rail transport. India has the third largest road network in the world. The road
network of the country had been divided into four parts:
1. National Highways / Express Highways – 70,548 km
2. State Highways – 1,28,000 km
3. Large and other district roads – 4,70,000 km
4. Rural roads – 26,50,000 km
National Highways: These roads are constructed and maintained by the central government. The length of
the national highways is only 2% of the total length of the roads in the country but they share the burden of
40% traffic.
Major Highways: National Highway No.1: It connects Delhi to Amritsar (Ambala & Jalandhar). National
Highways No.2: It connects Delhi to Kolkata.
 The famous “Grand Trunk Road” (Peshawar to Kolkata), got constructed by Sher Shah is a combination
of NH1 and NH2.
 National Highway No.3 — It connects Agra to Mumbai.
 National Highway No.4 — It connects thane to Chennai.
 National Highway No.5 — It connects Chennai to Baharagoda.
 National Highway No.6 — It connects Hazira (Gujarat) to Kolkata.
 National Highway No.7 — It is the longest national Highway of India & begins from Varanasi and
goes up to Kanyakumari.
 National Highway No.8 — It connects Delhi to Mumbai.
 National Highway No.9 — It connects Pune to Machilipatnam.
 National Highway No.10 — It connects Delhi to Fazilka.

53
 National Highway No.31 — It connects is the only one national Highway that connects seven sisters
to the rest of India.
 NH3 and NH6 meet at Dhule
 NH2 and NH3 meet at Agra
 NH6 and NH7 meet at Nagpur
Express Highways: Express Highways have been constructed for high-speed commercial vehicles to make
than reach their destination in a short period. These highways are often 4 to 6 lanes.
Golden Quadrilateral (total length – 5846 km): Under this plan, roads connecting four megacities of the
country (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata) are to be made of high quality (6 to 6-laned). Much of its
work is completed. North-South, East-West corridor (total length – 7300 km) Srinagar to Kanyakumari
under the North-South corridor and silchar (Assam) to Porbandar (Gujarat) under the east-west corridor are
to be connected by high quality highways in this plan. The North-South and the East-West corridors meet
at Jhansi.
 It terms of the total length of roads in the country Maharashtra stands first (10.7%) Tamil Nadu
(8.86%).
 In terms of unsurfaced roads, Orissa stands first.
 The Indian road network bears 87% of passenger transport and 60% of goads / freight transport.
Mizoram stands first in road density followed by Manipur, Bihar and Kerala.
Goa has the maximum road density of metalled roads.
RAIL TRANSPORT
54
The rail transport in India began in 1853 when first train was run b/w Mumbai and Thane (34 km). The
Indian Railway is the third largest rail system in the world (The rail system of USA is the largest one). The
railway zone has been divided into 17 zones.
Zone Headquarters
1. Northern Railway — New Delhi
2. Western Railway — Churchgate, Mumbai

3. South–Central Railway — Secunderabad
4. South–Eastern Railway — Kolkata

5. Central Railway — Mumbai Central
6. Southern Railway — Chennai
7. North Eastern Railway — Gorakhpur (U.P.)
8. Eastern Railway — Kolkata
9. North–Eastern Frontier Railway — Melegaon (Guwahati)

10. Eastern–Central Railway — Hajipur (Bihar)
11. North–Western Railway — Jaipur
12. Easter Coastal Railway — Bhubaneshwar
13. North–Central Railway — Allahabad

14. South–West Railway — Hubli (Karnataka)
15. West–Central Railway — Jabalpur (M.P.)

16. South–East Central Railway — Bilaspur (Chhattisgarh)
17. Kolkata Metro — Kolkata

55
The maximum length of rail routes in the country is under northern railway (11040 km) followed by the
western railway (10295 km), the South Eastern railways (7420 km)
Note: – 28% of the total rail routes of India have been electrified.
KONKAN RAILWAY
Under Konkan Railway project, 760 km long rail route between Roha (Maharashtra) and Mangalore
(Karnataka) has been constructed. There are 32 tunnels, 179 large bridges and 56 railway station on this rail
route. A 6.5 km-long tunnel has been constructed at Kargude near Ratnagiri under this rail route. It is the
largest rail tunnel in Asia.
WATER TRANSPORT
Water transport is being used in India since ancient period. It is the cheapest and eco-friendly means of
transport. Water transport is of two kinds: –
(a) Internal Water Transport
(b) Maritime Transport
(a) Internal (Inland) Water Transport
Rivers, canals, backwater and narrow creeks come under it. At present 14.500 km long inland waterway is
available in India for navigation.
National Waterway No.1: This waterway between Allahabad and Haldia is under the Ganga–Bhairathi
and the Hugli River system. It is 1620 km long.
National Waterway No.2: This waterway is extended from Sadiya (Assam) in the Brahmaputra for a
distance of 891 km.

56
National Waterway No.3: The total length of the national waterway No. 3 is 205 km. Its expansion is in
the western coasted region of Kerala.
National Waterway No.4: The total length of this waterway is 1095 km.
National Waterway No.5: The total length of this waterway is 623 km.
(b) Maritime Transport: The Indian coast line is 7517 long but it is very less serrated. There are 13 major
and 185 other seaports in India. About 95% of foreign trade in cargo (weight) and 70% of foreign trade in
value are done by maritime waterways.
INDIA’S 13 MAJOR SEAPORTS
(1) Kandla: This seaport was built in the gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat) in 1930. Arrangement has been made
to supply petroleum through pipelines from here to the interior parts of the country.
(2) Mumbai: It is situated in the natural serrated area of Salsete Island. Its harbour is natural and safe. The
depth of water is 11m at Mumbai seaport. The Suez Canal is also 11m deep. So, Ship coming from Suez
Canal can stay here.
(3) Nhava Sheva or Jawaharlal Nehru Seaport (JLNP): This seaport has been developed near panel in
Navi Mumbai. It is the most modern seaport of the country. This is developed to ease off the pressure a
Mumbai seaport.
(4) Marmagao: It is situated an the left bank of Zuari river in Goa. It is a natural seaport. Iron ore is
exported from here an large scale.
(5) New Mangalore: This seaport has been developed 9 km north of Mangalore. It has the facility of
export of iron ore obtained from Kudremukh.
(6) Kochi: It is a natural seaport situated an Wellington Island on the coast of Kerala. Major items exported
from here are coconut products, cashew, tea, rubber, fish & spices.

57
(7) New Tuticorin: It is located in the Gulf of Mannar by coast of Tamil Nadu. If is an open seaport which
is 9 km away from the eastern side of Hare Island.
(8) Chennai: It is a major seaport on the eastern coast of India. It is an artificial seaport.
(9) Ennore: This seaport is located to the north of Chennai on the coast of Tamil Nadu. This seaport has
special developed to ease off the pressure on Chennai.
(10) Vishakhapatnam: It is a deep and good natural seaport in Andhra Pradesh.
(11) Paradeep: It is an artificial seaport on the coast of Orissa.
(12) Haldia: This seaport has been developed at the mouth of the Hugli River in West Bengal. It eases off
the pressure on Kolkata seaport.
(13) Kolkata: It is a river port located on the left bank of the Hugli River in West Bengal. The heavy ships
do not go up Kolkata because of deposition of slit in the Hugli River. So, the diamond harbour has been
constructed in the open bay 64 km away from Kolkata.
AIR TRANSPORT
The air transport in India began in 1911 when post (mail) was brought from Allahabad to Naini by
aeroplane. In 1920 some airports were built and in 1922, the Tata sons limited began domestic services. At
present there are 126 airports of which 11 are international ones.
Major International Airports:

58
1. Chhatrapati Shivaji Airport, Santacruz, Mumbai.
2. Indira Gandhi International Airport, Palam, Delhi.
3. Subhash Chandra Bose Airport, Dumdum, Kolkata.

4. Needum Bakkam Airport, Chennai.
5. Nedumbassery Airport Kochi, Kerala.

6. Jai Prakash, Narayan International Airport, Patna.
An International Green field Airport has been built in Kochi with the assistance of private sector.
Pipeline Transport
The first pipeline in India was built in 1964 from Digboi to Barauni (Bihar)
Major Pipelines
1. Naharkatiya – Barauni Pipeline – Petroleum transport (Crude).
2. Hazira – Vijaypur – Jagdishpur Pipeline – Natural gas transportation.
3. Haldia – Mathura Pipeline – Petroleum transportation (Crude).
4. Haldia – Barauni Pipeline – Petroleum transportation (Crude).
5. Jamnagar – Loni – Pipeline – Cooking gas transportation.
6. Kandla – Bhatinda Pipeline – Imported Diesel transportation.
7. Salaya – Mathura Pipeline – Petroleum transportation (Crude).
8. Mumbai – Mathura pipeline –Petroleum transportation (Crude).
9. Mumbai – Secunderabad Pipeline – Petroleum transportation (refined).
10.Hazira – Bina Pipeline – Imported petroleum transported (Crude).

59
CENSUS
(A) India: Census 2011
The total population of India is 1, 210, 193, 422 on 1 March 2011. World’s 10 most populous countries in
descending order are China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Russia
Federation, Japan. It is to be noted that India has only 2.4% land area of the world whereas 17.5% of the
world population resides here. States having highest decadal growth rate (in descending order).
1. Meghalaya (27.8%)
2. Arunachal Pradesh (25.9%),
3. Bihar (25.1%)
4. Jammu and Kashmir (23.7%)
States having lowest decadal growth rate (in ascending roder)

1. Nagaland (-0.5%)
2. Kerala (4.9%)
3. Goa (8.2%)
4. Andhra Pradesh (11.5%)
Most populous states (in descending order)

1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
3. Bihar

60
4. West Bengal
5. Andhra Pradesh
6. Madhya Pradesh
7. Tamil Nadu
Most populous union territories (in descending order)

1. Delhi
2. Puducherry
3. Chandigarh
4. Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Sex-Ratio: In India, sex ratio is calculated as the number of females per one thousand males. The sex ratio
in India is 940 as per census 2011. It means that there are 940 females per 1000 males.
Sex-Ratio of Most Populous Countries:
1. China – 926
2. Japan – 1055
3. Pakistan – 943
4. USA – 1025
5. Indonesia – 988
6. Russia – 1167
7. Sri Lanka – 1034
8. Nepal – 1014

61
9. Afghanistan – 931
10. Bhutan – 897
11. Myanmar – 1048
STATEWISE VARIATION IN SEX-RATIO
The highest sex ratio (1038) is in Puducherry where as it is lowest (618) in Daman & Diu. Only three states-
Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir have recorded decrease in sex ratio. Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Chandigarh
which are backward state or union territories in terms of sex ratio, have shown improvement.
States having highest sex ratio (in descending order)
1. Kerala (1084)
2. Tamil Nadu (995)
3. Andhra Pradesh (992)
4. Chhattisgarh (991)
5. Manipur (987)
States having lowest sex ratio (in ascending order)
1. Haryana (877)
2. Jammu & Kashmir (883)
3. Sikkim (889)
4. Punjab (893)
Literacy: Literacy is an important factor of the (HDI) of any society.

62
Number of Literates
𝑪𝒓𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = × 100
Total Population of the Country
Number of Literates ( 7 Years and above )

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = × 100
Total Population ( 7 years and above )
As per census 2011, in India, the male literacy rate is 87.14% and the female literacy rate is 65.46%.
States having highest literacy rate (in descending order)
1. Kerala (93.91%) 2. Mizoram (91.58%)
3. Tripura (87.75%) 4. Goa (87.40%)
State having lowest literacy rate
1. Bihar (63.82%)
2. Arunachal Pradesh (66.95%)
3. Rajasthan (67.06%)
4. Jharkhand (67.63%)
Union territories having highest literacy rate
1. Lakshadweep (92.28%)
2. Daman and Diu (87.07%)
3. Puducherry (86.55%)
4. Chandigarh (86.43%)
Union territories having lowest literacy rate is Dadra and Nagar Haveli (77.65%).
Number of Administrative Units in India as per Census 2011
63
States/Union Territories – 35 (28 + 7)
Districts – 940
Sub-districts – 5,924
Towns – 7936
(B) Environmental Issues

The general of environment is the surroundings about us. There are three components of environment:
i.Physical (abiotic) component – land, water air.
ii.Biotic component – plants and animals.
(i) Energy component – energy resources.
(1) Air Pollution

(i) Global: The concentration of gas in increased in the upper layer of the troposphere because of two much
use of fossil fuels. As a result of this the surface temperature is increasing. The increase in temperature
global warming is ‘greenhouse effect’.
Greenhouse Effect: In cold tropics where there is a lack of sunshine in winter, ‘greenhouse’ is used to
grow plants, especially vegetables and fruits. The glass use in the greenhouse is such that it allows short
waves of the sun to come in but does not allow the returning long waves to go out. In this way, energy is
accumulated continuously in the greenhouse. The result of this whole process is called ‘greenhouse effect’.
Major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), water vapour, methane (CH4),
Chlrofluoro Carbon (CFC’s), Ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2).
(2) Ozone Layer: Ozone gas is found as a layer in stratosphere b/w the height of 20 km and 35 km. It
prevents the ultra-violet rays coming from the sun to the Earth. The ozone layer works as a defence shield
64
for the earth. The major disease that can be caused by the ultra-violet rays are – skin cancer, blindness,
respiratory diseases etc.
Gases Responsible for the Ozone Depletion

(i) Chlorofluro Carbons (CFC’s): It reaches in the atmosphere chiefly by means of refrigerators, air
conditioners, deodorants, fire extinguishers, shaving cream etc.The foremost among CFC’s are
trichlorofluoro fluoro-methane (Freon-11) and dichloro fluorocarbon (freon 12).
(ii) Nitrogen Oxide: The supersonic planes emit nitrogen oxide. The concentration of nitrogen oxide also
increases by using excess nitrogenised fertilisers.
(iii) Sulphate Aerosol: It reaches the atmosphere by smoke coming out from volcanic eruption and from
the chimneys of factories.
(iv) Methyl Chloroform
(v) Carbon Tetrachloride
The gases responsible for ozone depletion are also called ‘Halons’.
(3) Smog: The fog mixed with smoke spread over the cities and industrial areas is generally called smog.
When the quantity of SO2, NO2, and Ozone is more in smoke, it becomes harmful for human beings. It
causes respiratory diseases.
(4) Acid Rain: When the quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO2) increase in the
atmosphere, it reacts with the rain water and forms sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).
When these acids mixed with rain water fall down to the earth, this rain is called ‘acid rain’. The Ph of
the rain is 5.
Bhopal Gas Tragedy
65
In December 1984, in Bhopal, there was a sudden large scale leakage of Methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas
from the gas plant of the American Union carbide factory. About 5000 people had died within few hours of
the leakage.
Noise Pollution: The intensity of noise pollution is measured on decibel (db) scale. The sound of more than
80 decibel affects the hearing power of a human being adversely. The noise of 120 decibels may bring the
sensitivity of ears to end. The sound of 150 decibel may burn the skin. The intensity of sound of more than
180 decibel may cause death of a person. It is to be noted that common Alek is go decibel. Noise pollution
gives birth to the diseases like insomnia, tension, high blood pressure etc.
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
WORLD'S SEVEN CONTINENT
ASIA
Asia is the largest continent and occupies about 30% of the total area of the globe. Barring some islands,
this continent lies in the Northern hemisphere and three important latitudes- Equator, Tropic of Cancer and
Arctic Circle, passes through it. It is surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, Arctic Ocean in the north
and the Pacific Ocean in the east. In the west, the Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea, Black Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea form the border between Asia and Europe. Asia is separated from Africa by the Red Sea
and Suez Canal. It is separated from North America by Bering Strait. Mongolia, Nepal, Bhutan,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Kazakhistan and Laos are the land locked
countries of Asia. That means, their boundaries do not touch the ocean. Among the land-locked countries,
66
Kazakhistan is the largest and Mangolia is second largest country. The landscapes of ancient time –
Angaraland (Russia & China) Gondwanaland (South India) are situated in Asian continent. There are three
important and prominent peninsulas in Asia, namely, Arabian Peninsula, Indo-Chinese Peninsula and
Deccan Peninsula. Arabian Peninsula is the largest in the world. Indonesia and its neighbouring islands are
called East Indies. Island groups and festoons of South-east and East Asia are spread like an arch. Important
among them are Andaman and Nicobar, Indonesia, Philippines and Japan. The deepest trench of the world,
Mariana Trench, (11,034m deep), lies in the Pacific Ocean near Philippines.
Pamir plateau, situated in the Central Asia, is known as ‘Roof of the World’. Different mountain ranges
sprout from the Pamir Knot in different directions. These mountain ranges are – Hindukush and Zagros
(West), and Himalaya, Karakoram, Kunlun and Tien Shan (East). Plateau of Tibet, lying between Himalaya
and Kunlun, is the highest plateau of the world. Plateau of Iran is bounded by Elbruz and Zagros ranges.
Plateau of Anatolia is situated between Pontik and Taurus ranges. Plateau of Gobi is an extensive cold
desert. Asian part of northern Russia is called Siberia. Ob, Yenisei and Lena are the important rivers of
Siberian region. These rivers drain into the Arctic Ocean. The deepest lake of the world, Lake Baikal (1741
m) and the largest lake of the world, lake Caspian Sea (area 3,71,800 sq km) are in the Siberian region.
There are three regions of heavy rainfall in Asia:
 From India to Indo-China and southern China region.
 Eastern island groups and festoons and
 Japan
Among these three regions, the first one is the region of summer monsoon; the second one is of
equatorial rainfall and the third one is a region of winter as well as summer monsoon rainfall. 90% of the
rainfall in Asia occurs in the summer season. Winter rainfall occurs in Japan and some parts of south-eastern

67
Asia. The highest rainfall is received at Mawsinram near Cherapunji (new name Sohra), situated in the
Khasi hills in Meghalaya. The lowest rainfall is recorded in the central and south-western Asia. The hottest
place in Asia is Jacobabad in Pakistan (57ºC) and the coldest place is Verkhoyansk (–69ºC). It is also
called the ‘Cold Pole of the Earth’.
Major food crop of Asia are paddy, wheat, maize, jowar-bajra and ragi whereas major cash crops are
tea, sugarcane, jute, cotton, rubber and tobacco. About 92% of the total production of rice in the world
comes from Asia. China, India, Bangladesh, Japan and South-east Asian countries are the major producers
of rice. Wheat is cultivated in the Siberian region, northern plains of India, China, Pakistan and south-west
Asian countries. Tea is grown mainly in the hill slopes of India, Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Indonesia.
Sugarcane is grown in India, China, Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan and Indonesia. Jute is grown only in
the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta region. Important producers of cotton are China, India and Pakistan. Thailand
is the largest producer of rubber in the world. Besides Thailand, rubber is also grown in Indonesia, Malaysia
and India. Major tobacco producing countries in Asia are China, India, Japan and Turkey.
Asian rivers are called ‘Cradles of Civilizations’ and Asian continent is called ‘The Birthplace of All
the Religions’. The Mesopotamian civilizations flourished in the river valley of Tigris and Euphrates, and
the Harappan civilization flourished in the Indus river valley. Asian land is the birth place of Buddhism,
Jainish, Islam, Christianity, Jewism, Judaism, Parsi, Confucianism, Shinto sect, etc.
There is an extensive network of transport in Asia. The world’s highest railway line has been constructed
in China. It starts from Qinghai provinces of China to Lhasa of Tibet. It height is 4500m above sea-level.
The longest (833m) platform, Khadagpur (W. Bengal) and the longest (9438m) railway route, Trans
Siberian Railway are in Asia.

68
EUROPE
Europe is the smallest continent in the N-hemisphere. It is also called ‘Peninsula of peninsulas’ and the
‘Peninsula of Eurasia’. Eurasia is the name given to the combined land area of Europe and Asia. It is
surrounded by water-bodies in three sides-Arctic Ocean in the north, Atlantic Ocean in the west and
Mediterranean Sea in the south. It is separated from Asia by Caspian Sea and Ural mountains. Alps and
Caucasus are the major fold-mountains in Europe. The highest peak of Europe, Mt. Elbrus, is in the
Caucasus range. Besides these ranges, there are Cantabrian, Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinaric Alps, Carpathian,
Kjolen and Balkan ranges. The important plateaus of Europe are Iberian plateau, Central plateaus of France,
the Vosages and Black Forest (Black Mountain) of Germany and Bohemian plateau. In Netherlands
(Holland), land has been reclaimed by pushing the sea backwards, for agricultural purposes. The
embankments constructed to restrict the sea are called ‘dykes’ and the lands thus reclaimed are called
‘polder lands’. Coastal land of Norway represents an excellent example of fiord coast. Several thousand
lakes have been formed in Finland due to melting of ice-sheets. Hence, Finland is called the ‘Land of Lakes’.
Norway, Sweden, Iceland and Denmark are together called ‘Scandinavia’. The group of thousand of
Islands, prominent among them being Great Britain and Ireland, is called ‘British Isles’. Spain and Portugal
together form the ‘Iberia’. Yugoslavia, Greece, Romania and Albania, situated on the coast of Black Sen
and Mediterranean Sea are called ‘Balkan states’. Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia are included in the ‘Baltic
states’.
Volga is the longest river in Europe, which has been connected with Don River and hence forms a water
way for the vessels from the Black Sea to the interior parts of the Continent. Volga and Ural rivers drain
into the Caspian Sea. The rivers draining into the Black Sea are Dnieper, Dniester, Don and Danube. The
busiest inland waterway of Europe is the Rhine River. The port carrying highest volume of trade in the
world, Rotterdam (The Netherlands), is situated on this river. Danube, the second longest river of Europe,

69
passes through five capital cities of Europe, namely – Bucharest (Romania), Bratislava (Slovania) Belgrade
(Yugoslavia), Budapest (Hungary), Vienna (Austria) And Bratislava (Slovakia). Seine river of France falls
into the English Channel. ‘Po’ river is called the ‘Ganges of Italy’.
International seed Bank is established in the Swelbard island of Norway. Extensive temperate
grasslands are found in Hungary, Romania and Ukraine. These grasslands are called ‘Pustaz’ in Hungary
and ‘Steppe’ in Ukraine is called the ‘Granary of the world’ or ‘Bread Basket of the World’. Italy is the
largest producer of grapes and olives in the world. Of the total world production, Europe produces 90% of
Oat, 50% of barley and 25% of wheat, yet it has to import the food grains. Nearly half of the sugar beet and
three-fourth of the potato produced in the world comes from Europe. Nearly three-fourth of the total flax
produced in the world is grown on European soil. The plain of Lombardy in Italy (the highest rice producing
region of Europe) is an important industrial region. Milan, Turin, Genoa and Venice are important cities in
this region. Milan is known as ‘Manchester of Italy’ and Turin is known as ‘Detroit of Italy’. Rome, situated
on the bank of River Tiber, is the capital of Italy and the biggest city here.
AFRICA
Africa is the second largest continent, after Asia. It is the only continent through which the Tropic of
Cancer, the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn pass. It is separated from Asia and Europe by the Strait of
Gibraltar, Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal, Red Sea and Arabian Sea. On its north-eastern side is Eurasia.
Moreover, the Indian Ocean is on its east and the Atlantic Ocean on its west.
The whole of Africa is a tableland and mountainous. The only fold mountain of Africa is the Atlas
Mountain (in the north-western part) which has entered highlands of Africa is Ethiopia and its southern part
is Drakensberg Mountain. The two highest peaks of Africa, Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt Kenya are situated
between these two. These two peaks are volcanic mountains. There is a long rift valley in the eastern
highlands which starts from the south of L. Malawi and running across the Red sea Reaches up to the Dead

70
Sea. There are several lakes in this rift valley lie – L. Rudolf, L. Albert, L. Edwerd, L. Kibui L. Tanganyika,
L. Nyasa or L. Malawi and Moreover, L. Victoria is the largest lake of Africa. The Equator passes through
this lake. The longest river of the world, R Nile originates from the L Victoria, and drains into the
Mediterranean Sea.
R Congo (Zaire) is the most voluminous river of Africa. It cuts the equator twice. Stanley and
Livingstone Water Falls are on this river. The Victoria Fall, on the R Zambezi, is world faumous for its
height and produces the largest amount of electricity in Africa. Further, Kariba dam has been constructed
on the R. Zambezi. Important rivers of Africa are Nile, Zambezi, Niger, Zaire (Congo), Orange Limpopo
rivers fall into the Indian Ocean. Africa is procuring about 5% of the world’s total hydro-electricity, though
it has potential to generate 28% of the world’s total production. Sahara, the world’s largest hot desert, is in
the northern part of Africa.
Kalahari Desert is less extensive and is in the southern Africa. This desert is mainly spread over Botswana.
Among all the continents the tropical conditions are most widespread in the African continent.
The maximum temperature of the world (58ºC) is recorded at Al Azizia in Libya. It rains throughout the
year near the equator and hence this region remains hot and humid. Due to excessive heat, the air rises up
and yields heavy convectional rainfall. Moreover, equatorial rain forests are found here because of tropical
hot and humid climate. In the north and south of this region, it rains only in the summer months. Because
of moderate temperature and low rainfall, hard, long and thick grass is found here. These grasslands are
called ‘Savannas’. The climate of ‘Savanna’ region is ‘Savanna or Sudan Type’.
The climate of Sahara and Kalahari Desert regions is very hot and dry and rainfall is negligible. In these
regions, the only vegetation is the thorny bushes, like – Cactii, Date, Acacia, etc. Camel and Ostrich are the

71
important wildlife species found in the Sahara and Kalahari deserts, respectively. ‘Horn of Africa’ include
Ethopia, Somalia and Djibouti. It is important centre of animal husbandry.
Mediterranean type of climate is found in the northern and southern coastal regions of Africa. Here the
rainfall occurs only in winters and the summer months remain dry. In these regions, neither the summers
are too hot nor the winters are too cold. Due to winter rains, trees in these regions are short but evergreen.
Important trees of these regions are Olive, Lemon, Oranges, etc. In the tropical regions of Africa, the fruits
such as Banana, Pineapple, Jackfruit, Mango, Papaya, Lemon and Orange are grown, whereas in the
temperate regions Olive, Apple, Pear, Grapes etc. are grown.
Only 10% of the total land area of this continent is arable land. The alluvial soil of the Nile valley is
most fertile. The soils of eastern Africa formed out of lava are very fertile, and the soils of the Savanna
region are also fertile. The main food crops of Africa are root and tuber crops like Cassava and Ratalu.
Another important food crop is Maize. Important cash crops are Oil Palm, Groundnut, Cocoa, Coffee,
Cotton and Sisal. The first four among these are grown mainly in the Nile Valley. Sisal is grown in the east
Central Africa (Tanzania). It is used to make fibre, gunny bags and ropes. Clove and Cardamom are mainly
grown in the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. About 90% of the total world production of Clove comes from
these islands. Cashew is grown in the eastern part of Africa.
Africa ranks first in the world in the production of Gold, Diamond and Platinum. Extensive deposits of
Cobalt, Manganese, Chromium, Tin, Bauxite, Uranium and Copper are also found here. However, this
continent produces little Coal and Iron-ore which hampers the growth of Iron and Steel Industry. Mineral
oil is found in the northern countries- Libya and Algeria.
The Suez Canal route from south, and the Cape of Good Hope route from south, pass through Africa.
Africa is the only continent where the most ancient and the most modern cultures and civilizations can be
seen. The religion here is called Animism, which is based on love for nature and natural brotherhood.

72
Bushmen (Kalahari), Pigmy (Congo basin), Bedowins (Sahara) and Masai (eastern Africa) tribes area
natives of Africa. In Africa, the ¾ population is Black. Europeans established their colonies here and called
the natives of Africa Blacks and declared the African continent the ‘Black Continent’ or the ‘Dark
Continent’. The densely populated parts of Africa are the Nile Valley, some areas of western Africa and
some parts of south-eastern Africa, where agriculture has developed. Sahara and Kalahari Desert regions
are zero-populated. The Central part is also zero populated because it is swampy and covered with dense
equatorial rain forests and the climate is also unhealthy. South Sudan in the youngest States of Africa and
become 193rd member of UNO. It come into existence as an independent state on 31st Oct. 2011. Juba is
the capital of this Christian dominated state.
NORTH-AMERICA
North America is the third largest continent. It was discovered in 1492 by Columbus. Therefore, it is
called as ‘The Continent of New World’. It is named after Amerigo Vespucci. It is surrounded by Arctic
Ocean in the north, Atlantic Ocean in the east and Pacific Ocean in the west. There are several groups of
islands in southern part of the continent, known as ‘Western Island groups’ or ‘West Indies’. North America
is connected with the South America through the Isthmus of Panama. Panama Canal has been constructed
by cutting this Isthmus. This canal joins the Caribbean Sea (a part of Atlantic Ocean) and the Pacific Ocean.
Cologne and Panama are the ports on the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean coasts, respectively. Nicaragua
also proposed to connect Atlantic and Pacific oceans through a new canal in competition of Panama Canal.
In the north-west, North America is separated from Asia by the Bering Strait. The 49ºN latitude forms the
boundary between the two big countries of this continent, the U.S.A. and Canada. Great Lakes and St.
Lawrence River also act as boundary between the two countries. Though the coastline of this continent is
not indented, yet the sea has entered deep into the land area in the form of Bay of Hudson, Gulf of Mexico,

73
Caribbean Sea, Gulf of California, etc. The largest island of this continent is Greenland which is a dominion
under Denmark.
The oldest part of North America is the Canadian Shield where there are several lakes formed by the
glacial moraines. Important lakes of this region are Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabaska, Reindeer and
Winnipeg. To the south of Canadian Shield, there are five fresh water lakes namely – Superior, Huron,
Michigan, Erie and Ontario. These five lakes together are called Great Lakes. Lake Superior is the largest
fresh water lake in the world. The world-famous Niagara fall is between L. Erie and L. Ontario.
In the western side of the continent, there is a long chain of mountain ranges from Alaska to Panama.
This chain is called ‘Western Cordillera’. The most important range of western Cordillera is Rockies,
which is 6000 km long. Other important ranges are Alaska, Cascade, Sierra Nevada and Sierra Madre. There
are intermountain plateaus between these ranges, important being – Alaska, Columbia, Great Basin,
Colorado and Mexico. The largest plateau is Great Basin which forms and inland drainage system.
Important rivers of North America are – St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Nelson, Hudson, Yukon, Fraser,
Colorado, Columbia, Mississippi and Missouri. These rivers are important sources of hydel power. Niagara
Fall, Tennessee valley (western Appalachian) and Fall Line (eastern Appalachian) are important hydel
power generation centers. Further, the highest peak of North America, Mt McKinley, situated in Alaska, is
an active volcano. Moreover, Popocatepetl (Mexico) is an example of extinct volcano. The eastern
highlands of the continent is called Appalachian Mountains. The northern part of the Central plain is called
Canadian prairie which is world famous for the cultivation of wheat, maize and cotton.
The hottest region of the North America is the ‘Death Valley’, in the South-western part. Here the
temperature in summer months reaches up to 55-56ºC. The mountain ranges are in the north-south direction
and are able to cause orographic rainfall in the coastal areas. However, north-south alignment of mountain
ranges, causes the Central plain region to become the rain-shadow area. The western coast in its northern

74
part is influenced by the Westerlies and the south-eastern coast is affected by the trade winds. Only winter
rainfall occurs in California because the sun is found in southern hemisphere during winter.
The parts of North America, receiving heavy rainfall are – (1) South-eastern part in the Atlantic coast
(due to the trade winds) and (2) North-western part in the Pacific coast (due to Westerlies). Moreover, the
areas receiving least rainfall are – (1) The south-western part of U.S.A. and neighbouring parts of Mexico,
in the Pacific coast (Arizona desert is located here, in the rain shadow area of Rockies) and (ii) The Central
part, situated to the east of Cordillera and west of Appalachian and Great Lakes. Further, the cyclones
affecting the south-eastern coast (Gulf of Mexico) of USA are called Hurricane and Tornado.
Southern part of Alaska remains ice free due to the warm North Pacific drift whereas the mouth of St
Lawrence River freezes in winters due to the influence of cold Labrador Current. Moreover, Cold Labrador
Current meets the warm Gulf Stream near Newfoundland. This creates favourable conditions for the growth
of planktons in this region. Consequently, Grand Bank near Newfoundland and Georges Bank near Nova
Scotia are extensive fishing grounds.
The temperate grassland in North America is called ‘pairies’. Maize is called ‘corn’ here. The major
corn producing area is in the USA, it is called ‘Corn Belt’. Maize produced here is used for feeding animals.
Probably, the native place of maize is the southern Mexico.
Wheat is cultivated in the southern states of Canada to northern states of the United States (Prairies
region) of America. Wheat is grown in winters in the southern part and in autumn in the northern part.
Cuba is major producer of Sugarcane and hence called the ‘Sugar Bowl of the world’. Further, Cotton
producing region lies to the South of ‘Corn Belt’ where the soil is very fertile. This southern part of
Mississippi basin is called ‘Cotton Belt’. The ‘Sea Island’ and ‘Upland’ varieties of cotton are highly
demanded in the world market. Jamaica is world famous for Banana production. Coastal area of Mexico is

75
well suited for the cultivation of coffee. The Great Lakes regions form the ‘Dairy Belt’ of North America.
In the western dry part of prairies, cattle are reared for meat.
The Original inhabitants of North America include Red Indians, Eskimos and Inuits. Eskimos live in
houses made up of snow, called ‘Igloo’. Eskimos use reindeer and dogs to pull sledges. They make boats
with the skin and bones of Seal. These boats are called ‘Kayaks’. Their weapon is called Harpoon. Most of
the parts of Canada and Greenland are zero populated due to very cold climate and permanent cover of
snow. Western cordillera and intermountain plateau regions are also sparsely populated due to rough terrain
and dry climate. About 85% population of the continent lives east of 100ºW longitude. Densely populated
regions are southern coasts of great Lakes, banks of St Lawrence River and Atlantic coast.
SOUTH AMERICA
South America, Central America, Mexico and West Indies are together called the ‘Latin America’. Latin
is considered the mother language which gave birth to such European languages as Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian etc. South America is the fourth largest continent. About 2/3 part of this continent lies in the tropical
region, south of the equator. Its northern part is broad and it gradually tapers towards the south making a
peninsula. The island of Tierra del Fuego lies in the extreme south of this continent and the southern-most
tip of this island is called the ‘Cape Horn’. To the east of this continent is the island of Falkland. Further,
South America is situated between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. It in connected to the North America
through the Isthmus of Panama. Bolivia is the largest land locked country of South America.
There is a narrow belt of low-lying land along the western Pacific coast of South America. It stretches
from north to south. There is a mountainous chain, along this narrow belt of low-lying land from the
Caribbean Sea to Tierra del Fuego. It is known as Andes Mountain range. Andes is the second highest
mountain range of the world, after the Himalayas. It is the longest mountain range of the world. The highest

76
peak in this range is Mt. Aconcagua. Moreover, Andes is a fold mountain. The Bolivian plateau is situated
between this range.
The highest navigable lake, L. Titicaca (on the border of Bolivia and Peru) is situated on this plateau.
Mt Cotopaxy, situated in Ecuador, is the highest active volcano of the world. The capital of Ecuador, Quito,
is the highest capital city of the world.
Most of the part of the Central plains is made up of the basins of Orinoco, Amazon and Plata rivers. The
combined system of rivers like Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay and their tributaries is called ‘Plata’. The Central
plains are situated between the Andes and the eastern highlands and cover almost half of the continent. All
the rivers of the continent drain into the Atlantic Ocean. Amazon is the most voluminous and the second
longest river of the world. It originates in the Andes and after passing through Brazil, drains into the Atlantic
Ocean.
The eastern highlands include the plateaus of Brazil and Guyana. The highest waterfall of the world, the
Angels Fall (in the south-east of Venezuela and on the R. Churun, a tributary of river Caro which is further
a tributary of Orinoco River) is situated on the plateau of Guyana. In the adjacent eastern side of the Andes,
lies the plateau of Patagonia. It is an example of foothill plateau.
AUSTRALIA
Australia, New Zealand and neighbouring islands are together called ‘Australasia’. Australia is the
smallest continent and the largest island of the world, hence it is called ‘Island continent’. Australia was
discovered for the first time in 1770, by James Cooke, an English sailor. He landed near the Sydney harbor.
The continent lies completely in the South Hemisphere. The Tropic of Capricorn passes through the middle
of this continent.
Two-third part of Australia is known as Western plateau, where rainfall is very scanty and deserts have
developed. Like the Deccan plateau of India, it is also made up of very ancient rocks. This plateau region
77
is very rich minerals, important being Iron-ore and Gold. In the eastern part of Australia is found high land
which runs parallel to the coast. This chain of high lands runs from the Cape York in the north to the island
of Tasmania in the south. This chain of very high plateaus is called the ‘Great Dividing Range’. It is broad
and low in the north and narrow and high in the south. Mt Kosciusko, the highest peak in Australia, lies in
this range. In winters, it remains covered with snow. Between the Western plateau and Eastern highland is
the low-lying land of Australia, which is called ‘The Central Plains. This plain extends from the Gulf of
Carpentaria in the north to the southern coast of Australia. Once, this low-lying area was under oceanic
water Even today some of its parts are lower than the mean sea level, such as the region around Lake Eyre
(12 m lower than the mean seas level). Inland drainage system is found near the L. Eyre. In the southern
part, Murray and Darling are two important rivers. Murray-Darling valley is the most important agriculture
region of Australia. This fertile land is called ‘Reverina’.
Due to scanty rainfall innumerable deep wells have been dug in the Central low land, from which water
comes out with very high velocity on its own. These wells are known as ‘Artesian Wells’. The extensive
area in which these wells are found is called ‘Great Artesian Basin’.
There is a Coral Reef along the eastern coast of Australia. It is known as ‘Great Barrier Reef’. It is more
than 1900 km long. This Coral Reef has been formed by the continuous deposition of skeletons of coral
polyps. The northern part of the eastern side of this coral reef is very dangerous for the vessels.
The northern half of Australia is situated in the tropical zone and the southern half is situated in the
temperate zone. The winds blow from the east in the tropical zone and from the west in the temperate zone.
The eastern highland form a barrier in the way of the wind coming from the sea and causes rainfall and the
western part remains dry. Therefore, hot desert type of climate is found in the western part of Australia.
Monsoon climate is found in the northern coastal area and rainfall, here, occurs in the summer. The climate
of the southern coast of Australia is Mediterranean type because, rainfall, here, occurs only in winter

78
months. Climate of Tasmania is influenced by the maritime effect throughout the year; therefore rainfall is
received throughout the year. Australia is called ‘Country of Thirsty land’ because most of its land area
receives little or no rainfall.
In Australia, only 40% land is suitable for agriculture. The vegetation, here, is controlled mainly by the
amount of rainfall. Forests are found in the eastern coastal region, where it rains heavily. In the dry interior
regions, only grasses and thorny bushes are found. In the tropical coastal forests, major trees found are –
Palm, Bamboo, Birch and Deodar. Eucalyptus is the main tree of the temperate forests. The grasslands in
the drier parts are of two types – tropical and temperate. These are called ‘Savanna’ and ‘Downs’
respectively. In the Savanna grasslands, Salt Brush and Mulga bushes are found. Also, Eucalyptus trees
grow here and there in the Downs. Hence, the Downs are called the ‘Parkland of Australia’.
Here, the Kangaroo and Wallaby are important animals of marsupial group. These animals have a
muscular pouch attached to their abdomens, in which they easily carry their young ones. Kangaroo is the
national animal of Australia. Koala is another animal of Marsupial family. Platypus is a unique animal,
found in Australia. It can run, makes tunnels in the ground and can swim also. This mammal lays eggs. In
this way it has the characteristics of both the animals and birds. Further, Emu is a unique bird with very
long legs. It cannot fly due to lack of feathers but it can run as fast as ostrich. Kookaburra and Lyre Bird
are also unique creatures. The former can laugh and the later is a great mimic. Kookaburra is also called
‘Laughing Jacks’.
Australia is an agricultural country. There are two major agriculture regions – the plains of Murray –
Darling and the eastern and southern coastal regions. Wheat is the main food crop of Australia. The largest
producer of wheat are New Southwales and Western Australia provinces. Wheat is exported in large
quantities from here. Sugarcane, Tobacco and Cotton are grown, mainly in the Queensland province. In

79
Australia, fruits are also grown. Major fruits grown here are – Pineapple, Banana, Papaya (in tropical areas);
Grapes, Apple, Orange etc. (in temperate areas).
About one-third of the sheep population of the world is found in Australia. The Murray-Darling region
is most favourable for Sheep rearing. Here, Merino Sheep are reared, which are one of the best breeds. This
breed of sheep yields very high quality wool. Queensland and New South Wales are important sheep rearing
provinces. The labourers working in the sheep rearing centres are called ‘Jackaroo’. Australia produces one-
third of the total production of wool in the world. Queensland in the largest producer and exporter of meat
in Australia. Australia also exports milk products.
Australia is very rich in mineral resources. Here, gold mines are in Western Australia and Victoria
provinces. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardy are famous as ‘Gold Cities’. Also there are large deposits of Coal,
Iron, Bauxite, Manganese and Tin in Australia. Pilbara for Iron-ore and Broken Hill for Lead and Zinc are
famous. There are large deposits of Petroleum Oil and Natural Gas in Alice Spring. Australia is the largest
producer of bauxite in the world. The Waipa region of Australia is world famous for bauxite. Australia
exports large quantities of Iron-ore, Tin and Manganese. Most of the industries of Australia are located in
Victoria and New South Wales provinces.
The natives of Australia are called ‘Aboriginals’. The population is distributed very unevenly in the
interior parts. Due to dry climate, the interior parts have very low-density population. The regions of high
density of population are the eastern coastal lowlands and the south-eastern parts, where most of the
industries are concentrated and also, the climate is cold and healthy. Though Australia is an agricultural
state yet about 60% of its population resides in 8 big cities, which are also the capitals of provinces.
New Castle, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, etc are important cities and ports. Though, Canberra is
the capital of Australia. Sydney is the biggest city here. ‘Pearl Harbour’ of Sydney port is the world famous.
This is the world’s largest wool exporting port.
80
The main means of transport in Australia is railways. The only trans-continental rail route of and Perth. All
the capital towns and important mining centres in Australia are well connected by the railways. Major
roadways of Australia are called ‘Commonwealth Highways’.
New Zealand
New Zealand is called the ‘Britain of South’. It is a country constituting of two islands and is situated in
south-east direction, 2000 km off the Australian coast. Its two islands are separated by the Cook Strait. New
Zealand is a mountainous country. Its major mountain range is situated on the southern island and is known
as ‘Southern Alps’. Its highest peak is ‘Mt Cook’. The natives of New Zealand call Mt. Cooke as ‘Orango’,
meaning thereby the ‘cloud piercer’. In the northern island, volcanoes and geysers are found.
On both the islands, small fertile plains are found along the coasts. These plains are called
‘Canterburies’.
Climate of New Zealand is temperate. It rains throughout the year in New Zealand. The Western part
receives more rainfall due to the influence of Westerlies.
Dairy industry has developed very much in New Zealand and hence, New Zealand has become the
largest exporter of milk products in the world. New Zealand has pushed Australia behind in the export of
sheep meat. Wheat and fruits are the major products of New Zealand.
The native of New Zealand is called Maori. Auckland is the largest city and port of New Zealand.
Wellington, the capital city of New Zealand, is an important port and the southern most capital city of the
world. Other important cities are Christchurch and Dunedin. Nearly half of the population of New Zealand
resides in these four major cities.
ANTARCTICA

81
Antarctica is the fifth largest continent of the world. It is the only continent which is isolated and zero
populated and is completely covered with snow. For the first time, James Cook the English sailor,
attempted to discover this continent but, he was not able to land on the mainland Antarctica even though he
crossed the Antarctic circle. The first person to discover the mainland of Antarctica was Febian Welling
Shawsen, who came here in 1820 on his ship named ‘Vostok’. The first person who entered into this
continent and reached to the South Pole (in 1911) was Amundson, a Norwegian.
The first Indian who reached Antarctica was Ramcharan Jee (1960) and the first Indian to reach the
South Pole was Dr Giriraj Sirohi. From 1981 onwards, the Indian team visited this continent frequently.
In 1984, India established its centre in Antarctica called ‘Dakshin Gangotri’, to study the structure, climate,
fossils environment, minerals and vegetation, etc of this continent which is now completely destroyed. In
December 1987, India established a research centre here, called ‘Maitri’.
The main aim behind the establishment of ‘Maitri’ is to conduct research on environment science,
metallurgy, biology, oceanography, geology, physiology, etc. In 2006, a new research centre has been set
up in Larseman hills near Pridze Bay.
The 29th Indian Antartica expedition is conducted in March 2009 to studied the hilly region. Indian
established its 3rd research centre ‘Bharti’ in Larseman hills. Experiments were started here from 18th
March, 2012. The service period of this centre is fixed for 25 years.
About 98% of Antarctica remains covered with snow permanently. The average thickness of the ice-
sheet is 2-5 km. There is no coastal plain of Antarctica at all. Only 2% part of Antarctica becomes ice-free
in summers. The Palmer Peninsula is the only part of Antarctica, which is ice-free to some extent.
Since, the shape of Antarctica changes with the change of season, it is known as ‘Dynamic or Active
continent’. Large blocks of ice break from the coastal areas and float in the sea water, these blocks are called

82
‘Ice-bergs’. These Ice bergs are reservoirs of fresh water. Vida, a saline lake, is found under the 19m thick
ice layer in Antarctica. Its salinity is equal to that of dead sea.
Queen Maud Range divides the continent into two parts. The highest peak here is Mt. Vinson Massfi.
Moreover, Mt Erebus is the only active volcano of Antarctica. Further, Antarctica is surrounded by three
oceans – the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. The southern parts of these oceans,
which surround the Antarctica, are together called the Southern Ocean or the Antarctica Ocean. Its
temperature remains below 4ºC. Weddle Sea and Ross Sea are the parts of Antarctic Ocean.
The lowest temperature of the world was recorded at Vostok in Antarctica as – 95ºC. The lowest annual
temperature is found at ‘Pole of Cold’ in Antarctic. In Antarctica, the Sun is not seen from 22 March to 23
September and 21 March. But, the rays of the Sun are so slant that they are not able to warm the air. The
time between November and February is the major summer season in Antarctica.
Lichen and Moss are the main Vegetations found in Antarctica. Penguin, a flightless bird, is the
characteristic of this continent. The krill, a type of fish, is the only resource which can be developed. Krill
lives in groups, called shoals. Many products can be made out of it.
Scientists of various countries are engaged in research activities in this continent. Several minerals, like
– Gold, Silver, Copper, Coal, Manganese, Uranium, Platinum, Chromium, etc. have been discovered here
but, due to natural hardships, they cannot be exploited commercially. Yet, this continent offers immense
opportunities to the scientists for gathering information about the earth. Therefore, Antarctica is also called
the ‘Continent, Dedicated to Science’.

83
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The Universe & Solar System
All existing matter and space considered as a whole; the cosmos. The universe is believed to be at least
10 billion light years in diameter and contains a vast number of galaxies; it has been expanding since its
creation in the Big Bang about 13 billion years ago.
The Universe is all of space time and everything that exists therein, including all planets, stars, galaxies,
the contents of intergalactic space, the smallest subatomic particles, and all matter and energy. Similar terms
include the cosmos, the world, reality, and nature.
According to the prevailing scientific model of the Universe, known as the Big Bang, the Universe
expanded from an extremely hot, dense phase called the Planck epoch, in which all the matter and energy
of the observable universe was concentrated. Since the Planck epoch, the Universe has been expanding to
its present form, possibly with a brief period of cosmic inflation. Several independent experimental
measurements support this theoretical expansion and, more generally, the Big Bang theory. The universe is
composed of ordinary, the Big Bang theory. The universe is composed of ordinary matter (5%) including
84
atoms, stars, and galaxies, dark matter (25%) which is a hypothetical particle that has not yet been detected,
and dark energy (70%), which is a kind of energy density that seemingly exists even in completely empty
space. Recent observations indicate that this expansion is accelerating because of dark energy, and that most
of the matter in the Universe may be in a form which cannot be detected by present instruments, called dark
matter, The common use of the “dark matter” and “dark energy” place holder names for the unknown
entities purported to account for about 95% of the mass-energy density of the Universe demonstrates the
present observational and conceptual shortcomings and uncertainties concerning the nature and ultimate
fate of the Universe.
A term for “Universe” in ancient Greece was [to pan, The All, Pan (mythology)]. Related terms were
matter and place other synonyms for the Universe among the ancient Greek philosophers included (cosmos)
and (meaning Nature, from which we derive the word physics). The same synonyms are found in Latin
authors (totum, mundus, natura) and service in modern languages, e.g., the German words Das All, Welt
all, and Nature for Universe. The same synonyms are found in English, such as everything (as in the theory
of everything), the cosmos (as in cosmology), the world (as in the many-worlds interpretation), and Nature
(as in natural laws or natural philosophy).
Celestial bodies
Celestial objects are naturally occurring physical entities, associations or structures that current science
has demonstrated to exist in the observable universe. The term astronomical object is sometimes used
interchangeably with astronomical body.
Celestial body refers to a single, cohesive structure that is bound together by gravity (and sometimes by
electromagnetism). Examples include the asteroids, moons, planets and the stars. Astronomical objects are
gravitationally bound structures that are associated with a position in space, but may consist of multiple
independent astronomical bodies or objects. These objects range from single planets to star clusters, nebulae

85
or entire galaxies. A comet may be described as a body, in reference to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust,
or as an object, when describing the nucleus with its diffuse coma and tail.
The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-
attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which
are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms
are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be
found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system
and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of
accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surrounds newly created stars.
Nebulae
A nebula (from Latin: “cloud”. Nebulae or nebulae, with ligature, or nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of
dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases. Originally, nebula was a name for any diffuse astronomical
object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The Andromeda Galaxy, for instance, was referred to as
the Andromeda Galaxy, for instance, was referred to as the Andromeda Nebula (and spiral galaxies in
general as “spiral nebulae”) before the true nature of galaxies was confirmed in the early 20th century by
Vesto Slipher, Edwin Hubble and others.
Most nebulae are of vast size, reaching sizes of even hundreds of light years in diameter. Although
denser than the space surrounding them, most nebulae are far less dense than any vacuum created in an
Earthen environment – a nebular cloud the size of the Earth would weigh only a few kilograms.
Galaxy

86
A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system consisting of stars, stellar remnants, an interstellar
medium of gas and dust, and dark matter, an important but poorly understood component. The word galaxy
is derived from the Greek galaxies, literally “milky”, a reference to the Milky Way. Examples of galaxies
range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars to giants with one hundred trillion (1014) stars,
each orbiting their galaxy’s own center of mass.
Galaxies contain varying numbers of planets, star systems, star clusters and types of interstellar clouds.
In between these objects is a sparse interstellar medium of gas, dust, and cosmic rays. Super massive black
holes reside at the center of most galaxies. They are thought to be the primary driver of active galactic nuclei
found at the core of some galaxies. The Milky Way galaxy is known to harbor at least one such object.
Galaxies have been historically categorized according to their apparent shape, usually referred to as their
visual morphology. A common form is the elliptical galaxy, which has an ellipse-shaped light profile. Spiral
galaxies are disk-shaped with dusty, curving arms. Those with irregular or unusual shapes are known as
irregular galaxies and typically originate from disruption by the gravitational pull of neighbouring galaxies.
Such interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in a merger, sometimes induce
significantly increased incidents of star formation leading to starburst galaxies.
Constellation
In modern astronomy, a constellation is an internationally defined area of the celestial sphere. These
areas are grouped around patterns that represent the shapes that give the name to the constellations. When
astronomers say an object is “in” a given constellation, they mean it is within the boundaries of one of these
defined areas of sky, as the patterns may have several variants in its representation.
The Late Latin term constellation can be translated as “set with stars”. The term was first used in
astrology, of asterisms that supposedly exerted influence, attested in Ammianus (4th century). In English

87
the term was used from the 14th century, also in astrology, of conjunctions of planets. The modern
astronomical sense of “area of the celestial sphere around a specific asterism” dates to the mid 16th century.
Quasars
Quasars or quasi-stellar radio sources are the most energetic and distant members of a class of objects
called Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). Quasars are extremely luminous and were first identified as being
high red shift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light that appeared to
be similar to stars, rather than extended sources similar to galaxies. Their spectra contain very broad
emission lines, unlike any known from stars, hence the name “quasi-stellar”. Their luminosity can be 100
times greater than that of the Milky Way.
While the nature of these objects was controversial until the early 1980s, there is now a scientific
consensus that a quasar is a compact region in the center of a massive galaxy that surrounds its central super
massive black hole. Its size is 10-10,000 times the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. The energy
emitted by a quasar derives from mass falling onto the accretion disc around the black hole.
Star
A star is a massive, luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth
is the Sun, which is the source of most of the planet’s energy. Some other stars are visible from Earth during
the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points due to their immense distance. Historically, the
most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, and the brightest stars gained proper
names. Extensive catalogues of stars have been assembled by astronomers, which provide standardized star
designations.

88
For at least a portion of its life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its
core, releasing energy that traverses the star’s interior and then radiates into outer space. Once the hydrogen
in the core of a star is nearly exhausted, almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are
created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star’s lifetime and, for some stars, by supernova
nucleosynthesis when it explodes. Near the end of its life, a star can also contain degenerate matter.
Astronomers can determine the mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition), and many other properties
of a star by observing its motion through space, luminosity, and spectrum respectively. The total mass of a
star is the principal determinant of its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star, including
diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the star’s environment affects its rotation and
movement. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities, known as a Hertzsprung-
Russell diagram (H-R diagram), allows the age and evolutionary state of a star to be determined.
Planet
A planet (from Ancient Greek aster planets, meaning “wandering star”) is an astronomical object
orbiting a star or stellar remnant that
 Is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,
 Is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and
 Has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.
The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, science, mythology, and religion. The planets were
originally seen by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities. As scientific knowledge
advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006,
the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar
System. This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where
or what they orbit. Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain “planets” under

89
the modern definition, some celestial bodies, such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta (each and object in the Solar
asteroid belt), and Pluto (the first-discovered trans-Neptunian object), that were once considered planets by
the scientific community are no longer viewed as such.
Planets are generally divided into two main types: large low-density gas giants, and smaller rocky
terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing
distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, then the four gas
giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites.
Meteors
A meteor or “shooting star” is the visible streak of light from a meteoroid or micrometeoroid, heated
and glowing from entering the Earth’s atmosphere, as it sheds glowing material in its wake. Meteors
typically occur in the mesosphere at altitudes between 76 to 100 km (47 to 62 mi). The root word meteor
comes from the Greek meteors, meaning “suspended in the air”.
Meteoroid
A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body travelling through space. Meteoroids are significantly
smaller than asteroids, and range in size from small grains to 1-meter-wide objects. Smaller objects than
this are classified as micrometeoroids or space dust. Most are fragments from comets or asteroids, while
others are collision impact debris ejected from bodies such as the Moon or Mars.
When such an object enters the Earth’s atmosphere at a speed typically in excess of 20 km/s,
aerodynamic heating produces a streak of light, both from the glowing object and the trail of glowing
particles that it leaves in its wake. This phenomenon is called a meteor, or colloquially a “shooting star” or
“falling star”. A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart, and appearing to originate
from the same fixed point in the sky, is called a meteor shower. Incoming objects larger than several meters

90
(asteroids or comets) can explode in the air. If a meteoroid, comet or asteroid or a piece thereof withstands
ablation from its atmospheric entry and impacts with the ground, then it is called a meteorite.
Comets
A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, heats up and begins to
outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the
effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few
hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small
rocky particles. The coma and tail are much larger and, if sufficiently bright, may be seen from the Earth
without the aid of a telescope. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many
different cultures.
SOLAR SYSTEM
The Solar System comprises the Sun and the objects that orbit it, whether they orbit it directly or by
orbiting other objects that orbit it directly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are
the planets that form the planetary system around it, while the remainder are significantly smaller objects,
such as dwarf planets and Solar System bodies such as comets and asteroids.
A solar system is the collection of planets, asteroids, and moons (moons orbit the planets) that occupy a
space around a sun and are held within the gravitational pull of the Sun. Our solar system consists of eight
planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) and a planetoid, Pluto.
Sun
The Sun is the Solar System’s star, and by far its chief component. Its large mass produces temperatures
and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion, which releases enormous amounts of energy,
mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation, peaking in the 400-700 nm band of visible light.

91
The vast majority of the Solar System consists of a near-vacuum known as the interplanetary medium.
Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) known as the solar
wind. This stream of particles spreads outwards at roughly 1.5 million kilometers per hour, creating a
tenuous atmosphere. Activity on the Sun’s surface, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, disturb
the heliosphere, creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms. The largest structure within the
heliosphere is the heliosphere current sheet, a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun’s rotating
magnetic field on the interplanetary medium.
Inner planets
The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the terrestrial planes and
asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively
close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is shorter than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and
Saturn.
The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring
systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts
and mantels, and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets
(Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters
and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be
confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e.
Mercury and Venus).
Mercury

92
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System. Mercury has no
natural satellites; besides impact craters, its only known geological features are lobed ridges orrupes,
probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury’s almost negligible atmosphere
consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have
not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant
impact; or, that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun’s energy.
Venus
Venus is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses) and, like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around
an iron core, a substantial atmosphere, and evidence of internal geological activity. It is much drier than
Earth, and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet,
with surface temperatures over 400 ºC, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic
field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere if
frequently replenished by volcanic eruptions.
Earth
Earth is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological
activity, and the only place where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the
terrestrial planets, and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth’s atmosphere is
radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain
21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the
Solar System.
Mars

93
Mars is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon
dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6% of that of Earth). Its surface, peppered with
vast volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons, and rift valleys, such as Valles Mariner is, shows geological activity
that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust)
in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.
Outer Planets
The outer region of the Solar System is home to the gas giants and their large moons. Many short-period
comets, including the centaurs, also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid
objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia and
methane, than the rocky denizens of the inner Solar System because the colder temperature allow these
compounds to remain solid.
The four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99% of the
mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn are each many tens of times the mass of Earth and consist
overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium; Uranus and Neptune are far less massive and possess more ices
in their makeup. For these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, “ice
giants”. All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn’s ring system is easily observed from Earth.
The term superior planet designates planets outside Earth’s orbit and thus includes both the outer planets
and Mars.
Jupiter
Jupiter at 318 Earth masses, is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It is composed
largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter’s strong internal heat creates semi-permanent features in its
atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot.

94
Jupiter has 67 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa show similarities
to the terrestrial planets such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar
System, is larger than Mercury.
Saturn
Saturn, distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to Jupiter, such as its
atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter’s volume, it si less than
a third as massive, at 95 Earth masses, making it the least dense planet in the Solar System. The rings of
Saturn are made up of small ice and rock particles.
Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity,
though they are largely made of ice. Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System, is larger then
Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.
Uranus
Uranus at 14 Earth masses is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the
Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other
gas giants and radiates very little heat into space.
Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda.
Neptune
Neptune, though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17 Earths) and therefore
denser. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn.
Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid
nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by
several minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans that are in 1:1 resonance with it.

95
Asteroid belt
Asteroids are small Solar System bodies composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals,
with some ice.
The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun. It
is thought to be remnants from the Solar System’s formation that failed to coalesce because of the
gravitational interference of Jupiter.
Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilometers across to microscopic. All asteroids except the
largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies.
The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometer in diameter.
Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth. The
asteroid belt is very sparsely populated; space craft routinely pass through without incident. Asteroids with
diameters between 10 and 104 m are called meteoroids.
MOTIONS OF EARTH
Earth’s rotation
Earth’s rotation is the rotation of the solid Earth around its own axis. The Earth rotates from the west
towards the east. As viewed from the North Star or polestar Polar is, the Earth turns counter-clockwise.
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the
Northern Hemisphere where the Earth’s axis of rotation meets its surface. This point is distinct from the
Earth’s North Magnetic Pole. The South Pole is the other point where the Earth’s axis of rotation intersects
its surface, in Antarctica.

96
The Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the sun and once every 23 hours 56 minutes
and 4 seconds with respect to the stars. Earth’s rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter
in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth’s rotation. Atomic clocks show that a
modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC
is adjusted by leap seconds.
Revolution of earth
There are two types of Earth revolution: around its axis and around the Sun. The Earth revolves around
the Sun once every 365.242 mean solar days (that’s why we have leap years). The Earth orbits the Sun at a
speed of 108,000 km/h. It revolves (rotates) on its axis once during an approximate 24 hours. The actual
day is not exactly 24 hours.
The Earth is never in the same exact same position from day to day. It moves closer to and further away
from, the Sun. Earth’s perihelion (147,098,074 km) occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July
4 (152,097,701 km). The changing Earth-Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9% in solar energy
reaching the Earth at perihelion as related to aphelion. The southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at
about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, so the southern hemisphere
receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year.
The Earth rotates around its axis by moving to the east. The Earth actually rotates 360.9856º in a mean
solar day at a speed of 1,674.4 km/h. Earth’s rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day) is 86,400
mean solar seconds. Earth’s rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called it stellar day is 86,164.098 903
691 seconds of mean solar time. Earth’s rotation period relative to the moving mean vernal equinox (its
sidereal day) is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time, making it slightly longer than the stellar
day. Over millions of years, the rotation is significantly slowed by gravitational interactions with the Moon

97
(tidal acceleration/deceleration). Some large-scale events, such as the high scoring earthquakes, have caused
the rotation to speed up by around 3 microseconds. The speed of the rotation to speed up by around 3
microseconds. The speed of the rotation of Earth has had various effects over time, including the Earth’s
shape, climate, ocean depth and currents, as well as tectonic forces.
Solstice
The word solstice is formed from two Latin words; one for sun sol and one for stand sister. The
solstice occurs twice in each circuit of the earth around the sun. A circuit of the sun is how we define a year,
so there are two solstices a year, winter and summer. The winter solstice is in late December and the summer
solstice in late June in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemispheres, the solstices are reversed.
The summer solstice is when the sun appears to be at its greatest and the day in at its longest. The winter
solstice is when there is the least amount of sun. The other two seasons, fall and spring, are marked by the
equinoxes when day and night are roughly equal.
June 21 is called the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere and simultaneously the winter solstice
in the Southern Hemisphere. Around December 21 the solstices are reversed and winter begins in the
northern hemisphere.
Winter Solstice
The winter solstice begins Thursday, December 21 at 6:12 am EST. This is the earliest winter solstice
since 1896. The start of winter, the winter solstice, is the shortest day of the year, when the Sun reaches its
most southern point in the sky at local noon. After this date, the days start getting longer.
The Sun is directly overhead at “high-noon” on Winter Solstice at the latitude called the Tropic of
Capricorn. In the Northern Hemisphere, the solstice days are the days with the fewest hours of sunlight
during the whole year.

98
Summer Solstice
June 20-21 is a very important day for our planet and its relationship with the sun. June 20-21 is one of
two solstices, days when the rays of the sun directly strike one of the two tropical latitude lines. June 21
marks the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere and simultaneously heralds the beginning of
winter in the southern hemisphere.
On June 21, there are 24 hours of daylight north of the Arctic Circle (66.5º north of the equator) and 24
hours of darkness south of the Antarctic Circle (66.5º south of the equator). The sun’s rays are directly
overhead along the Tropic of Cancer (the latitude line at 23.5º north, passing through Mexico, Saharan
Africa, and India) on June 21.
Without the tilt of the earth’s axis, we would have no seasons. The sun’s rays would be directly overhead
of the equator all year long. Only a slight change would occur as the earth makes its slightly elliptical orbit
around the sun. The earth is furthest from the sun about July 3; this point is known as the aphelion and the
earth is 94,555,000 miles away from the sun. The perihelion takes place about January 4 when the earth is
a mere 91,445,000 miles from the sun.
The Equinox
The word equinox is derived from the Latin word aequinoctium meaning equal night. An Equinox
occurs two times during the year when the sun crosses the celestial equator, an imaginary line through the
sky, and appears directly above the equator, the imaginary line that divides the earth into the northern and
southern hemispheres. When this occurs, the length of the day and the length or night are approximately
equal at every place on earth. While the earth orbits around the sun, the position of the sun changes in
relation to the equator. Between the March, or vernal equinox and the September, or autumnal equinox, the

99
sun appears north of the equator. It appears south of the equator in the time between the September equinox
and the March equinox.
In the northern hemisphere, the vernal or spring equinox will occur either on March 20 or March 21,
depending on the earth’s position in a given year. This day also marks the beginning spring. In the northern
hemisphere, the autumnal equinox will occur either on September 22 or September 23, again depending on
the earth’s position in a given year. This day also marks the beginning of autumn.
The spring equinox

The spring equinox, or first day of spring, occurs around March 20 in the Northern Hemisphere.
Each day, Earth’s tilt on its axis and distance from the sun change ever so slightly as it makes its annual
journey around the sun. Along the way, its tilt reaches four extreme positions each one causing one of our
four seasons. When earth’s axis is equidistant (neither tilted towards nor away) from the sun, an equinox
occurs. A Climbing Sun = Intensity of Heating and Light Increases.
The autumn equinox
The September equinox can occur at any time from the 22nd to the 23rd day of September. At the
equinox, the sun rises directly in the east and sets directly in the west. Before the Southward equinox, the
sun rises and sets more and more to the north, and afterwards, it rises and sets more and more to the south.
In the Northern Hemisphere the September equinox is known as the autumnal equinox. In the Southern
Hemisphere it is known as the vernal or spring equinox.
Syzygy

100
A syzygy is a straight-line configuration of three celestial bodies in a gravitational system. The word is
often used in reference to the Sun, Earth and either the Moon or a planet, where the latter is in conjunction
or opposition. Solar and lunar eclipses occur at times of syzygy, as do transits and occultations. The term is
often applied when the Sun and Moon are in conjunction (new moon) or opposition (full moon).
Eclipse
An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when an astronomical object is temporarily obscured,
either by passing into the shadow of another body or by having another body pass between it and the viewer.
An eclipse is a type of syzygy.
The term eclipse is most often used to describe either a solar eclipse, when the Moon’s shadow crosses
the Earth’s surface, or a lunar eclipse, when the Moon moves into the Earth’s shadow. However, it can also
refer to such events beyond the Earth-Moon system: for example, a planet moving into the shadow cast by
one of its moons, a moon passing into the shadow cast by its host planet, or a moon passing into the shadow
of another moon. A binary star system can also produce of another moon. A binary star system can also
produce eclipses if the plane of the orbit of its constituent stars intersects the observer’s position.
Solar eclipse
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun. The type of solar eclipse event depends
on the distance of the Moon from the Earth during the event. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Earth
intersects the umbra portion of the Moon’s shadow. When the umbra does not reach the surface of the Earth,
the Sun is only partially occulted, resulting in an annular eclipse. Partial solar eclipses occur when the
viewer is inside the penumbra. The eclipse magnitude is the fraction of the Sun’s diameter that is covered
by the Moon. For a total eclipse, this value is always greater than or equal to one. In both annular and total
eclipses, the eclipse magnitude is the ratio of the angular sizes of the Moon to the Sun.

101
Lunar eclipse
Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes through the Earth’s shadow. This occurs only when the
Moon is on the far side of the Earth from the Sun, lunar eclipses only occur when there is a full moon.
Unlike a solar eclipse, an eclipse of the Moon can be observed from nearly an entire hemisphere. For this
reason, it is much more common to observe a lunar eclipse from a given location. A lunar eclipse also lasts
longer, taking several hours to complete, with totality itself usually averaging anywhere from about 30
minutes to over an hour.
Total lunar eclipses pass through all three phases. Even during a total lunar eclipse, however, the Moon
is not completely dark. Sunlight refracted through the Earth’s atmosphere enters the umbra and provides a
faint illumination. Much as in a sunset, the atmosphere tends to more strongly scatter light with shorter
wavelengths, so the illumination of the Moon by refracted light has a red hue, thus the phrase ‘Blood Moon’
is often found in descriptions of such lunar events as far back as eclipses are recorded.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH

The interior of Earth is not subject to direct investigation, but its properties must be indirectly deduced from
the study of earthquake waves that propagate through the interior rocks. From an earthquake near the
surface, both pressure (compression) waves and transverse (side to side) waves move outwards in all
directions. Wave energy moving into the interior, however, has its path slowly changed by refraction as the
wave moves through regions of slowly changing properties. These waves reach the surface after a time that
depends on the length of the path and the velocity of propagation at each point along that path. Careful
analysis at seismographic station of the time of arrival of earthquake waves over the surface of Earth yields
information about the densities, temperatures, and pressures of Earth’s interior. A thin crust (at its thickest
only 30 kilometers deep), which contains the continental masses and the ocean floors, overlies a denser
102
outer mantle. The uppermost layer of the mantle acts as solid material, a lithosphere no more than about 80
kilometers deep. Most of the mantle slowly flows under pressure and acts as a plastic, or malleable,
asthenosphere.
In an annulus about the surface of Earth, opposite an earthquake, exists the shadow zone, in which you
cannot observe pressure waves. The path of pressure waves is significantly affected by a sharp refraction
that astronomers interpret as the point of transition between the mantle and an interior core that is
substantially different from the outer part of the planet. The shadow zone for transverse waves, however,
covers the whole of Earth opposite the earthquake source. No transverse wave energy apparently passes
through the core, indicating that its physical state, in the outer regions at least, must be liquid. The innermost
core, however, though at higher temperatures, is likely solid because of an even higher pressure there. As
the center of Earth continues to slowly cool over time, this inner core must be slowly growing in size at the
expense of the liquid outer core. Evidence also shows that this inner core is rotating faster than the rest of
the planet, completing one full turn in two thirds of a second less time than at the surface. Applying other
physical principles together with laboratory study of the nature of different material under high temperature
and pressure suggests the characterization of Earth’s interior as shown in Table. (See Figure for a diagram
of Earth’s interior.)
When an earthquake occurs the seismic waves (P and S waves) spread out in all directions through the
Earth’s interior. Seismic stations located at increasing distances from the earthquake epicenter will record
seismic waves that have traveled through increasing depths in the Earth.
Seismic velocities depend on the material properties such as composition, mineral phase and packing
structure, temperature, and pressure of the media through which seismic waves pass. Seismic waves travel
more quickly through denser materials and therefore generally travel more quickly with depth. Anomalously
hot areas slow down seismic waves, Seismic waves move more slowly through a liquid than a solid. Molten

103
areas within the Earth slow down P waves and stop S waves because their shearing motion cannot be
transmitted through a liquid. Partially molten areas may slow down the P waves and attenuate or weaken S
waves.
When seismic waves pass between geologic layers with contrasting seismic velocities (when any wave
passes through media with contrasting seismic velocities (when any wave passes through media with
distinctly differing velocities) reflections, refraction (bending), and the production of new wave phases (e.g.,
an S wave produced from a P wave) often result. Sudden jumps in seismic velocities across a boundary are
known as seismic discontinuities.
The Crust
Mohorovicic Seismic Discontinuity
Seismic stations within about 200 km of a continental earthquake (or other seismic disturbance such as
a dynamite blast) report travel times that increase in a regular fashion with distance from the source. But
beyond 200 km the seismic wave arrives sooner than expected, forming a break in the travel time vs.
distance curve. Mohorovicic (1909) interpreted this to mean that the seismic waves recorded beyond 200
km from the earthquake source had passed through a lower layer with significantly higher seismic velocity.
This seismic discontinuity is now known as the Moho (much easier than “Mohorovicic seismic
discontinuity”). It is the boundary between the felsic/mafic crust with seismic velocity around 6 km/sec and
the denser ultramafic mantle with seismic velocity around 8 km/sec. The depth to the Moho beneath the
continents averages around 35 km but ranges from around 20 km to 70 km. The Moho beneath the oceans
is usually about 7 km below the seafloor (i.e., ocean crust is about 7 km thick.)

104
The Mantle
Low Velocity Zone
Seismic velocities tend to gradually increase with depth in the mantle due to the increasing pressure, and
therefore density, with depth. However, seismic waves recorded at distances corresponding to depths of
around 100 km to 250 km arrive later than expected indicating a zone of low seismic wave velocity.
Furthermore, while both the P and S waves travel more slowly, the S waves are attenuated or weakened.
This is interpreted to be a zone that is partially molten, probably one percent or less (i.e., greater than 99
percent solid). Alternatively, it may simply represent a zone where the mantle is very close to its melting
point for that depth and pressure that it is very “soft.” Then this represents a zone of weakness in the upper
mantle. This zone is called the asthenosphere or “weak sphere.”
The asthenosphere separates the strong, solid rock of the uppermost mantle and crust above from the
remainder of the strong, solid mantle below. The combination of uppermost mantle and crust above the
asthenosphere is called the lithosphere. The lithosphere is free to move (glide) over the weak asthenosphere.
The tectonic plates are, in fact, lithospheric plates.
670 km Seismic Discontinuity
Below the low velocity zone are a couple of seismic discontinuities at which seismic velocities incease.
Theoretical analyses and laboratory experiments show that at these depths (pressures) ultramafic silicates
will change phase (atomic packing structure or crystalline structure) from the crystalline structure of olivine
to tighter packing structures. A discontinuity at around 670 km depth is particularly distinct. The 670 km
discontinuity results from the change of spinel structure to the perovskite crystalline structure which remains
stable to the base of the mantle. Perovskite (same chemical formula as olivine) is then the most abundant
silicate mineral in the Earth. The 670 km discontinuity is thought to represents a major boundary separating
a less dense upper mantle from a denser lower mantle.
105
The Core
Gutenberg Seismic Discontinuity / Core-Mantle Boundary
Seismic waves recorded at increasing distances from an earthquake indicate that seismic velocities
gradually increase with depth in the mantle (exceptions; see Low Velocity Zone and 670 km Discontinuity
above). However, at arc distances of between about 103º and 143º no P waves are recorded. Furthermore,
no S waves are record beyond about 103º. Gutenberg (1914) explained this as the result of a molten core
beginning at a depth of around 2900 km. Shear waves could not penetrate this molten layer and P waves
would be severely slowed and refracted (bent).
Lehman Seismic Discontinuity/The Inner Core
Between 143º and 180º from an earthquake another refraction is recognized (Lehman, 1936) resulting
from a sudden increase in P wave velocities at a depth of 5150 km. This velocity increase is consistent with
a change from a molten outer core to a solid inner core.
ROCKS
A rock can be defined as a solid substance that occurs naturally because of the effects of three basic
geological processes: magma solidification; sedimentation of weathered rock debris; and metamorphism.
As a result of these processes, three main types of rock occur:
Igneous Rocks: produced by solidification of molten magma from the mantle. Magma that solidifies at
the Earth’s surface conceivesextursive or volcanic igneous rocks. When magma cools and solidifies beneath
the surface of the Earth intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are formed.
Sedimentary Rocks: formed by burial, compression, and chemical modification of deposited weathered
rock debris or sediments at the Earth’s surface.

106
Metamorphic Rocks: created when existing rock is chemically or physically modified by intense heat
or pressure.
Most rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals are defined by geologists as naturally occurring
inorganic solids that have a crystalline structure and a distinct chemical composition. Of course, the minerals
found in the Earth’s rocks are produced by a variety of different arrangements of chemical elements. A list
of the eight most common elements making up the minerals found in the Earth’s rocks is described in Table.
Table: Common Elements Found in The Earth's

Rocks
Element Chemical Symbol Percent Weight in Earth's Crust
Oxygen O 46.60
Silicon Si 27.72
Aluminum Al 8.13
Iron Fe 5.00
Calcium Ca 3.63
Sodium Na 2.83
Potassium K 2.59
Mangesium Mg 2.09
Over 2000 minerals have been identified by earth scientists. Table describes some of the important minerals,
their chemical composition, and classifies them in one of nine groups. The Elements Group includes over
one hundred known minerals. Many of the minerals in this class are composed of only one element.
107
Geologists sometimes subdivide this group into metal and nonmetal categories. Gold, silver, and copper are
example of metals. The elements sulfur and carbon produce the minerals sulfur, diamonds, and graphite
which are nonmetallic.
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are produced by the crystallization and solidification of molten magma. Magma forms
when rock is heated to high temperatures (between 625 and 1200º Celsius) beneath the Earth’s surface. The
exact temperature needed to melt rock is controlled by several factors. Chemistry of the rock material,
pressure, presence of gases (like water vapor) all influence when melting occurs. Most of the heat required
to melt rock into magma comes from the Earth’s central internal region known as the core. Scientists
estimate that the temperature of the Earth’s core is about 5000º Celsius. Heat moves from the Earth’s core
towards the solid outer crust by convection and conduction. Convection moves hot plumes of magma
vertically from the lower mantle to the upper mantle. Some of these plumes melt through the Earth’s solid
lithosphere and can produce instrusive igneous features and extrusive igneous features on the surface. Heat
can also be generated in the lower lithosphere through friction. The tectonic movement of subducted crustal
plates can generate enough heat (and pressure) to melt rock. This fact explains the presence of volcanoes
along the margin of some continental plates.
Types of Igneous Rocks

The type of igneous rocks that from magma is a function of three factors: the chemical composition of
the magma; temperature of solidification; and the rate of cooling which influences the crystallization
process. Magma can vary chemically in its composition. For example, the amount of silica (SiO2) found in
magma can vary from 75% to less than 45%. The temperature of cooling determines which types of minerals
are found dominating the rock’s composition. Rocks that begin their cooling at low temperatures tend to be
rich in minerals composed of silicon, potassium, and aluminum. High temperature igneous rocks are
108
dominated by minerals with higher quantities of calcium, sodium, iron, and magnesium. The rate of cooling
is important in crystal development. Igneous rocks that form through a gradual cooling process tend to have
large crystals. Relatively fast cooling of magma produces small crystals. Volcanic magma that cools very
quickly on the Earth’s surface can produce obsidian glass which contains no crystalline structure.
Geologists have classified the chemistry of igneous rocks into four basic types: felsic, intermediate,
mafic, and ultramafic. Igneous rocks derived from felsic magma contain relatively high quantities of
sodium, aluminum, and potassium and are composed of more than 65% silica. Rocks formed from felsic
magma include granite, granodiorite, dacite, and rhyolite. All of these rock types are light in color because
of the dominance of quartz, potassium and sodium feldspars, and plagioclase feldspar minerals. Dacite and
granodiorite contain slightly more biotic and amphibole minerals than granite and ryholite. Rhyolite and
dacite are produced from continental lava flows that solidify quickly. The quick solidification causes the
mineral crystals in these rocks to be fine grained. Granite and granodiorite are common intrusive igneous
rocks that are restricted to the Earth’s continents. Large expanses these rocks were formed during episode
of mountain building on the Earth. Because granite and grandiorite form beneath the Earth’s surface their
solidification is a relatively slow process. This slow solidification produces a rock with a coarse mineral
grain.
Mafic magma produces igneous rocks rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium and are relatively poor in
silica (silica amounts from 45 to 52%). Some common mafic igneous rocks include fine grained basalt and
coarse gained grabbro. Mafic igneous rocks tend to be dark in color because they contain a large proportion
of minerals rich in iron and magnesium (pyroxene, amphiboles, and olivine). Basalt is much more common
than gabbro. It is found in the upper portion of the oceanic crust and also in vast continental lava flows that
cover parts of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and California. Gabbroic normally found in the lower parts of
oceanic crust and sometimes in relatively small intrusive features in continental curst.

109
Andesite and diorite are intermediate igneous rocks that have a chemistry between mafic an felsic (silica
amounts between 53 to 65%). These rocks are composed predominantly of the mineral’s plagioclase
feldspar, amphibole, and pyroxene. Andesite is a common fine grained extrusive igneous rock that forms
from lavas erupted by volcanoes located along continental margins. Coarse grained diorite is found in
intrusive igneous bodies associated with continental crust.
Ultramafic igneous rocks contain relative low amounts of silica (<45%) and are dominated by the
mineral’s olivine, calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars, and pyroxene. Peridotite is the most common
ultramafic rock found in the Earth’s crust. These rocks are extremely rare at the Earth’s surface.
Characteristic of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks can be categorized into three groups based on sediment type. Most sedimentary rocks
are formed by the lithification of weathered rock debris that has been physically transported and deposited.
During the transport process, the particles that make up these rocks often become rounded due to abrasion
or can become highly sorted. Examples of this type of sedimentary rock include conglomerate and
sandstone. Scientists sometimes call this general group of sedimentary rocks clastic. The remaining types
of sedimentary rocks are created either from chemical precipitation and crystallization, or the lithification
of once
Living organic matter. WE identify these sedimentary rocks as being non-clastic.
All sedimentary rocks are lithified into some collective mass. Lithification is any process that turns raw
rock sediment into consolidated sedimentary rock. The process of lithification usually produces identifiable
layering in these types of rocks. Lithification can occur by way of:
 Drying and compaction.

 Oxidation of iron and aluminum.

110
 Precipitation of calcium and silica.
The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks is based on the particle types found in the rock. Some
types of clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of weathered rock material like gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
Others can be constructed from the break up and deposition of shells, coral and other marine organisms by
wave-action and ocean currents. Table describes some of the main types of clastic sedimentary rocks.
Table: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Name of Rock Fragment Type
Breccia (Image Link) Coarse Fragments of Angular Gravel and Rocks
Conglomerate Coarse Fragments of Rounded Gravel and Rocks
Sandstone Sand Sized Particles that are 90% Quartz
Arkose Sandstone composed of 25% Feldspar Grains
Shale Clay Particles
Siltstone Silt Particles
Mudstone Mixture of Clay and Silt
Limestone Mixture of Shells, Coral, and Other Marine Skeletons
The following table describes some of the common forms of chemical precipitated sedimentary rocks.
Table: Sedimentary Rocks Formed as
Chemicla Precipitates

111
Name of Rock Precipitate Type
Halite Sodium and Chlorine
Gypsum Calcium, Sulfur, and Oxygen
Silcretes Silica
Ferricretes Iron
Limestone Calcium Carbonate
Dolomite Calcium Magnesium Carbonate
Several types of sedimentary rocks are formed from the lithification of once living organisms. Limestone
deposits can be formed by the direct lithification of coral reefs, marine organism shells, or marine organism
skeletons. Chalk is a particular variety of limestone that is composed of the skeletons of marine
microorganisms like foraminifera. Coal and lignite are the lithified remains of plants.
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism involves the alteration of existing rocks by either excessive heat and pressure, or through
the chemical action of fluids. This alteration can cause chemical changes or structural modification to the
minerals making up the rock. Structural modification may involve the simple reorganization of mineral into
layers or the aggregation of minerals into specific areas within the rock.
Much of the Earth’s continental crust is composed of metamorphic and igneous rocks. Together, these
two rock types form the base material at the core of the Earth’s major continental masses. Overlying this
core are often thick layers of sedimentary rocks. In some regions this base rock is exposed to the atmosphere
and is known as shields. On the Canadian Shield we can find some of the oldest rocks found on the planet
(3.96 billion years old). These very old rocks are primarily metamorphic. Metamorphic rocks also the rock
type found at the core of the world’s various mountain ranges.

112
Common Metamorphic Rocks
Examples of metamorphic rock types include: Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock. It is created by
minor metamorphism of shale or mudstone. This rock is characterized by the foliation of its mineral grains
which causes it to have cleavage that is parallel.
Schist is a medium to coarse grained foliated rock. Foliation is the result of the rearrangement of mica,
chlorite, talc, and hematic mineral grains into parallel structures. When compared to slate, schist’s result
from more intense metamorphism.
Gneiss is a coarse grained metamorphized igneous rock. In this rock, you get the recrystallization and
foliation of quartz, feldspars, micas, and amphiboles into alternating light and dark colored bands.
Marble is a nonfoliate metamorphized limestone or dolomite.
Quartzite forms from the recrystallization of silica found in sandstone.
The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is a general model that describes how various geological processes create, modify, and
influence rocks. This model suggests that the origin of all rocks can be ultimately traced back to the
solidification of molten magma. Magma consists of a partially melted mixture of elements and compounds
commonly found in rocks. Magma exists just beneath the solid crust of the Earth in an interior zone known
as the mantle.
Igneous rocks form the cooling and crystallization of magma as it migrates closer to the Earth’s surface.
If the crystallization process occurs at the Earth’s surface, the rocks created are called extrusive igneous

113
rocks. Intrusive igneous rocks are rocks that form within the Earth’s solid lithosphere. Intrusive igneous
rocks a can be brought to the surface of the Earth by denudation and by a variety of tectonic processes.
All rock types can be physically and chemically decomposed by a variety of surface processes
collectively known as weathering. The debris that is created by weathering is often transported through the
landscape by erosional processes via streams, glaciers, wind, and gravity. When this debris is deposited as
a permanent sediment, the processes of burial, compression, and chemical alteration can modify these
materials over periods of time of produce sedimentary rocks.
A number of geologic processes, like tectonic folding and faulting, can exert heat and pressure on both
igneous and sedimentary rocks causing them to be altered physically or chemically. Rocks modified in this
way are termed metamorphic rocks.
All of the rock types described above can be returned to the earth’s interior by tectonic forces at areas
known as subduction zones. Once in the Earth’s interior, extreme pressure and temperatures melt the rock
back into magma to begin the rock cycle again.
VOLCANOES
Volcano, vent in the crust of the earth or another planet or satellite, from which issue eruptions of molten
rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases. A volcanic eruption is an awesome display of the Earth’s power.
Yet while eruptions are spectacular to watch, they can cause disastrous loss of life and property, especially
in densely populated regions of the world. Sometimes beginning with an accumulation of gasrich magma
(molten underground rock) in reservoirs near the surface of the Earth, they can be preceded by emissions
of steam and gas from small vents in the ground. Swarms of small earthquakes, which may also signal
volcanic eruptions, especially explosive ones. In some cases, magma rises in conduits to the surface as a

114
thin and fluid lava, either flowing out continuously or shooting straight up in glowing fountains or curtains.
In other cases, entrapped gases tear the magma into shreds and hurl viscous clots of lava into the air. In
more violent eruptions, the magma conduit is cored out by an explosive blast, and solid fragments are
ejected in a great cloud of ash-laden gas that rises tens of thousands of meters into the air. One feared
phenomenon accompanying some explosive eruptions is the nuee ardent, or pyroclastic flow, a fluidized
mixture of hot gas and incandescent particles that sweeps downs a volcano’s flanks, incinerating everything
in its path. Great destruction also can result when ash collects on a high snowfield or glacier, melting large
quantities of ice into a flood that can rush down a volcano’s slopes as an unstoppable mudflow.
Volcanoes are closely associated with plate tectonic activity. Most volcanoes, such as those of Japan
and Iceland, occur on the margins of the enormous solid rocky plates that make up the Earth’s surface.
Other volcanoes, such as those of the Hawaiian Islands, occur in the middle of a plate, providing important
evidence as to the direction and rate of plate motion.
The study of volcanoes and their products is known as volcanology, but these phenomena are not the
realm of any single scientific discipline. Rather, they are studied by many scientists from several specialties:
geophysicists and geochemists, who probe the deep roots of volcanoes and monitor signs of future
eruptions; geologists, who decipher prehistoric volcanic activity and infer the likely nature of future
eruptions; biologists, who learn how plants and animals colonize recently erupted volcanic rocks; and
meteorologists, who determine the effects of volcanic dust and gases on the atmosphere, weather, and
climate.
Clearly the destructive potential of volcanoes is tremendous. But the risk to people living nearby can be
reduced significantly by assessing volcanic hazards, monitoring volcanic activity and forecasting eruptions,
and instituting procedures for evacuating populations. In addition, volcanism affects humankind in

115
beneficial ways. Volcanism provides beautiful scenery, fertile soils, valuable mineral deposits, and
geothermal energy. Over geologic time, volcanoes recycle the Earth’s hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Components of Volcanoes
Volcanoes of explosive type or central eruption type are associated with the accumulated volcanic
material in the form of cones which are called as volcanic cones or simply volcanic mountains. There is a
vent or opening, of circular or nearly circular shape, almost in the center of the submittal part of the cone.
This vent is called as volcanic vent or volcanic mouth which is connected with the interior part of the earth
by a narrow pipe, which is called as volcanic pipe. Volcanic materials of various sorts are ejected through
this pipe and the vent situated at the top of the pipe. The enlarged form of the volcanic vent is known as
volcanic crater and caldera. Volcanic materials include lavas, volcanic dusts and ashes, fragmental materials
etc.
Volcanic Eruptions
Lava, gas, and other hazards

The list of hazards associated with volcanic eruptions is long and varied: lava flows, explosions, toxic
gas clouds, ash falls, pyroclastic flows, avalanches, tsunamis, and mudflows. In addition to these immediate
dangers, volcanic activity produces secondary effects such as property damage, crop loss, and perhaps
changes to weather and climate. These hazards and long-term effects are described in this section.
Lava Flows
The root zone of volcanoes is found some 70 to 200 km (40 to 120 miles) below the surface of the Earth.
There, in the Earth’s upper mantle, temperatures are high enough to melt rock and form magma. At these
depths, magma is generally less dense than the solid rocks surrounding and overlying it, and so it rises
toward the surface by the buoyant force of gravity. In some cases, as in the undersea zones where the

116
tectonic plates of the Earth’s crust are separating, magma may move directly up to the surface through
fissures that reach as deep as the mantle. In other cases, it collects in large underground reservoirs known
as magma chambers before erupting to the surface. Molten rock that reaches the surface is called lava.
Pyroclastic Flows
Pyroclastic flows are the most dangerous and destructive aspect of explosive volcanism. Variously
called nuees ardentes (“glowing clouds”), glowing avalanches, or ash flows, they occur in many sizes and
types, but their common characteristic is a fluidized emulsion of volcanic particles, eruption gases, and
entrapped air, resulting in a flow of sufficiently low viscosity to be very mobile and of sufficiently high
density to hug the ground surface. A pyroclastic flow can your over the lip of an erupting vent, or it may
form when an ash column becomes too dense to continue rising and falls back to the ground. In major
caldera collapses associated with explosive volcanoes (see below Calderas), huge pyroclastic flows may
issue from the ring fractures as the caldera block subsides.

During the past two million years, the area around Yellowstone National Park in the western United
States has undergone three major caldera collapses involving pyroclastic eruptions of 280 to 2,500 cubic
km (67 to 600 cubic miles) of ash flows and ash falls.
Gas Clouds
Even beyond the limit of explosive destruction, the hot, ash-laden gas clouds associated with an
explosive eruption can scorch vegetation and kill animals and people by suffocation. Gas clouds emitted
from fumaroles (volcanic gas vents) or from the sudden overturn of a crater lake may contain suffocating
or poisonous gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide. At Lake
Noyes, a crater lake in Cameroon, West Africa, more than 1,700 people were killed by a sudden release of
carbon dioxide in August 1986. Scientists theorize that carbon dioxide of volcanic origin had been seeping
117
into the lake, perhaps for centuries, and had accumulated in its deep layers. It is thought that some
disturbance, such as a large landslide into the lake, could have triggered the outburst of gas, creating an
effervescence that stirred the lake and started the degassing.
The most common volcanic gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide. Small quantities of other volatile elements and compounds also are present such as hydrogen,
helium, nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and mercury. The specific gaseous compounds
released from magma depend on the temperature, pressure, and overall composition of the volatile elements
present. The amount of available oxygen is of critical importance in determining which volatile gases are
present. When oxygen is lacking, methane, hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide are chemically stable, but when
hot volcanic gases mix with atmospheric gases, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide are stable.
Some volcanic gases are less soluble in magma than others and therefore separate at higher pressures.
Studies at Kilauea in Hawaii indicate that carbon dioxide begins to separate from its parent magma at depths
of about 40 km (25 miles), whereas most of the sulfur gases and water are not released until the magma has
nearly reached the surface. Fumaroles near Halemaumau Crater at Kilauea’s summit are rich in carbon
dioxide that leaks from the magma chamber located 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 miles) beneath the surface.
Fumaroles on the rift zones of Kilauea, however, are richer in water vapour and sulfur because much of the
carbon dioxide leaks away at the summit before the magma is intruded into the rift zones.
Ash Falls
Ash falls from continued explosive jetting of fine volcanic particles into high ash clouds generally do
not cause any direct fatalities. However, where the ash accumulates more than a few centimeters, collapsing
roof and failure of crops are major secondary hazards. Crop failure can occur over large areas downwind
from major ash eruptions, and widespread famine and disease may result, especially in poorly developed

118
countries. In the long run, however, the decomposition of nutrient-rich volcanic fallout is responsible for
some of the world’s best soils.”
Effects of volcanoes
The are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-
generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of low-silica
lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) and carbon dioxide emission. All of these activities
can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, and pots and geysers often accompany
volcanic activity.
Acid rain
The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine and
nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratospheric chlorine
levels from chloroform carbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (CIO), which destroys ozone (O3).
As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei
for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth’s radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCI) and
hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground
as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it is removed within several
days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and
thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.
Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity releases about 130
to 230 tera-grams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year. Volcanic eruptions
may inject aerosols into the Earth’s atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual effects such as unusually
colorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit
of adding nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils assist the
119
growth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as the magma cools and
solidifies upon contact with the water.
Hazards
Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the
particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine
blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Dangerous encounters in 1982 after the
eruption of Galunggung in Indonesia, and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised
awareness of this phenomenon. Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by the International
Civil Aviation Organization to monitor ash clouds and advise pilots according.
Types of Volcanoes
There is a wide range of variations in the mode of volcanic eruptions and their periodicity. Thus,
volcanoes are classified on the basis of (i) the mode of eruption and (ii) the period of eruption and the nature
of their activities.
(1) Classification on the Basis of the Mode of Eruptions
(i) Central eruption type or explosive eruption type.
(a) Hawiin type
(b) Strombolian type
(c) Vulcanian type
(d) Pelean
(e) Visuvius type
(ii) Fissure eruption type or quiet eruption type
(a) Lava flood or lava flow
120
(b) Mud flow
(c) Fumaroles
(2) Classification on the Basis of Periodicity of Eruptions
(a) Active volcanoes
(b) Dormant volcanoes
(c) Extinct volcanoes
Classification on the basis of the nature of volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruptions occur mostly in two ways viz. (i) violent and explosive type of eruption of lavas,
volcanic dusts, volcanic ashes and fragmental materials through a narrow pipe and small opening under the
impact of violent gases and (ii) quiet type or fissure eruption along a long fracture or fissure or falut due to
weak gases and huge volume of lavas. Thus, on the basis of the nature and intensity of eruptions volcanoes
are divided into two types e.g. (1) central eruption type or explosive eruption type and (2) fissure eruption
type or quiet eruption type.
(1) Volcanoes of central eruption type: Central eruption type or explosive eruption type of
volcanoes occurs through a central pipe and small opening by breaking and blowing off crustal surface due
to violent and explosive gases accumulated deep within the earth. The eruption is so rapid and violent that
huge quantity of volcanic materials consisting of lavas, volcanic susts and ahses, fragmental materials etc.
are ejected upto thousands of metres in the sky. These material after falling down accumulate around the
volcanic vent and form volcanic cones of various sorts. Such Volcanoes are very destructive and are
disastrous natural hazards. Explosive volcanoes are further divided into 5 sub-types on the basis of
difference in the intensity of eruption, variations in the ejected volcanic material and the period of the action
of volcanic events as given below-

121
(i) Hawaiin type of volcanoes: Such volcanoes erupt quietly due to less viscous lavas and non-violent
nature of gases. Rounded blisters of hot and glowing mass/boll of lavas (blebs of molten lava) when caught
by a strong wind glide in the air like red and glowing hairs. The Hawaiin people consider these long glassy
threads of red molten lava as Pele’s hair (Pele is the Hawaiin goddess of fire). Such volcanoes have been
named as Hawaiin type because of the fact that such eruptions are of very common occurrence on Hawaii
Island. The eruption of Kilavea volcano of the southern Hawaii island in 1959-60 continued for seven days
(from November 14 to 20, 1959) when about 30 mil-lion cubic meters of lavas were poured out. The
intermittent eruptions continued upto December 21, 1959, when the volcano became dormant. It again
erupted on January 13, 1960 and about 100 million cubic meters of lavas were poured out of one-kilometer-
long fissure.
(ii) Strombolian type of volcanoes: Such volca-noes, named after Stromboli volcano of Lipari island
in the Mediterranean Sea, erupt with moderate intensity. Besides lava, other volcanic materials like pum-
ice, scoria, bomb etc. are also ejected upto greater height in the sky. These materials again fall down in the
volcanic craters. The eruptions are almost rhythemic or nearly continuous in nature but some times they are
interrupted by long intervals.
(iii) Vulcanian type of volcanoes: These are named after Vulcano of Lipari island in the
Mediterranean Sea. Such volcanoes erupt with great force and intensity. The lavas are so viscous and pasty
that these are quickly solidified and hardened between two eruption and thus they crust over (plug) the
volcanic vents. These lava crusts obstruct the escape of violent gases during next eruption. Consequently,
the violent gases break and shatter the lava crusts into angular fragments and appear in the sky as ash-laden
volcanic clouds of dark and often black colour assuming a convoluted or cauli-flower shape.
(iv) Pelean type of volcanoes: These are named after the Pelee volcano of Martinique Island in the
Caribbean Sea. These are the most violent and most explosive type of volcanoes. The ejected lavas are most

122
viscous and pastry. Obstructive domes of lava are formed above the conduits of the volcanoes. Thus, every
successive eruption has to blow off these lava domes. Consequently, each successive eruption occurs with
greater force and intensity making roaring noise. The most disastrous volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee on
May 8, 1902 destroyed the whole of the town of St. Pierre killing all the 28,000 inhabitants leaving behind
only two survivors to mourn the sad demise of their brethren. Such type of disastrous violent eruptions is
named as nuee ardent meaning thereby ‘glowing cloud’ of hot gases, lavas etc. coming out of a volcanic
eruption. The nuee ardent spread laterally out of the mountain (Mount Pelee) with great speed which caused
disastrous avalanches on the hillslopes which plunged down the slope at a speed of about 100 kilometers
per hour. The annihilating explosive eruption of Krakatoa volcano in 1883 in Krakatoa Island located in
Sunda Strait Between Java and Sumatra is another example of violent volcanic eruption of this type.
(v) Vesuvius type of volcanoes: These are more or less similar to Vulcanian and Strombolian type
of volcanoes, the difference lies only in the intensity of expulsion of lavas and gases. There is extremely
violent expulsion of magma due to enormous volume of explosive gases. Volcanic materials are thrown up
to greater height in the sky. The ejected enormous volume of gases and ashes forms thick clouds of ‘cauli-
flower form’. The most destructive type of eruption is called as Plinian type because of the fact that such
type of eruption was first observed by Plini in 79 A.D.
(2) Fissure eruption type of volcanoes: Such volcanoes occur along a long fracture, fault and fissure
and there is slow up welling of magma from below and the resultant lavas spread over the ground surface.
The speed of lava movement depends on the nature of magma, volume of magma, slope of ground surface
and temperature conditions. The Laki fissure eruption of 1783 in Iceland was so quick and enormous that
huge volume of lavas measuring about 15 cubic kilometers was poured out from a 28-km long fissure. The
lava flow was so enormous that it travelled at distance of 350 kilometers.
Classifications on the basis of periodicity of eruptions

123
Volcanoes are divided into 3 types on the basis of period of eruption and interval period between two
eruptions of a volcano e.g. (i) active volcanoes, (ii) dormant volcanoes and (iii) extinct volcanoes.
(i) Active volcanoes are those which constantly eject volcanic lavas, gases, ashes and fragmental
materials. It is estimated that there are about more than 500 volcanoes in the world. Etna and Stromboli of
the Mediterranean Sea are the most significant examples of this category. Stromboli Volcano is known as
Light House of the Mediterranean because of continuous emission of burning and luminous incandescent
gases. Most of the active volcanoes are found along the mid-oceanic ridges representing divergent plate
margins (constructive plate margins) and convergent plate margins (destructive plate margins represented
by eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean). The latest eruption took place from Pinatubo volcano
in June 1991 in Philippines. Mayon of Philippines re-erupted in Feb. 2000.
(ii) Dormant volcanoes are those which become quiet after their eruption for some time and there are
no indications for future eruptions but suddenly, they erupt very violently and cause enormous damage to
human health and wealth. Vesuvius volcano is the best example of doormat volcano which erupted first in
79 A.D., then it kept quiet up to 1631 A.D., when it suddenly exploded with great force. The subsequent
eruptions occurred in 1803, 1872, 1927, 1928 and 1929.
(iii) Extinct volcanoes The volcanoes are considered extinct when there are no indications of future
eruption. The crater is filled up with water and lakes are formed. It may be pointed out that no volcano can
be declared permanently dead as no one knows. What is happening below the ground surface.
Volcanic Materials
Volcanic materials discharged during eruptions include gases and vapour, lavas, fragmental materials
and ashes.

124
(1) Vapour and gases: Steam and vapour constitute 60 to 90 per cent of the total gases discharged
during a volcanic eruption. Steam and vapour include (i) phreatic vapour and (ii) magmatic vapour whereas
volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, nitrogen ox-ides, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide etc.
Besides, certain compounds are also ejected with the volcanic gases e.g. sulphurated hydrogen, hydrochloric
acid, volatile chlorides of iron, potassium and other metallic matter.
(2) Magma and lava: Generally, molten rock materials are called magmas below the earth’s surface
while they are called lavas when they come at the earth’s surface. Lavas and magmas are divided on the
basis of silica percentage into two groups e.g. (i) acidic magma (higher percentage of silica and (ii) basic
lava (low percentage of silica). Lavas and dark coloured minerals into (1) felsic lava and (ii) mafic lava.
Basaltic or mafic lava is characterized by maximum fluidity. Basaltic lava spreads on the ground surface
with maximum flow speed (from a few kilometers to 100 kilometers per hour, average flow speed being 45
to 65 km per hour) due to high fluidity and low viscosity. Basaltic lava is the hottest lava (1,000º to 1,200
C). Lava flow is divided into two types on the basis of Hawaiin language e.g. (i) pahoehoe and (ii) Aa Aa
lava flow or block lava flow. Pahoehoe lava has high fluidity and spreads like thin sheets. This is also known
as ropy lava. On the other hand, aa lava is more viscous. Pahoehoe lava, when solidified in the form of
sucks or pillow, is called pillow lava.
(3) Fragment or pyroclastic materials: thrown during explosive type of eruption are grouped into
three categories, (i) Essential materials include con-solidated forms of live lavas. These are also known as
tephra which means ash. Exential material are unconsolidated and their size in upto 2mm. (ii) Accessory
materials include dead lavas, (ii) Accidental materials include deads lavas, (iii) Accident materials include
fragmental materials of crustal rocks. On the basis of size pyroclastic materials are grouped into (i) volcanic
dust (finest particles), (ii) volcanic ash (2 mm in size), (iii) lapilli (of the size of peas) and (iv) volcanic
bombs (6 cm or more in size), which are of different shapes viz. ellipsoidal, discoidal, cuboidal, and

125
irregularly rounded. The dimension of average volcanic bombs ranges from the size of a base ball or basket
ball to giant size. Sometimes the volcanic bombs weigh 100 tonnes in weight and are thrown up to a distance
of 10 km.
World Distribution of Volcanoes

Like earthquakes, the spatial distribution of volcanoes over the globe is well marked and well understood
because volcanoes are found in a well-defined belt or zone. Thus, the distributional pattern of volcanoes is
zonal in character. If we look at the world distribution of volcanoes it appears that the volcanoes are
associated with the weaker zones of the earth’s crust and these are closely associated with seismic events
say earthquakes. The weaker zones of the earth are represented by folded mountains (western cordillera of
North America, Andes, mountains of east Asia and East Indies) with the exceptions of the Alps and the
Himalayas, and fault zones. Volcanoes are also associated with the meeting zones of the continents and
oceans. Occurrences of more volcanic eruptions along coastal margins and during wet season denote he fact
that there is close relationship between water and volcanic eruption. Similarly, volcanic eruptions are
closely associated with the activities of mountain building and fracturing.
Based on plate tectonics, there is close relationship between plate margins and vulcanicity as most of
the world’s active volcanoes are associated with the plate boundaries. About 15 per cent of the world’s
active volcanoes are found along the constructive plate margins or divergent plate margins, (along the mid-
oceanic ridges where two plates move in opposite directions) whereas 80 per cent volcanoes are associated
with the destructive or convergent plate boundaries (where two plates collide). Besides, some volcanoes are
also found in intraplate regions e.g., volcanoes of the Hawaii Island, fault zones of East Africa etc.
Like earthquakes, there are also three major belts or zones of volcanoes in the world viz. (1) circum-
Pacific belt, (ii) mid-continental belt and (iii) mid-oceanic ridge belt.

126
(1) Circum-Pacific belt: The circum-Pacific belt, also known as the ‘volcanic zones of the convergent
oceanic plate margins’, includes the volcanoes of the eastern and western coastal areas of the Pacific Ocean
(or the western coastal margins of North and South Americas and the eastern coastal margins of Asia), of
island arcs and festoons off the east coast of Asia and of the volcanic islands scattered over the Pacific
Ocean. This volcanic belt is also called as the fire girdle of the Pacific or the fire ring of the Pacific. This
belt begins from Erebus Mountain of Antarctica and runs north-ward through Andes and Rockies mountains
of South and North Americas to reach Alaska from where this belt turns towards eastern Asiatic coast to
include the volcanoes of island arcs and festoons (e.g., Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines etc.) The
belt ultimately merges with the mid-continental belt in the East Indies. Most of high volcanic cones and
volcanic mountains are found in this belt. Most of the volcanoes are found in chains e.g., the volcanoes of
the Aleutian Island, Hawaii Island, Japan etc. About 22 volcanic mountains are found in group in Ecuador
wherein the height of 15 volcanic mountains is more than 4560 m AMSL. Cotopaxi is the highest volcanic
mountain of the world (height being 19,613 feet). The other significant volcanoes are Fuziyama (Japan),
Shasta, Rainier and Hood (western cordillera of North America), a vallely often thousand smokes (Alaska),
Mt St. Hellens (Washington, USA), Kilavea (Hawiiland), Mt. Taal, Pinatubo and Mayon (re-eruption in
Feb. 2000) of Philippines etc.
Here volcanic eruptions are primarily caused due to collision of American and Pacific plates and due to
subduction of Pacific plate below the Asiatic plate.
(2) Mid-continental belt is also known as ‘the volcanic zones of convergent continental plate
margins. This belt includes the volcanoes of Alpine Mountain chains and the Mediterranean Sea and the
volcanic eruptions are caused due to convergence and collision of Eurasian plates and African and Indian
plates. The famous volcanoes of the Mediterranean Sea such as Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna etc. and the
volcanoes of Aegean Sea are included in this belt. It may be pointed out that this belt does not have the

127
continuity of volcanic eruptions as several gaps (volcanic-free zones) are found along the Alps and the
Himalayas because of compact and thick crust formed due to intense folding activity. The important
volcanoes of the fault zone of eastern Africa are Kilimanjaro, Meru, Elgon, Birunga, Rungwe etc.
(3) Mid-Atlantic belt includes the volcanoes mainly along the mid-Atlantic ridge which represents
the splitting zone of plates. In other words, two plates diverge in opposite directions from the mid-oceanic
ridge. Thus, volcanoes mainly of fissure eruption type occur along the constructive or divergent plate
margins (boundaries). The most active volcanic area is Iceland which is located on the mid-Atlantic ridge.
This belt begins from Hekla volcanic mountain of Iceland where several fissure eruption types of volcano
are found. It may be pointed out that since Iceland is located on the mid-Atlantic ridge representing the
splitting zone of American plate moving westward and Eurasian plate moving eastward, and hence here is
constant upwelling of magmas along the mid-oceanic ridge and wherever the crust becomes thin and weak,
fissure flow of lava occurs because of fracture created due to divergence of plates. The Laki fissure eruption
of 1783 A.D. was so quick and enormous that huge volume of lavas measuring about 15 cubic kilometers
was poured out from 28-km long fissure. Recently, Hekla and Helgafell volcanoes erupted in the year 1974
and 1973 respectively. Other more active volcanic area is Lesser Antilles, Southern Antilles, Azores, St.
Helena etc. The dreadful and disastrous eruption of Mount Pelee occurred on May 8, 1902 in the town of
St. Pierre on the Martinique Island of West Indies in the Caribbean Sea. All the 28,000 inhabitants, except
two persons, were killed by the killer volcanic eruption.
(4) Intra-plate volcanoes: Besides the aforesaid well defined three zones of volcanoes, scattered
volcanoes are also found in the inner parts of the continents. Such distributional patterns of volcanoes are
called as intraplate volcanoes, the mechanism of their eruption is not yet precisely known. Depicts the
location of volcanoes of Pacific plate where one branch of volcanoes runs from Hawaii to Kamchatka.
Vulcanicity also becomes active in the inner parts of continental plates. Massive fissure eruption occurred

128
in the north-western parts of North America during Miocene period when 1,00,000 cubic kilometers of
basaltic lavas were spread over an area of 1,30,000 km2 to form Columbian plateau. Similarly, great fissure
flows of lavas covered more than 5,00,000 km2 areas of Peninsular India.
Parana of Brazil and Paraguay were formed due to spread of lavas over an area of 7,50,000 km2 along
the Fire Ring of the Pacific or the Circum-Pacific Belt (along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific
Ocean or say along the western coastal margins of North and South American and thus the Rockies to Andes
Mountain Belt and along the eastern coastal margins of Asia and island arcs and festoons parallel to the
Asiatic coast). The earthquakes of the Mid-Continental Belt along the Alpine-Himalayan chains are caused
due to collision of Eurasian plates and African and Indian plates. The earthquakes of the western marginal
areas of North and South Americas are caused because of subduction of Pacific plate beneath the American
plate and the resultant tectonic forces whereas the earthquakes of the eastern margins of Asia are originated
because of the subduction Pacific plate under Asiatic plate. Similarly, the subduction of Indian plate below
European plate and the subduction of Indian plate under Asiatic plate cause earthquake of the mid-
continental belt. The severe earthquake of Bhuj of Jan. 26, 2001 (Gujarat, India) was caused due to
reactivated subsurface faults due to subduction of Indian plate below Asiatic plate.
Creation of transform faults along the conservative plate boundaries explains the occurrence of severe
earthquakes of California (USA). Here one part of California moves north-eastward while the other part
moves south-westward along the fault plane and thus is formed transform fault which causes earthquakes.
EARTHQUAKE

129
Earthquake, any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through the
Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly
released, usually when masses of rock straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip”.
Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to
one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that
make up the Earth’s crust.
Classification of Earthquakes
It has become apparent after the discussion of the causes of seismic events that there is wide range of
variation in the nature and magnitude of earthquakes. Each earthquake differs from the other and thus it
becomes difficult to classify all the earthquakes into certain categories. Inspite of these limitations earth-
quakes are classified on the basis of common characteristics as given below.
1. Classification on the basis of causative factors

(A)Natural earthquakes are those which are caused by natural processes i.e. due to endogenetic forces.
These are further divided into four subcategories.
(i) Volcanic earthquakes are caused due to volcanic eruptions of explosive and fissure types. Generally,
volcanic earthquakes are confined to volcanic areas. The intensity and magnitude of such earth-quakes
depend on the intensity and magnitude of volcanic eruptions. Examples, severe earthquakes caused by
violent explosions of Krakatoa volcano in 1883 and Etna volcano in 1968.
(ii) Tectonic earthquakes are caused due to dis-location of rock blocks during faulting activity. Such
earthquakes are very severe and disastrous. Examples, 1872 earthquakes and 1906 earthquake of California
(USA), 1923 earthquakes of Sagami Bay (Japan), 2001 earthquake of Gujarat etc.

130
(iii) Isostatic earthquakes are triggered due to sudden disturbance in the isostatic balance at regional
scale due to imbalance in the geological processes. Generally, the earthquakes of active zones of mountain
building are included in this category.
(iv) Plutonic earthquakes are infact deep-focus earthquakes which occur at greater depths. The centers
(foci) of these earthquakes are generally located within the depths ranging from 240 km to 670 km.
(B) Artificial or man-induced earthquakes or anthropogenic earthquakes are caused by human
activities such as pumping of water and mineral oil from underground aquifers and oil reserves respectively,
deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dyna-mites for constructional purposes (e.g. for the
construction of dams and reservoirs, roads etc.), nuclear explosion, storage of huge volume of water in big
reservoirs etc. Examples, 1931 earthquake of Greece due to Marathon Dam, 1936 earthquake of Hoover
Dam (USA) due to Lake Mead, Koyna earthquake (Maharashtra, India) of 1967 due to Koyna reservoir etc.
2. Classification on the basis of focus

Guttenberg has divided the world seismic centres on the basis of the depths of their foci into 3 types viz.
(i) Moderate earthquake - foci are located at the depths from the ground surface (o km) to 50 km,
(ii) Intermediate earthquake - seismic foci at the depths between 50 km and 250 km and
(iii) Deep focus earthquakes - seismic foci at the depths between 250 km and 700 km. Moderate and
intermediate earthquakes are also called as shallow focus and intermediate focus earthquakes respectively.
Properties of Seismic Waves

131
At all distances from the focus, mechanical properties of the rocks, such as incompressibility, rigidity,
and density, play a role in the speed with which the waves travel and the shape and duration of the wave
trains. The layering of the rocks and the physical properties of surface soil also affect wave characteristic.
In most cases, elastic behavior occurs in earthquakes, but strong shaking of surface soils from the incident
seismic waves sometimes results in nonelastic behavior, including slumping (that is, the downward and
outward movement of unconsolidated material) and the liquefaction of sandy soil.
When a seismic wave encounters a boundary that separates rocks of different elastic properties, it
undergoes reflection and refraction. There is a special complication because conversion between the wave
types usually also occurs at such a boundary: an incident P or Swave can yield reflected P and S waves and
refracted P and S waves. Boundaries between structural layers also give rise to diffracted and scattered
waves. These additional waves are in part responsible for the complications observed in ground motion
during earthquakes. Modern research is concerned with computing synthetic records of ground motion that
are realistic in comparison with observed ground shaking, using the theory of waves in complex structures.
World Distribution of Earthquakes

If we look at the world distribution map of earthquakes it appears that the seismic centres are closely
related to certain zones of the globe. Earthquakes are, in fact, associated with the weaker and isostatically
disturbed areas of the globe. Most of the world earthquakes occur in (i) the zones of young folded mountains,
(ii) the zones of faulting and fracturing, (iii) the zones representing the junction of continental and oceanic
margins, (iv) the zones of active volcanoes, and (v) along different plate boundaries.
The world map of the distribution of earth-quakes prepared by the seismologists on the basis of
computer analysis and simulation of 30,000 earth-quakes that occurred between 1961 and 1967 very much
coincides with the traditional map of world distribution of earthquakes e.g.

(1) Circum-Pacific Belt surrounding the Pacific Ocean,
132
(2) Mid-Continental Belt representing epicenters located along the Alpine-Himalayan Chains of Eurasia
and northern Africa and epicenters of East African Fault Zones, and
(3) Mid-Atlantic Belt representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and its offshoots.
The high-quality seismicity maps showed that narrow belts of epicenters coincide almost exactly with
the crest of mid-Atlantic (Ridge),
(1) Circum-Pacific Belt: includes the epicenters “The coastal margins of North and South Americas and
East Asia representing the eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean respectively. This belt accounts
for about 65 per cent of the total earthquakes of the world. This belt presents 4 ideal conditions for the
occurrences of earthquake viz. (i) junction of continental and oceanic margins, (ii) zones of young folded
mountains, (iii) zone of active volcanoes and (iv) subduction zone of destructive or convergent plate
boundaries. The western marginal zones of North and South Americas are represented by Rockies and
Andes folded mountain chains respectively. These zones are isostatically very sensitive zones because they
are also the zones of convergent plate boundaries where the Pacific Oceanic plate is being continuously
subducted below the American plates. Besides, these zones are also the areas of strong volcanic activity.
The earth-quakes associated with the eastern coastal margins of Asia and the island arcs and festoons
(Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Japan, Philippines) are caused due to the collision of the Pacific and Asiatic plates
and consequent vulcanicity. Japan records about 1500 seismic shocks every year.
The recent earthquakes of Mexico City in 1985 reveals the impact of collision of convergent
(destructive) plate boundaries on the occurrences of earth-quake included death of 5,000 people,
disappearance of 2,000 persons, injuries to 40,000 people, destruction of 4000 buildings, damages to 6,000
buildings, lesser damage to 50,000 buildings etc.
(2) Mid-continental belt is also known as Mediterranean Belt or Alpine-Himalayan Belt which
represents the collision or subduction zones of continental plates. About 21 per cent of the total seismic

133
events of the world are recorded in this belt. This belt includes the epicenters of the Alpine mountains and
their off-shoots in Europe, Mediterranean Sea, northern Africa, eastern Africa and the Himalayan
Mountains and Burmese hills. This belt represents the weaker zones of folded mountains where isostatic
and fault-induced earthquakes are caused due to subduction of African and Indian plates below Eurasian
plate.
The Indian seismic foci are grouped into 3 zones viz., (i) Himalayan region, (ii) plain region and (iii)
plateau region. The Himalayan region is a zone of maximum intensity in terms of the magnitude of seis-
mic tremors because this zone is located in the subduction zones of the Asiatic and Indian plates where the
process of mountain building is still in progress. Uttar Kashi earthquake of October 20, 1991 and Chamoli
earthquake of 29 March, 1999 (all in Uttaranchal of India) are latest examples. The plain seismic region is
a zone of comparatively moderate intensity. Even the earthquakes of Assam are also included in this region
are 1934 earthquakes of Bihar, Assam earth-quake of 1950, Kolkata earthquakes of 1737 and Darbhanga
earthquake (Bihar) 1988. The peninsular India region is considered to be a zone of minimum intensity.
The Indian earthquakes along the Himalayas and foothill zones may be explained in terms of plate
tectonics. The Asiatic plate is moving southward whereas the Indian plate is moving northward and hence
the northern margin of the Indian plate is being subducted below the Asiatic plate. The collision of Asiatic
and Indian plates and resultant subduction of Indian plate and consequent folding and faulting and gradual
rise of the Himalayas at the rate of 50 mm per year cause earthquakes of northern India, Tibet and Nepal.
According to J.G. Negi, P.K. Agrawal and O.P. Pandey (as reported in Hindu, September 8, 1988) the Indian
subcontinent has deformed at places due to the Indian Ocean floor spreading process. India folds at places
and when the energy reaches the elastic limit the rocks break up trigger strike-slip and thrust fault earth-
quakes. The Himalayan fault zone is not actually one fault but a board system of interactive faults. It consists
of a complex grid of faults extending all along this colliding zone. The earthquake belt extends through

134
Sulaiman and Kirthar shear zones in the west, the Himalayas in the north and Burmese arc in the east. These
tectonic events caused by plate movements cause earthquakes in the northern and north-eastern parts of
India. Even the earthquakes of Peninsular India have been related to the active faults below Deccan traps.
On the basis of magnitude of damage risk India is divided into five damage risks:
1. Zone I of least damage risk includes the places of some parts of Punjab and Haryana, plain areas of Uttar
Pradesh, portions of plains of Bihar and west Bengal, delta area of the Godavari, coastal plain area of
Maharashtra and Kerala, desert areas of Rajasthan and most areas of Gujarat except Kutch area.
2. Zone II of low damage risk includes southern Punjab and Haryana, southern parts of plains of Uttar
Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, coastal districts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu etc.
3. Zone III of moderate damage risk represents the areas of southern and south-eastern Rajasthan, most of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka, southern Bihar (Jharkhand), northern and north-western
Orissa etc.
4. Zone IV of high damage risk covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, northern Punjab and
Haryana, Delhi, eastern Uttar Pradesh, ‘Tarai’ and ‘bhabar’ regions and Himalayan regions of
Uttaranchal and Bihar and Sikkim areas.
Zone V of very high damage risk includes parts of Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of Himachal
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, western north Bihar (including Munger-Darbhanga), entire north eastern India and
Kutch areas of Gujarat.
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
A mountain can be defined as an area of land that rises abruptly from the surrounding region. A mountain
range is a succession of many closely spaced mountains covering a particular region of the Earth. Mountains

135
belts consists of several mountain ranges that run roughly parallel to each other. The North American
Cordillera, the Himalayas, the Alps, and the Appalachians are all examples of mountains belts that are
composed of numerous mountain ranges.
Some mountains are volcanic in origin forming where rising magma breaks through the Earth’s surface.
Volcanic mountains tend to have sporadic distributions within a mountain range (Mount St. Helens, Rainier,
and Baker) or can occur alone because of a localized hot spot (Hawaiian Islands). Most mountains were
created from tectonic forces that elevate, fold, and fault rock materials. Tectonic mountains can occur as a
single range (the Urals) or as a belt of several mountain ranges (North American Cordillera).
The Earth’s Mountain ranges have various ages of formation. Parts of the Himalayas are relatively quite
young. Mountain building in this region of the world began about 45 million years ago when the continental
plates of India and Eurasia converged on each other. The Himalaya mountains are still actively being
uplifted. The Appalachian belt is quite old. Mountain building in this region of the world started about 450
million years ago. Progeny stopped in the Appalachians about 250 million years ago. The long passage of
time without active uplift has allowed weathering and erosion to remove large amounts of bedrock from the
Appalachians. These processes have also significantly lowered and rounded the peaks of the various
mountains found in this belt. Mountain building episodes in the North American Cordillera have been
occurring over a very long period of time and still continue today. Some sedimentary rocks in the Rocky
Mountain range (located on the eastern edge of the North American Cordillera) date to over a billion years
old.
Types of Mountains
Mountains throughout the world have formed as a result of pressures (compression, tension, & shear)
deep within the lithosphere. The types of pressures present have a great impact on the physical

136
characteristics of the mountain ranges. Mountains are classified into many main categories based on these
physical characteristics.
Folded Mountains
 Folded mountains are the product of two inter-continental (continent-continent) plate collisions.
 Ocean plate between the two continents disappears
 Subduction ceases the due to near equal density
 Mountains are formed as the land is compressed and folded upward
 Found in mountain belts
Ex: Appalachians, Himalayas, Rocky Mountains, Alps
Dome Mountains
 Dome mountains are rounded isolated structure that are usually not associated with mountain belts
as they occur in generally flat regions. They can be classified into two distinct categories: Plutonic
& Tectonic
PLATEAU
Plateau, extensive area of flat upland usually bounded by an escarpment on all sides but sometimes
enclosed by mountains. The essential criteria for plateaus are low relative relief and some altitude. Plateaus
are extensive, and together with enclosed basins they cover about 45 percent of the Earth’s land surface.
Although plateaus stand at higher elevation than surrounding terrain, they differ from mountain ranges
in that they are remarkably flat. Some plateaus, like the Altiplano in southern Peru and western Bolivia, are
integral parts of mountain belts. Others, such as the Colorado Plateau (across which the Colorado River has
cut the Grand Canyon), were produced by processes very different from those that built neighbouring

137
mountain ranges. Some plateaus, as, for example, the Deccan Plateu of central India, occur far from
mountain ranges. The difference among plateaus can be ascribed to the different geologic processes that
have created them.
Classified On the basis of mode of origin

(1) Glacial plateau: It may be pointed out that glacial plateau does not mean a plateau formed by the
glaciers rather it means a plateau modified and trans-formed by glacial actions because all the plateau, in
one way or the other, are the result of endogenetic forces and related tectonic events. When mountains are
greatly modified and transformed by glacial erosion, they are lowered in height and their sharp reliefs are
rounded to such an extent that they become the example of a plateau. Glaciers have formed numerous
plateau through their erosional work on Greenland and Antarctica. According to Chhibber Garhwal plateau
of India has been formed due to glacial actions. The deposition of glacial moraines also forms low plateau.
Such plateaus have been formed in Germany because of morainic deposits during Pleistocene Ice Age.
‘Marg’ of Kashmir is supposed to have been formed of glacial moraines.
(2) Fluvial plateau is formed due to continuous deposits of fluvial sediments brought by the rivers.
The sediments are gradually consolidated and stratified into sedimentary rocks of great thickness. These
sedimentaries are raised upward due to earth movements relative to surrounding regions and thus upland
plateau with extensive flat top surface is formed. Extensive Kaimur plateau consisting of Panna plateau,
Bhander plateau, Rewa plateau, Rohts plateau etc. is the best example of fluvial plateau. This extensive
plateau region consists of a series of descending plateau beginning from Panna plateau in the west (M.P.)
and ending into Rohtas plateau (Bihar) in the east. These plateau consist of sedimentary rocks (sandstones,
shales and limestones) which were deposited in Vindhyan Sea during pre-Cambrian period and were
subsequently raised by earth movements. The rocks of these plateau belong to Vindhyan formations.

138
(3) Aeolian plateau is formed because of deposition of fine sediments brought by winds. Enormous
volumes of sediments are consolidated in due course of time and plateau is formed. Potawar plateau of
Pakistan and Loess plateau of China are considered to have been formed due to deposition of fine sediments
by wind.
Most extensive, highest and most complex plateaus are originated through endogenetic forces coming
from deep within the earth. The plateau formed by horizontal and vertical movements caused by
endogenetic forces are called diastrophic plateau which include intermontane plateau, piedmont plateau,
continental plateau and dome-shaped plateau. Diastrophic plateau, in fact are true plateau. They are also
called tectonic plateau.
(4) Intermontane plateau are, in fact, the highest and most extensive plateaus of the globe. This area
called intermontane because they are surrounded by hills and mountains almost from all sides. Intermontane
plateau are originated together with the origin of folded mountains, generally, intermontane plateau are
formed due to upwarping of middle portion of the geosynclines known as median mass, after the formation
of mountain ranges along both the margins of the geosynclines. Tibetan plateau is the best example of
intermontane plateau. Bolivian plateau, Peruvian plateau, Columbian plateau, Mexican plateau etc. are other
significant examples of intermontane plateau.
Tibetan plateau, having an average height of 5,000 m (16,000 feet), is the highest plateau of the world.
At some places the plateau of the world. At some places the plateau raises upto 6,000 m AMSL. As regards
areal extent, Tibetan plateau is also the most extensive plateau of the world as it covers an area of about
20,64,000 km2 (8,00,000 square miles). Tibetan plateau, surrounded by Kunlun Mountains in the north, the
Himalayas in the south, Kunlun-Himalaya in the west and Chinese mountains in the east, is the best example
of a median mass (unfolded upland). From the stand point of reliefs, Tibetan plateau is divided into 4 regions
e.g. (i) the northern region is a mixture of low hill ranges, valleys and plains with an average height of 4,800

139
m (16,000 feet). There are several enclosed salt lakes which are spread over an area of 2,580 km2, (ii) The
southern plateau region is the source area of the Indus and the Brahmaputra rivers, (iii) The eastern plateau
region is comparatively lower than the northern and the southern plateau regions. This region has the sources
of yellow river (Hwang Ho), Yangtze River, Salween River, Meeking river etc. (iv) North-eastern plateau
region consists of several enclosed basins, playa lakes and saline lakes (salt lakes). Tsaidan Swampls arc
the characteristic features of this region.
Mexican plateau, another fine example of an intermontane plateau, is surrounded by a Sierra Madre
Occidental range in the west and Sierra Madre Oriental Mountain range in the east. The plateau slopes
north-ward as its average height near Mexico City is about 2250 m (7410 feet) while it decreases to 1216,
(4000 feet) near its international border with the USA. The whole plateau is covered with valleys, low hills,
playa lakes, salt lakes etc. The southern part of the plateau is characterized by several volcanic mountains.
Technically and seismically the plateau is very much sensitive and unstable. The devastating Mexico earth-
quake of September, 1985 proves the validity of this concept.
The plateau of Bolivia and Peru (South America) are also surrounded by mountain ranges of tertiary
period. The Peeruvian-Bolivian plateuax are surrounded by Cordillera Central Ranges and Cordillera
Occidental Ranges in the east and west respectively. These pla-teaux, exhibiting and example of median
mass, were originated together with the origin of the Andes mountains during tertiary period. The average
height of these plateau from sea-level is 3,648 m (12,000 feet). Some parts of the plateau are plains while
some parts are hilly regions. Lake Titicaca is fresh water lake which is 264 km long and 96 km wide and
12,370 feet (3761 m) high (AMSL).
(5) Piedmont plateau- Plateau formed at the foot-hill zone of extensive mountains is called piedmont
plateau, which is surrounded by mountain range on one side while by plain topography or coastal plain on
the other side. The side of the plateau facing the plains is of steep slope and thus from an escarprment. Pied-
140
most plateau are also formed due to upliftment during the origin of mountains. The piedmont plateau
representation the eastern margins of the Applachian mountains (USA) and Patagaonian plateau of South
America are the representatives of piedmont plateau. The Applachin piedmont plateau abruptly terminates
into Atlanitc coastal plains. The sudden break in slop along the junction of the piedmont and the coastal
plains makes sudden decrease in the channel gradients of the Atlantic-bound rivers of the Applachains, with
the result all the rivers of the Applachians, with the result all the rivers which originate in the Applachians
and descend through the escarpment of the piedmont plateau and enter the coastal plains to drain into the
Atlantic Ocean, make stupendous waterfalls of varying magnitudes. There is a world famous fall line along
the eastern margin of the piedmont plateau from Alabama in the south-west to New England in the north-
east. This fall-line is associated with numerous water-falls, the most of which have been tapped for the
generation of hydroelectricity which has accelerated the place of industrial development along the fall-line.
(6) Dome shaped plateau are formed when the landmass is uplifted in such a manner that the middle
portion is up warped and the sides area rounded. Dome-shaped plateau are generally formed due to
endogenetic forces mainly during volcanic activities. In fact, the batholithic and laccolithic intrusions of
magma be-neath the crustal rocks cause large-scale doming of the ground surface which rises upto several
hundred metres from the surrounding neighbouring ground surface. Chotanagpur plateau of Bihar is quoted
as a typical example of domal plateau because it is studded with numerous batholighic domes which were
intruded in the Dhararian covers and these batholithic domes have been exposed on the surface. Ozark
plateau (USA) is considered to be the best example of dome-shaped plateau. Ozark was formed due to
upliftment of ground surface caused by Applachian Revolution (Appllachian mountain building) during
Permain period. This plateau was vigorously denuded and hence it was transformed into a peneplain before
Tertiary period. It was again uplifted and was again transformed into second peneplain due to prolonged
denudation by the end of Tertiary period. It is apparent that Ozark plateau has passed through two phases

141
of cycle of erosion and peneplanation. Presently, Ozark plateau consists of three separated plateau e.g. (i)
Salem plateau, (ii) Springfield plateau and (iii) Boston plateau. The Ozark plateau has given birth to radial
drainage pattern. The sides of the plateau have been deeply entrenched by the radiating streams.
(7) Continental plateau are very extensive plateau and are generally away from mountainous areas
but are generally away from mountainous areas but are surrounded by coastal plains. Some times, these
plateau are bordered by mountains on one or two sides. Deccan plateau of Peninsular India is a typical
example of such plateau. Deccan plateau, covering an area of hundreds of thousands of square kilimetres,
is one of the oldest plateau of the world. The plateau composed of different rocks of Dharwar, Cuddapah,
Vindhayn and Gondwana formations has been widely dissected and is characterized by elongated hill
ranges. The plateau is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west and by the Eastern Ghats in the east. The
plateau is surrounded by the hill ranges of the Aravallis, Vindhayachal Prasnath and Rajmahal, Mahadeo,
Mailkal, Kaimurs, Sahyadri, Ajanta, Nilgiri, Nallamalai, Nimgiri etc. Hill ranges are the prominent reliefs
of the plateau. Rivers have dissected and segmented the plateau into several independent plateau. Arabian
plateau, Australian plateau, South African plateau etc. are other examples of continental plateau. Antarctica
and Greenland may be considered as the example of new continental plateau.
(8) Volcanic plateau are those plateau which are formed due to accumulation of thick layers of basaltic
lavas. Lava plateau was formed over an area of 7,74,000 km2 (3,00,000 square miles) in the Peninsular
India due to accumulation of enormous volume of basaltic lavas erupted during Cretaceous period. The
examples of volcanic plateau formed due to deposition of basaltic lava coming up through fissure flows are
also found in New Zealand, South Africa, northern and southern Argentina, Brazil, western USA
(Columbian plateau), France, Siberiaetc. The Columbian plateau of the world. This plateau is surrounded
by the Rockies in the east, by Cascade mountains in the west, by Basin and Range province in the south and

142
by the plateau of British Columbia (Canada) in the north. Columbian plateau may also be accommodated
in the group of intermontane plateau because it is surrounded by mountains from three sides. The plateau
covers an area of 258,000 km2 (1,00,000 square miles) wherein the thickness of basaltic lavas ranges
between 608m to 1520m (200 to 5000 feet). Columbia River and its tributaries have dissected the plateau
to great extent. It is believed that about 300m thick basaltic lavas have already been eroded away by fluvial
processes. The presence of 20 layers of lava in the Columbian plateau denotes the act that there were 20
episodes of lava eruptions.
PLAINS
Plains occur as lowlands and at the bottoms of valleys but also on plateaus or upland at high elevations.
In a valley, a plain is enclosed on two sides but in other cases a plain may be delineated by a complete or
partial ring of hills, by mountains or cliffs. Where a geological region contains more than one plain, they
may be connected by a pass (sometime termed a gap). Plains may have been formed from flowing lava,
deposited by water, ice, wind, or formed by erosion by these agents from hills and mountains.
Plain, and relatively level area of the Earth’s surface exhibiting gentle slopes and small local relief.
Plains vary widely in size. The smallest occupy only a few hectares, whereas the largest cover hundreds of
thousands of square kilometers-as, for example, the Great Plains of North America and the expanse of gently
undulating land that sweeps from the Pyrenees Range on the French-Spanish border across northern Europe
and Asia almost halfway around the world nearly to the Bering Sea.
Plains in many areas are important for agriculture because where the soils were deposited as sediments
they may be deep and fertile, and the flatness facilitates mechanization of crop production; or because they
support grasslands which provide good grazing for livestock.
Types of the Plains

143
 Structural plains relatively undisturbed horizontal surfaces of the earth. They are structurally
depressed areas of the world that make up some of the most extensive natural low lands on the earth’s
surface.
 Erosional plains that have been leveled by various agents of denudation such as running water,
rivers, wind and glacier which wear out the rugged surface and smoothens them. Plain resulting from
the action of these agents of denudation are called peneplains (almost plain) while plains formed
from wind action are called pend plains.
 Depositional Plains formed by the deposition of materials brought by various agents of
transportation such as rivers, wind, waves and glaciers. Their fertility and economic relevance
depend greatly on the types of sediments that are laid down.
Depositional Plains are grouped into the following:
 Alluvial plains, formed by rivers, and may be one of these overlapping types: Alluvial plain,
formed over a long period of time by a river depositing sediment on its flood plain or bed which
becomes alluvial soil. The difference between a flood plain and an alluvial plain is that the flood
plain represents the area experiencing flooding fairly regularly in the present of recently, whereas an
alluvial plain included areas where the flood plain is now and used to be, or areas which only
experience flooding a few times a century.
 Flood plain, adjacent to a stream, river, lake or wetland that experiences occasional or periodic
flooding.
 Scroll plain, a plain through which a river meanders with a very low gradient.
 Lacustrine plain, a plain that originally formed in a lacustrine environment, that is, as the bed of a
lake.
 Lava plain, formed by sheets of flowing lava.

144
 Glacial plains, formed by the movement of glaciers under the force of gravity:
 Sandur (plural sandar), a glacial out-wash plain formed of sediments deposited by melt-water at the
terminus of a glacier. Sandar consists mainly of stratified (layered and sorted) gravel and sand.
Composition & Structure of The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of numerous gases. This gaseous cover of the earth is held around it by
gravitational attraction and rotates with it. Like the lithosphere and hydrosphere, the atmosphere too is an
integral part of the planet earth and is inseparable from it. However, the density of the atmosphere decreases
rapidly with altitude. About 97 percent of the air is concentrated in the lower 29 km. In fact, the earth’s
surface, which sets the stage for all natural as well as human activities, may be deemed to represent the
bottom of this shallow ocean to the air. That is why it is all the time being influenced by the changes
occurring in the air ocean.
Actually, this gaseous cover penetrates to a certain depth in land and water. Since there is unequal
distribution of land and water on the earth surface, the atmosphere is present everywhere and every time.
Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere can be described as “a blanket of air” surrounding the earth. This enveloping mixture
of gases contains huge numbers of solid and liquid particles collectively called aerosols. Some of the gases
may be regarded as permanent atmospheric components that remain in fixed proportions to the total gas
volume. Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place and form time to time. If the suspended
particles, water vapour and other variable gases were excluded from the atmosphere, we would find that the
dry air is very stable all over the earth up to an altitude of about 80 kilometers. As shown in table, two gases,
nitrogen and oxygen, make up about 99 per cent of the clean, dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert

145
and constitute about 80 kilometers. As shown in table two gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up about 99
per cent of the clean, dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about per cent of the
atmosphere. The deep layer through which the gaseous composition of the atmosphere is generally
homogeneous is called the homosphere. At higher altitudes, the chemical constituents of air change
considerably. This layer is known as the heterosphere.
At sea level the following principal gases comprise the dry air, nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide,
neon, helium, ozone, hydrogen, krypton, xenon and methane. Out of these gases, argon neon, helium,
krypton and xenon are so inert chemically that they are never found in any chemical compounds. They stand
completely alone. Besides these gases, large quantities of water vapour and dust particles are also present
in the atmosphere. These solid and liquid particles are of great climatic significance. Different constituent
of the atmosphere, it may be noted, have got their individual characteristics as briefly discussed below.
Gases: Of all the gases oxygen happens to be the most important, for it is so essential to all life forms.
Major Components of the Earth's Atmosphere

GAS CONCENTRATION
Nitrongen, N2 78.1% by volume
Oxygen, O2 20.9% by volume

146
Argon, A 0.9% by volume
Water Vapor, H2O 0-4%, variable
Greenhouse Gas Methane, CH4 1,750 ppb
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 350 ppm
Nitrous oxide, N2O 280 ppb
Carbon Monoxide, CO 150 ppb

Ozone, O3 4-65 ppb
(ppm = parts per million, ppb = parts per billion)

All living organisms inhale oxygen. No life is possible without it. It is capable of combining with all
other elements to form different compounds. It is essential for most combustion. When any substance burns,
oxygen is consumed. Oxygen alone constitutes about one-fifth of dry air.
Nitrogen is another important gas of which about 78 percent of the atmosphere’s volume is made up.
Nitrogen does not easily enter into chemical union with other substances, but it is an important constituent
of many organic compounds. Nitrogen serves mainly as a diluents. It is relatively inactive chemically,
though many of its compounds are very active. Its main function in the atmosphere is to regulate combustion
by diluting oxygen. It also indirectly helps in oxidation of different kinds.
The third important gas is carbon dioxide, which is a product of combustion and constitutes only about
0.03 percent of the dry air. Green plants, in the process of photosynthesis, extract carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and utilize it. It is exhaled by animals. Being an efficient absorber of heat from the upper
atmosphere as well as the earth, carbon dioxide is considered to be of great climatic significance. This gas

147
emits about half of the absorbed heat back to the earth. Thus, it influences the flow of energy through the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is considered to be a very important factor in the heat energy budget. It role in
the atmosphere and its possible impact on climate cannot be over-emphasized. Despite the fact that the
proportion of carbon dioxide is relatively constant in the air, its percentage is gradually rising for more than
a century. By burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, we are steadily adding more and more
of this gas to our atmosphere. It is estimated that from 1890 to 1970, the carbon dioxide gas content of the
atmosphere has increased more than ten times. Although about half of this additional carbon dioxide is
absorbed by the oceans, or is consumed by plants, the remaining 50 percent is present in the air. Some
scientists apprehend that this increase in carbon dioxide will ultimately lead to a warming of the lower
atmosphere, which may cause a large-scale climatic change.
Another important gas in the atmosphere is ozone (O3) which is a type of oxygen molecule formed of
three atoms rather than two. It is found only in very small quantity in the upper atmosphere. It is less than
0.00005 per cent by volume, and is not uniformly distributed in the atmosphere. The greatest concentrations
of ozone are found at altitudes between about 19 and 30 km, although it is formed at higher levels and
transported downward. It is the most efficient absorber of the burning ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In
the absence of the ozone layer found in the atmosphere and in the event of the ultraviolet rays reaching the
earth’s surface, our planet would have been rendered unfit for human habitations as well as for all living
organisms. The ozonosphere protects us from excessive quantities of these deadly rays.
Water Vapour: Water vapour is one of the most variable gases in the atmosphere, which is present in
small amounts, but is nonetheless very important. Water vapour is always present in some proportion in the
lower atmosphere. The water vapour content of air may vary from .02 percent by volume in a cold dry

148
climate to nearly 4 percent in the humid tropics. The variations in this percentage over time and place are
very important considerations climatically.
The significance of atmospheric moisture to all forms of life is a well-known fact and hardly needs and
elaboration. Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays a significant role in the insulating action of the
atmosphere. In addition, it absorbs not only the long wave terrestrial radiation, but also a part of the
incoming solar radiation. Thus, it is an important control in regulating the energy transfer through the
atmosphere. Water vapour is the source of all clouds and precipitation. Through the condensation of water
vapour, vast amount of energy is released into the atmosphere in the form of latent heat of condensation,
the ultimate driving force for most of the storms.
The most important as well as the most interesting thing about water vapour is that about 90 percent of
it lies below 6 kilometers of the atmosphere. It is estimated that only less than 1 percent of the total
atmospheric moisture in the atmosphere is found above 10 kilometers.
When the maximum possible quantity of water vapour that the air can hold at any given temperature and
pressure is present, the air is said to be saturated. But the moisture holding capacity of the air varies in direct
proportion to its temperature. In other words, the higher the temperature of the air, the larger its capacity to
hold moisture.
Dust Particles: Innumerable dust particles are held in suspension in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
It may be pointed out that the term ‘dust particles’ includes all the solid particles present in air excepting
the gases and water vapour. There is a great variation in the amount of dust over the earth’s surface. Even
over the oceans, the air contains thousands of dust particles per cubic centimeter. Many particles are
invisible to the naked eye and are microscopic. They originate from different sources, both natural and
manmade. They include sea salts from breaking sea waves, pollen and various organism lifted by the wind,

149
smoke and soot from fires and tiny and particles raised from active volcanoes. These dust particles are held
in air by the movements of the atmosphere. However, certain particles are too large ot remain for very long
in the air.
At times, the ascending air currents carry the dust particles to great heights in the atmosphere. The upper
atmospheres also receive a very small amount of dust from the disintegration of innumerable meteors
passing through it.
From a meteorological viewpoint, these tiny solid particles may be very significant. They absorb a part
of the incoming short-wave solar energy. Also part of the insolation, especially the short wave lengths of
blue light, is scattered by the molecules of air and fine dust. A certain percentage of the solar radiant energy
is reflected back by these solid particles. Dust particles, by the process of scattering, contribute to the varied
colours of the sky is also due to selective scattering by dust particles. Some of the dust particles are
hygroscopic in character and, therefore, act as nuclei of condensation. Thus, dust particles are a major
contributory factor in the formation of clouds and fogs. The duration of dawn and twilight as well as their
intensity are all controlled by the presence of these solid particles in the air.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

That the atmosphere extends from the earth’s surface upward is obvious. But where does the atmosphere
end is rather an intriguing question. If we consider the changes in atmosphere with height, some very
interesting facts come into light.
According to Petterssen, the atmosphere is divided into the following more, significant spheres, which
are shown in Figure These distinct regions of the atmosphere are based on temperature characteristics:
(1) Troposhere
150
(2) Stratosphere
(3) Ozonosphere
(4) Ionosphere
(5) Exosphere
(1) Troposphere: The lowermost part of the atmosphere in which we live, in which most clouds form
and which is the theatre for weather as we know it, is termed as the troposphere. It contains about 75 per
cent of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere and practically all the moisture and dust particles.
The term troposphere was first suggested by Teisserence de Bort. Troposhere literally means the ‘region
of mixing’. It has been derived from the Greek word ‘tropos’ meaning ‘mixing or ‘turbulence’. The average
height of this lowermost layer of the atmosphere is placed at about 14 kilometers above sea level. However,
its height varies from place to place and from season to season. Under normal conditions, the height of the
troposphere at the poles is about 8 kilometers, while at the equator it is about 16 kilometers. Thus, there are
marked variations in the height of this layer as between different latitudes.
Troposphere is marked by turbulence and eddies. It is also called the convective region, for all the
convective activities cease at the upper limit of the troposphere. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms as
well as the cyclones and anticyclones occur in this sphere because of the concentration of almost all the
water vapour and aerosols in it. Another important characteristic of the troposphere is that wind velocities
increase with height and attain the maximum at the top.
The most important feature of the troposphere is that there is a decrease of temperature with increasing
elevation at a mean lapse rate of about 6.5º Celsius per kilometer (or 3.6º F/1000 ft.). However, there is an
abrupt change in the lapse rate at an altitude of about 14 kilometers. The level of change is the troposphere.

151
The lowest part of the troposphere is further divided into three sub-layers: the friction layer, the surface
boundary layer and the laminar layer. The height of the friction layer is about 1 km from the surface of the
earth. In this layer the surface topography controls the wind speed and its direction. The surface boundary
layer extends up to a few meters from the earth’s surface, whereas the laminar layer comprises only a few
millimeters. In this sub-layer the air is held almost stationary around all solid and liquid surfaces by
molecular forces. It provides thermal insulation.
At the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from the next thermal layer of the
atmosphere, i.e., the stratosphere. This shallow layer is known as the tropopause. The word tropopause has
also been taken from the Greek word which literally means, ’where the mixing stops’. It was Sir Napier
Shaw who for the first time used this word. Because of warn temperature has its greatest height near the
equator, i.e., about 18 kilometers. It is interesting to note that the lowest temperatures in the entire
troposphere are found directly over the equator and not at the poles.
In the middle-latitudes the jet streams may go beyond the limits of the troposphere causing variations in
the height of the tropopause. On an average, the tropopause shows a gradual slope from equator to poles,
but especially in the middle latitudes the height of the tropopause changes with the weather situation.
Tropopause is fairly well defined in the tropics, but less so in the polar regions. The tropopause is the upper
limit of most clouds and storms. In fact, the tropopause marks the general upper limit of the transfer of
atmospheric properties by large scale vertical turbulence and mixing. The tropopause is usually
characterized by a sharp temperature inversion. Above this narrow transition zone, there is a slight increase
in temperature with increasing elevation. It may be noted that the increase in temperature does not start just
at the tropopause. However, the rate of increase is much lower at the tropopause.

152
In the middle and high latitudes, the height of the tropopause varies according to seasons. For example,
at latitudes 45º N and S the average height of the tropopause in January is about 12.5 kilometers while in
July it becomes 15 kilometers.
(2) Stratosphere: The stratosphere begins at the tropopause, which forms its lower boundary. The
lower stratosphere is isothermal in character. In other words, the temperature in the lower part of this sphere
does not change with altitude. In certain situations, there may be slight increase in temperature with
elevation. This temperature region is found to be present up to about 30 kilometers. There is also persistence
of its circulation patterns and high wind speeds. The circulation changes, if they occur at all, are very rapid.
Cirrus clouds, called the mother-of-pearl clouds, occasionally form in the lower stratosphere. Above the
tropopause no visible weather phenomena ever occur. There is a gradual temperature increase with height
beyond 20 kilometers. This region is known as the upper stratosphere.
In summer, the increase in the stratospheric temperature with latitudes continues upto the poles. But
during the winter season the stratosphere is warmest between latitudes 50º-60º. From latitude 60º poleward
the temperature decreases again. The thickness of the stratosphere is highest at the poles. The upper
boundary of the stratosphere is called the stratopause. Above this level there is a steep rise in temperature.
(3) Ozonosphere (Mesosphere): There is the maximum concentration of ozone, a vital gas, between
30 and 60 km above the surface of the earth. Because of the concentration of ozone in this layer, it is called
the ozonosphere. Its existence came to be known from the studies of meteors. It is to be noted that the zone
of ozone production is centered in the stratosphere.
Ozone is a very vital gas in the atmosphere. It is made up of three atoms of oxygen while ordinary
oxygen is made up of only two. The formation of ozone takes place in the upper stratosphere when an
oxygen molecule is broken into two atoms by ultra-violet radiation and the free unstable atoms combine

153
with two other oxygen molecules. This results in the formation of two molecules of ozone which comprise
three oxygen atoms each.
There is a general agreement among scientist that this warm layer is due mainly to the selective
absorption of ultra-violet radiation by ozone. In fact, the ozone layer acts as a filter for the ultra-violet rays
of the sun. Because of its inherent quality to absorb short-wave radiation its usefulness to climate cannot be
overemphasized. The presence of this layer is undoubtedly a boon to humanity. In the absence of ozone in
the upper atmosphere, the much harmful ultra-violet radiation would reach the earth in large amount. Such
an event could lead to disastrous consequences. This radiation in excessive quantity would render men and
animal’s blind. This ‘would also burn man’s skin, increase the incidence of skin cancer, a dreadful disease,
and destroy many microscope forms of life. In addition, it could damage flora on our earth. There is a current
international concern over the growing ozone hole over the South Pole and the thinning of the ozone layer
around tine globe.
However, even the very minute quantity of ultra-violet radiation that escapes y the ozone filter and
reaches the surface of the earth is useful in many ways. For instance, it helps in the production of certain
vitamins and promotes the growth of some viruses and bacteria. It also plays a crucial role in the process of
photosynthesis. According to World Meteorological Organization report on anthropogenic modification of
climate, a continued release of chlorofluoromethanes (fluorocarbons) into the atmosphere will ultimately
result in the significant reduction in stratospheric zone. The environmentalists have expressed grave concern
that the emission of nitrogen oxides by a large number of supersonic transport aero planes may cause
deterioration of the ozone layer with the resultant serious damage to flora and fauna alike. This is the layer
of the atmosphere in which temperature increases with height at the rate of 5ºC/km. The maximum
temperature recorded in the ozonosphere is a little higher than that at the earth’s surface. Because of the
preponderance of chemical processes, this layer is also called chemosphere. There are some weather

154
scientists who regard the ozonosphere as the upper part of the stratosphere. They place stratosphere at a
height of about 50 km. above the earth’s surface.
(4) Ionosphere: Ionosphere, according to Pettersen, lies beyond the ozonosphere at a height of about
60 km above the earth’s surface. At this level the ionization of atmosphere begins to occur. The first
knowledge about the existence of this highly ionized layer at such great heights was acquired by means of
radio waves. The credit for the discovery of this layer goes to Kennedy and Heaviside. Later on, more and
more could be added to our knowledge about these ionized layers by means of aurora, sound waves an
satellites etc.
The ionosphere, according to some other scientists, is supposed to start at a height of 80 km above the
earth’s surface. The layer lying between 50 and 80 km is called the mesosphere. In this layer the temperature
decreases with height. The upper boundary of this layer is called the mesopause. In this layer the ionization
of the process by which atoms are changed to ions through the removal or addition of electrons, giving them
an electrical charge.
Above the ozonosphere, the temperature falls again reaching a minimum of about-100ºC at a height of
80 km. above the earth’s surface. Beyond this level the temperature increases again as a result of the
absorption of short-wave solar radiation by the atoms of oxygen and nitrogen in the extremely rarefied air
of the ionosphere. It may be pointed out that when the air density is extremely low, very little energy is
needed to produce substantial rise in temperature. Even though the temperature rises to very high values of
more than 1000ºC, such temperature is altogether different from those experienced near the earth’s surface.
Since gases at such great heights are very sparse, a very insignificant quantum of energy is produced by the
fast-moving air particles.
INSOLATION & TEMPERATURE

155
The earth intercepts only a minute fraction of the energy radiated by the sunless than one two-billionth.
Even this seemingly amount, to our surprise, represents several hundred thousand times the electric
generating capacity of the United States. Solar radiation provides more than 99.9 percent of the energy that
heats the earth. Undoubtedly, the radiant energy from the sun is the most important control of our weather
a climate. According to Trewartha, the per-minute energy flow from the sun to the earth is nearly equal to
the total amount of energy consumed by man on earth. The most astonishing fact about the incoming solar
radiation (insolation) that strikes the earth’s surface is that it is equal to about 23 billion horse power.
Actually, it is this amount of energy received from the sun that acts as the driving force for all atmospheric
as well as biologic processes on the earth. Besides, all other sources of energy found on earth such as coal,
oil, and wood etc. are nothing but converted form of solar energy.
The word ‘insolation’ is a contraction of “incoming solar radiation”. It consists of a bundle of rays of
radiant energy of different wavelengths. The sun emits radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
The wavelength and frequency of these waves which travel with the speed of light (2,97,600) km per
second) are really staggering. The longer waves, largely absorbed in the atmosphere, are called infrared
rays. The shorter waves are called the ultraviolet rays representing the other end of the solar spectrum. It is
the visible portion of the spectrum lying between the invisible ultraviolet and infrared rays, that most
effectively heat the earth. In fact, the rays of the solar spectrum reaching the earth’s surface are converted,
after absorption by the surface, from short-wave to long-wave radiant energy. This is what is known as heat.
However, there are various factors which cause temporal and spatial variation in the amount of this heat.
Various processes of weather and climate are fueled by the energy gained by the earth’s surface and its
atmosphere.
Solar constant: The amount of radiant energy has been found to be constant. There is little variation
is the quantum of solar energy received at the outer margin of our atmosphere, a fact verified by observations

156
made at various places on different occasions. The Smithsonian Institute, U.S.A., made observations for
several years from the observatories of Mount Wilson, California and the Table Mountain and came to the
conclusion that the standard value of solar constant is 1.94-gram calories per square centimeter per minute.
Solar constant is defined as the rate at which solar radiation is received outside the earth’s atmosphere on a
surface perpendicular to the sun’s rays when the earth is at an average distance from the sun.
Since there is a fluctuation in the amount of radiant energy emitted by sun due to periodic % disturbances
on the solar surface, the amount of solar constant, therefore, also registers a 12º light increase or decrease,
3 low ever, on an average this variation hardly exceeds 2 to 3 per cent and therefore, hardly matters so far
as the receipt of solar energy to the earth or the atmosphere is concerned.
TEMPERATURE
Heat is a form of energy; temperature shows how hot a thing is. In other words, heat refers to the quantity
of energy present in a substance while temperature refers to its intensity, i.e., the degree of hotness. For
example, a glass of boiling water has the same temperature as a large can full of boiling water. Even though
the temperature of water in the two vessels is the same, the glass does not possess as much heat as the can.
According to the molecular theory of matter, heat represents the total energy of motion of the molecules
in a substance. The fact is that a substance is composed of a number of molecules which are always in a
state of constant motion, and there are frequent collisions between them. Because of their dashing against
one another their kinetic energy is converted into heat energy. Therefore, heat is taken to be representing
the total energy of the molecular motion in a substance. Temperature, on the other hand, measures the
average kinetic energy of motion of the molecules. In other words, temperature is the measurement of
available or sensible heat energy in a system.
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

157
Although the primary source of heat for the earth and its atmosphere is the sun, heating of the atmosphere
is an indirect process. The insolation absorbed by earth’s surface is converted into heat, which in turn heats
the atmosphere by Different processes of heat transmission. A continuous exchange of heat is taking place
between the earth and its atmosphere. The three most important processes of heat transfer, namely radiation,
conduction and convection have been discussed earlier. Besides, there are certain other processes like
evaporation and condensation, which play a significant role in the transference of energy from the earth’s
surface to its atmosphere. Moreover, the adiabatic temperature changes occurring in vertically moving air
mass work as an additional factor in the heating and cooling of the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is heated or cooled by the following processes which have been briefly discussed here:
(1) Partial absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere
(2) Conduction
(3) Terrestrial radiation
(4) Convection and advection
(5) Latent heat of condensation
(6) Expansion and compression of the air.
(1) Partial absorption of solar radiation: As we know, the atmosphere is not heated directly by the
sun’s rays passing through it. Even then, the dust particles and water vapour present in the lower layers of
the atmosphere directly absorb about 10 per cent of this absorption occurs in the lower 2 km of air where
most of the water vapour is found. However, the process of absorption occurs in the lower 2 km of air where
most of the water vapour is found. However, the process of absorption is not very effective in raising the
surface-air temperature. That is why even on a clear sunny day, the temperature near the surface remains
low. In winter, people enjoy the warmth of sunshine by sitting close to the side of a wall of their houses

158
exposed to the sun, because the shortwave incoming solar radiation is being converted into long-wave
terrestrial energy.
(2) Conduction: Conduction is a slow process of heat transfer as regards warming of the atmosphere.
Since air is a very poor conductor of heat, the conduction process affects only the lowermost layers of air
closed to the earth’s surface. As a means of heat transfer for the atmosphere as a whole, conduction is the
least important and can be neglected when considering a majority of meteorological phenomena.
(3) Terrestrial radiation: It has already been pointed out in an earlier chapter that about two-thirds
of the radiant solar energy reaches the earth’s surface directly or indirectly in the form of short-wave electro-
magnetic waves, where it is converted into terrestrial heat by the surface. According to Kirchoffs Law, the
earth radiates heat in the form of long waves or infrared radiation. Remember that the terrestrial radiation
is a process which continues for all the 24 hours. During the sunlight hours the receipt of heat through
insolation exceeds its loss by terrestrial radiation. On the contrary, during night the heat is lost through long-
wave earth radiation. The earth radiates heat as a black body, while the radiation from the atmosphere is
selective. Thus, most of the atmospheric gasses, especially carbon dioxide ancL water vapour, that are
almost transparent to the short-wave solar radiation and are able to absorb only about 19 percent of it, absorb
about 85 per cent of the terrestrial long-wave of infrared radiation. Thus, it is clear that the atmosphere
receives a larger part of its energy supply from the earth and not directly from the sun.
Since the atmosphere is almost transparent to most of the solar radiation and absorbs a large part of the
terrestrial radiation, it acts to conserve the heat energy of the earth. This conservation is called the
greenhouse effect.
Water vapour, carbon dioxide, dust particles and zone are directly involved in the process of absorption
of terrestrial radiation. But water vapour is the most important. It is on account of this in arid regions,
characterized by the minimum amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere, nights are cooler because

159
of the earth’s radiation of heat. On the contrary, even in the long winter nights, when there is a thick cover
of clouds, the temperature remains relatively higher because of the absorption of long-wave terrestrial
radiation by the clouds. The earth radiates heat to the layers of air which re-radiate it. The earth radiates
heat to the layers is upward and downward both. That is why there is a gradual decrease in temperature with
increasing altitude. However, a certain amount of heat is radiated to space from the topmost layer of the
atmosphere. Thus, whereas the earth’s surface receives heat from the incoming solar radiation, it also
radiates back the same amount of heat to the atmosphere as well as to the outer space. In this way, a balance
is maintained between the receipt of the radiant energy from the sun and that lost to the space and
atmosphere by terrestrial radiation.
(4) Convection and advection: Since the atmosphere is a gaseous medium, convection is the most
significant mechanism of heat transfer. Heat gained by the layers of air at or near the earth’s surface from
radiation or conduction is usually transferred to the upper atmosphere layers by the process of convection.
Transfer of heat by convection takes place in two forms: (a) sensible heat content of the air which is
transferred directly by the rising and mixing of heated air, and (b) latent heat which is the indirect form of
energy transfer by convection. When condensation in the free atmosphere takes place, the latent heat of
evaporation is released and made available to the air. This is known as the latent heat of condensation.
Whereas the term convection is used to describe the vertical motions in the atmosphere, the term
advection is reserved for horizontal convection transport of heat. It is worthwhile to remember that the
horizontal convection is on a much larger scale. In fact, advection is responsible for slow heat transfer from
the equatorial to the Polar Regions. Vertical convection, on the other hand, is more localized in character.
In other words, the process of convection redistributes heat from equatorial regions to the poles and from
the surface upward. When pockets of air are heated by contact with the warm earth’s surface, they expand
in volume and become less dense than the surrounding air and, therefore, rise. The rising air currents are

160
replaced by cooler and denser air from above. Thus, a convectional circulation is set up with horizontal as
well as vertical motions.
Advection as a process of heat transfer is relatively more important than any other method. In the middle
latitude regions, most of the diurnal variations in the daily weather are caused by advection alone. The
scorching winds blowing during the summer in the northern plains of India, which are known as loo, are a
typical example of advection. Similarly in the temperature regions during the colder months the advection
of warm tropical air, because of its high temperatures, makes the weather rather pleasant. The polar winds
which originate over the snow-covered land surfaces carry a lot of cold with them to the more southerly
warmer regions of the world. Thus, through the process of advection a large-scale reversal in the
temperature of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface or aloft is brought about.
It is undoubtedly true that a large section of the atmosphere receives heat by vertical as well as horizontal
convection. Here, it is worthwhile to remember that the convective transport of energy is confined only up
to the tropopause. Tropo pause is the upper limit of all convective activities in the atmosphere.
(5) Latent heat of condensation: There is no doubt that the atmosphere receives a large percentage
of its total heat energy from the long-wave terrestrial radiation, conduction and convection. But in the
heating and cooling of the atmosphere, the latest heat of evaporation as well as the latent heat of
condensation also play a significant role. The latent heat of condensation is made available to different
layers of the atmosphere by the process of evaporation taking place at the surfaces of oceans, humid ground,
and natural vegetation. Oceans with their extensive water surfaces exposed to the sun are the most important
source for the latent heat of evaporation. It is estimated that half of the insolation received at the ocean
surfaces is consumed in the evaporation needs a certain amount of energy. This transformed solar energy is
thus contained in the air in potential form. When water vapour is condensed, the latent energy is again
released into atmosphere and is used in heating it. The released energy is known as the latent heat of

161
condensation. It may be pointed out that the latent energy of evaporation does not raise the temperature of
the water vapour.
When condensation or sublimation takes place, the water vapour is converted into liquid or solid form.
Then the latent heat is released and it raises the temperature of the air. The scientists have proved by
experiments that at constant temperature the amount of energy required to convert a given quantity of liquid
into vapour is again released when the process is reversed. At 20ºC temperature each gram of water vapour,
when condensed into liquid water, releases 585 calories of heat. When water is frozen into ice, each gram
of it provides additional 80 calories. When we recall that about two-thirds of the earth’s surface covered
with water, the importance of the latent heat of evaporation as the principal source of atmospheric heat can
easily be appreciated. (6) Expansion and compression of the air: Whenever air moves upward it passes
through regions of successively lower pressure. Consequently, the rising” air expands and cools
adiabatically. In the same way, as the air descends, it comes under increasingly higher pressure so that it
compresses and is heated. These temperature changes caused by a change of pressure alone that the rising
or falling air is subjected to are called adiabatic temperature changes. As a process leading to adiabatic
cooling, it is common wherever the earth’s surface is warmer than the air above. Thus, the temperature
changes brought about in the air aloft simply due to changes in the air pressure are very important in the
heating or cooling of the atmosphere. Controls of Temperature.
AIR PRESSURE
Like any other material object, the air also has weight. The pressure of air at a given place is defined as
a force exerted in all directions in consequence of the weight of all the air above it. Thus, the mass of a
column of air above a given point determines the atmospheric pressure at that point.

162
Air is a mixture of several gases. In order to clearly understand the concept of air pressure, the behavior
of gases and the principle that governs this behavior must be grasped. Gas molecules are in a constant state
of collision and move about freely. If a gas is kept in a closed vessel, this motion is restricted by the walls
of the container. The gas molecules exert an outward push because they continuously dash against the walls
of the container. Similarly, our atmosphere may be deemed to be a closed container bounded by the earth’s
land – sea surface from below, and from above by the force of gravity that does not allow it to escape to
outer space. Air pressure, therefore, is defined as the force exerted against a surface by continuous collision
of gas molecules. The amount of pressure exerted by air at a particular point is determined by two factors;
namely, temperature and density.
Since air pressure is proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a change in either
temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in the pressure. The following equation, called
‘the gas how’, describes the relationship between pressure, temperature, and density: Pressure = density x
temperature x constant.
So, according to the gas law, an increase in either density or temperature will cause an increase in
pressure provided the other variable (density or temperature) remains constant.
The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034 grams per square cm (14.7 Ib per square inch) at sea level.
This amount of pressure is exerted by the atmosphere at sea level on all animals, plants, rocks, etc. The
reason that man does not feel the weight of atmosphere falling on his shoulders is that the air inside him
exerts an equal amount of outward pressure balancing the inward pressure exerted by the air pressure
decreases with increasing altitude, at a certain height this balance between outward pressure exerted by the
atmosphere outside is disturbances, such as nose bleed, ear bleed, etc. The mountaineers have to face a lot
of difficulty because of the mush reduced atmospheric pressure at greater heights. This is so because the
higher we go, the thinner the atmosphere becomes, and thus the molecules are more diffused, and there is

163
less pressure because inter-molecular space is greater. At the height of Mt Everest, the air pressure is about
two-thirds less than what it is at the sea-level.
Pressure Gradient
The decrease of pressure between two points along a line Perpendicular to the isobars divided by the
distance between the points is called the pressure gradient. In other words pressure gradient is the rate of
change of pressure per unit horizontal distance. It usually means a change in a direction perpendicular to
the isobars. In fact, that is the direction in which the change is most rapid.
The rate and direction of the change in air pressure are also known as ‘barometric slope’. It is expressed
in millibars per hundred kilometers, or per degree of latitude. A decrease of 34 mb in a horizontal distance
of 24 km is considered to be a unit of pressure gradient. Thus, a decrease of 3.4 mb in 48 km or a fall of 10
mb in 160 km signifies a steep pressure gradient. Isobars drawn closely on a weather map represent a steep
pressure gradient, while isobars drawn father apart indicate a weak pressure gradient.
In order to make the concept of pressure gradient clear, it may be thought of as being analogous to the
slope of a hill. Like a steep hill, a steep pressure gradient causes greater acceleration of a parcel of air than
does a weak pressure gradient. Thus, closely spaced isobars represent a strong pressure gradient and high
velocity winds, while widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient and light winds. However,
the relationship between pressure gradient and wind speed has been discussed in greater detail elsewhere in
this chapter in connection with the wind.

164

Geography - Notes - English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geography - Notes - English

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geography - Notes - English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GEOGRAPHYE

For More Study Material

1. Geographical Introduction of India

2. Geological Structure of India

3. Physiographical Regions of India

For More Study Material

1. Seven Continent of the Word

(v) South America

For More Study Material

1. The Universe & Solar System 11. Insolation & Temperature

2. Motions of Earth 12. Air Pressure

3. Internal Structure of Earth 13. Wind

4. Rocks 14. Clouds

5. Volcanoes 15. Weather & Climate

6. Earthquake 16. Cyclones, Jet Streams & Anticyclone

7. Mountain Building 17. Ocean

8. Plateau 18. Salinity, Ocean Tides & Ocean Currents

9. Plains 19. Lakes

10. Composition & Structure of the

For More Study Material

Latitudinal expanse – from 6º4’N to 37º6’N latitude.

Longitudinal expanse – from 68º7’E to 97º25’ E longitude.

For More Study Material

Classification of Indian Rocks

For More Study Material

Various River Valley Projects of the Peninsular India

(iii) The Kakrapar Project: It is a project of Gujarat.

(vii)The Idukki Project: It is Kerala’s largest hydel power project.

For More Study Material

(ii) The Balimala Project: On river Sileru in Orissa.

(iii) The Nizam Sagar Project: On river Manjra in Andhra.

(iv) The Ramagundam Project: On Godavari in Andhra.

(v) The Machkund Project: A joint project of Andhra and Orissa.

(vi) The Pochampad Project: On Godavari (in Andhra).

(vii) The Tata Hydel Power Project: In Maharashtra.

The northern mountain region can be devided into three parts.

The highest mountain peak of the Himalayas in India is Kanchenjunga.

For More Study Material

(ii) Dhauladhar Range

IMPORTANT PASSES IN INDIA

For More Study Material

2. The Deccan Plateau

For More Study Material

Its main passes:

2. Bhor Ghat – It links Mumbai to Pune.

4. Senkota Pass – Between the Nagercoil and the Cardamom hills.

(b) The Telangana plateaus

3. The Great Plains of India

For More Study Material

For More Study Material

4. The Coastal Plains and the Island Groups

The coastal plain can be divided into two parts:

(i) The western coastal plain.

(ii) The eastern coastal plain.

(a) The Gujarat plain – coastal area of Gujarat.

(b) The Konkan plain – between Daman and Goa.

(c) Kannad plain – between Goa and Mangalore.

(d) The Malabar plain – between Mangalore and Kanyakumari.

For More Study Material

THE ISLAND GROUPS