Chapter 5-L1 (CoTM 4142)

Chapter 5
Introduction to
Hydropower
Content
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Hydropower Basics
5.3. Classification of Hydropower Plants
5.4. Estimation of Hydropower Potential
5.5. Estimation of Hydropower Demand
5.6. Hydropower System Components
– Intake Structures
– Conveyance System
– Hydraulic Turbine
– Surge Tank
– Powerhouse
– Draft Tube
– Trailrace
– Power Transmission
5.1. Introduction
Types of electric power plants
Electric power can be generated from:

- Thermal (coal fired, gas, diesel ...)
- Nuclear
- Wind Mill
- Solar/Photovoltaic Cells
- Biomass
- Geothermal
- Hydro (the oldest and the
cheapest method of power
generation)
5.1. Introduction
Changes in the Global Energy Mix

5.1. Introduction
5.1. Introduction
Hydropower
Hydro is derived from Greek

word “Hudor” meaning water.
• Hydropower - is the energy we make with

moving water.
• We use water energy to make electricity.

5.1. Introduction
Ethiopian hydroelectric dam chronology
1932 Akaki (Akaki River) 6 MW

1953 Tis Abay I (Abay River) 11.5 MW
1960 Koka (Awash River) 42.3 MW
1966 Awash II (Awash River) 32 MW
1971 Awash III (Awash River) 32 MW
1973 Fincha (Fincha River) 100 MW
12,625.8 MW
1989 Melka Wakena (Wabe Shebele River) 153 MW
1990 Sor 5 MW
2001 Tis Abay II (Abay River) 75 MW
2004 Gibe I (Omo River) 184 MW
2009 Tekeze (Tekeze River) 310 MW
2009 Gibe II (Omo River) 420 MW
2010 Tana Beles (Belesa River) 435 MW
2013 Gibe III (Omo River) 1870 MW
------ Renaissance Dam (Abay River) 5150 MW
2018 Genale Dawa – III (Genale River) 1640 MW
------- Koysha (Omo River) 2160 MW
Hydrological Cycle
Hydroelectric power generation components
The main components of a hydropower

plant are
- Intake Structure
- Forebay
- Surge Chamber
- Penstock
- Turbine
- Powerhouse
- Generator
- Transformer
- Tailrace
- Transmission Lines
Water is flowing to the powerhouse at a considerable

distance from the dam through a canal, tunnel, or
penstock. With favorable topography it is possible to
realize a high head even with a low dam. With this
arrangement, head variations in the reservoir may be
small compared with the total head, and the turbine can
operate near optimum head (peak efficiency) at all
times.
Types of Development:
• Run-of-River Development – using the natural flow of

a river (it has short penstock)
• Diversion and Canal Development – the water
diverted from the natural channel into a canal (it has
a long penstock)
• Storage Regulation Development – an extensive
impoundment (augmentation) it regulates the
seasonal fluctuation of energy demand.
• Pumped/Storage Development – water pumped from
the lower reservoir to the higher reservoir using
pump.
• Tidal Power Development – this is due to the back
and forth movement of water as a result of tidal
action.
• Single-purpose Development – only for one purpose
(electricity development)
• Multipurpose Development – more than one purpose
Hydropower Equation:
P =  Rh
Where:
P – hydroelectric power in kW
 unit weight of water in KN/m3
 overall efficiency
R - discharge through the power plant in m3/s
h - static head of water in m
Example 5.1.
A hydropower station has a gross head of 50 meter.
If the optimum discharge is 300 m3/s, compute the
power generation? Take the overall efficiency is 85%.
Solution
Given
 unit weight of water = 9.81 kN/m3
overall efficiency = 0.85
R - discharge through the power plant = 300 m3/s
h - static head of water = 50 m
By substituting into the equation gives
P =  Rh
= 125,077.50 kW
≈ 125 MW
Data required to analysis the hydroelectric power:
Hydrological data:
• historical stream flow (development +
operation)
• evaporation from the reservoir
• leakage through and around the dam
Physical Characteristics
• elevation-area-volume relationship (for
impounding system)
• minimum and maximum allowable reservoir
elevation
• elevation-discharge curves (for run of
system)
• tailwater rating curves
Data required to analysis the hydroelectric power ....
Relevant data about the physical characteristics

of power plants:
• Installed capacity, which represents the
upper limit of power that can be generated
by the plant
• Plant factor, which represents the peak and
firm energy production of the plant
• Maximum and minimum discharge
• Head range that the plant operation
• Turbine characteristics, including shape of
efficiency curve
Advantages and disadvantages of Hydropower
Advantages Disadvantages
Running, operating and Potential depends on location
maintenance cost is low
Ability to quickly and readily Require large initial
vary the amount of power investments
generated
Utilizes a renewable energy Long transmission lines
source as a fuel (water)
Generation process is Social and environmental
environmentally clean impacts for large schemes
(danger of collapse of a dam)
Reliable more than wind and Long gestation period
solar
Long lifetime Movement of fish affected
Based on hydraulic features
• Conventional hydro plants (use normal available hydraulic
energy)
• Pumped storage plants (concept of recycling of the same
water)
• Tidal power plants (using tidal energy e.g. La Rance France))
• Depression power plants (diverting sea water to the
depression land) e.g. Quattara depression in Egypt
Based on Operation
• Base load plant - A power station
operating continuously at a
constant or nearly constant
power and which operates at
relating high load factors.
• Peak load plant (like pumped
storage plant) - a power station
that is primarily designed for the
purpose of operating to supply
the peak load of a power system.
Based on storage and pondage
• Storage plant (when the flow is uneven over a
year)
• Without storage (by using a natural flow)
Based on plant capacity

- Micro plants < 5 MW
- Medium capacity 5 to 100 MW
- High capacity 101 to 1000 MW
- Super plants > 1000 MW
Based on head
- Low head plants < 15 m
- Medium head plants 15 to 70 m
- High head plants 71 to 250 m
- Very high head plants > 250 m
Important
Low Head Medium Head High Head
Features
Discharge Large Moderate Small
Storage No Daily or Seasonal or
weekly annual
Type Kaplan, Francis, Pelton, low
high speed Kaplan speed Francis
Turbines
Francis
Size Large Medium Small
Setting Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
or Vertical
Relative
Production high Moderate Low
cost
5.4. Estimating Hydropower Potential
Two methods are used to estimate the
hydropower potential at a given site:
1. Flow Duration Curve Method (FDCM) and
2. Sequential Stream Flow Routing (SSFR)
method.
FDCM
The net head for various discharges is estimated.
Using the data of the usable range of FDC and
head vs. discharge data, a head-duration curve is
developed. The hydropower equation is used to
estimate the power generated at many points on
the FDC and a power duration curve is
developed.
Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
Flow duration curve analysis looks at the cumulative
frequency of historic flow data over a specified period.
A flow duration curve relates flow values to the
percent of time those values have been met or
exceeded.
Example 5.2
A run-of-river power plant is proposed at the

site for which the monthly flow data are
presented in Table shown in the next slide.
The head available at the site is about 10m and

plant efficiency is about 70%. Assume that the
turbine discharge capacity is 500 m3/sec.
Plot the power–duration curve and find the firm

energy that is expected with 90% probability of
exceedance.
Table: Monthly stream flow data (m3/sec)
Month 2020 2021 2022

January 105 440 102
February 108 275 860
March 645 337 640
April 1000 515 690
May 1308 1968 1330
June 419 1965 930
July 89 360 155
August 28 71 92
September 32 50 50
October 40 95 88
November 80 100 305
December 210 88 300
Solution
Monthly stream flow data in descending order (m3/sec)
Rank Sorted stream flows Probability of Exceedance

1 1968 0.03
2 1965 0.05
3 1330 0.08
4 1308 0.11
5 1000 0.14
... ... ...
32 50 0.86
33 50 0.89
34 40 0.92
35 32 0.95
36 28 0.97
Flow Duration Curve (FDC)
2000
1600
Discharge (m3/s)
1200
800
400
0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Percent of time equaled or exceeded
Pmax = ηγQh
= 0.7 × 9.81× 500 ×10
= 34,335 kW
2967 kW
Power-duration curve
The firm energy with 90% reliability is then

estimated as 2967 kW using the numbers in Table
or from the power-duration curve.
Impact of storage on FDC

5.5. Power Demand
The Load Duration Curve (LDC)
• Daily Load Curve – a curve showing the

variation of demand within a day
• Load factor – the ratio of mean load to the
peak load or the ratio energy consumed
during 24hrs to its maximum demand
• Capacity factor (plant use factor) – the
ratio of the average output of the plant for
a given period of time to the plant
capacity. (It is generally between 25 to
75%)
• Utilization factor – the ratio of water
actually utilized for power production to
that available in the river (varies between
40 to 90%).
• Diversity factor – the ratio of sum of
individual maximum demands to the
simultaneous maximum demand
(sometime the value is greater than 100%)
5.5. Power Demand
The Load Duration Curve (LDC)
• A very convenient and simple way to
construct annual load duration curves are
from the daily load curves. This is
conducted by arranging the various
demands of load in descending order along
with the time during which it occurred.
• If a plot of loads and the percentage of time
during which these loads or higher occurred
in prepared, then this would be a Load
Duration Curve.
- Load duration curves may be
constructed for any duration of time.
- The area under load-duration curve
represents the total energy production
for the duration
- Annual load factor is the ratio of area
under the curve to the area of the
rectangular corresponding to the
maximum demand occurring the course
of year.
5.6.1. Intakes Structures
Location
Intake locates at the entrance of
canal or tunnel or pipes
It fulfils the following:

- Control the flow of water into
the conveyance system by
gate or a valve
- Smooth, easy and turbulence
free entry of water (bell-
shaped entry)
- Stopping coarse river-borne
trash matter entering into the
conveyance passage
(trashracks...)
- Not allowing heavy sediment
loads (silt trap and silt
excluders)
Types
Depends on the type of power plant as well as
the layout
1. Run-of-river intake
It is an integral part of
powerhouse
2. Canal Intake
• similar to run-of-river system
• silt trap and excluder are
necessary
• 900 to 1100 to the main flow
direction (for sediment control
point of view)
• on curved reaches, preferably
intake locates on concave side
3. Dam Intakes
• usually in the body of the dam
• mostly inlet section is rectangular
and a gradual transition is provided
to the circular penstock
• it can be inclined or vertical
• when intake inclined, the area of the
inlet can be found
Area of Penstock
Area of inlet =  Sec
Coefficient of contraction
where ϴ is the angle that the axis of
inclined penstock makes to the water
surface. The value of contraction can be
assumed as 0.6 for high heads and 0.7
for low heads.
4. Tower Intakes
• normally on hill sides, when it is not
convenient to provide the simple
intake directly on the upstream face of
the dam
• the tower may be connected with the
main dam through a bridge
• flow into the tower controlled by a
number of gates to close and open the
ports at various levels
• towers should be strong enough to
withstand hydrostatic forces as well as
earthquakes, wind etc forces
5. Shaft Intakes
• it is vertical or nearly vertical shaft
• consists: entrance structures having
trashracks and inlet mouth, intake gate and
The Trash Rack
• For preventing the trash from getting entry
into the entrance flume, bars at certain
spacing are placed in slanting position (an
angle of 500 to 800 with the horizontal)
• Fine screen is not recommended due to high
initial and maintenance cost, again due to
high head loss
Spacing of Bars
Depends upon factor such as types of turbine, its
dimension and the peripheral speed of the runner.
• For example, for high discharge, low head
Kaplan turbine, the pacing of the bars can be
25 cm or 1/30th of the runner diameter.
• For Francis turbine, clear spacing of bars
equal to the distance between the runner
vanes. Unsupported length of the bar must to
be greater than 70 times the bar thickness.
5.6.2. Conveyance System
Depending upon
the topography of
the terrain, the
conveyance system
can take the shape
of tunnels, canals,
flumes, or pipes
A. Power Canals
- Power canal is appropriate conveyance when the
topography of terrain is moderate with gentle slope.
- the head-race canals are designed to carry the stated
maximum discharge under uniform flow conditions
when the intake is controlled.
- the tail-race canals are also designed similarly, the
controlling level being that of the stream into which it
discharge.
Lining of canals
The purpose is to reduce the Manning’s coefficient, n. The
lining materials can be:
- Simple stone paving
- Masonry and brick lining
- Concrete lining and pre-cast tile lining
- Shotcrete (cement-gun concrete) lining
- Asphalt or bitumen lining
- Bentonite lining
- Plastic lining
A. Power Canals
Design Criteria
i. The discharge capacity
It can be fixed with the help of flow duration curve for
the available discharge or stored volume, the pondage or
balancing storage required to suit the load demand and
the functioning of the power stations.
ii. Surges
• it is a hydraulic transients wherein the flow and the
pressure changes resulted variation of water level,
hence sufficient free board should be provided
• if topography permits, suitable spillover or
balancing reservoir should be provided to act as an
open surge basin at forebay.
iii. Maximum permissible velocity: with the consideration of
erosion
iii. Minimum permissible velocity: silt deposition criteria
iv. Side slope
B. Tunnels
B. Tunnels
Advantages:
• provides very often a direct and a short route for
water passage and thereby considerable economy
in project costs.
• natural landscape is not disturbed
• techniques of drilling and blasting makes the work
easier
Function
• it can be water-carrying or service tunnels
• pressure tunnel carry water to the powerhouse and
tail-race tunnel carry away from the powerhouse
(free-flow tunnels)
• service tunnel (cable, ventilation and access or
approach tunnels)
• Cable tunnel is convey cables from the
underground powerhouse to the switchyard.
B. Tunnels
Classification:
On the basis of the shape, alignment and design aspects
Shape:
• Circular or non-circular in shape
✓ circular tunnel structurally more suitable (more
stable when the internal water pressure is high.
✓ non-circular tunnels usually have flat floor, near
vertical or gently flaring walls and an arching roof
(horse-shoe shape is most popular and convenient
to construct)
Lining
Lining is a protective layers of concrete, RCC or steel on
the inner surface
• Tunnels can be lined or unlined (good sound rock can
be left unlined)
5.6.2. Conveyance
System C. Penstocks
C. Penstock
C. Penstock
• The penstock is a pipe that carries water
from the head pond or the forebay to the
turbines.
• The optimum penstock is as short, straight,
and steep as practical and has a continuous
downward gradient.
Specification to be decided
• Route (Slope, geological
conditions etc)
• Material to be used
• Diameter
• Thickness
C. Penstock
Penstock Route
Some of the major factors that must be considered in
selecting a penstock route:
• Accessibility - the route should be accessible

to personnel and equipment required for pipe
installation, inspection, and maintenance.
• Soil Conditions - soft or unstable soils, or
other characteristics that would interfere
with penstock installation or damage the
penstock.
• Natural or man-made obstructions - include
trees, roadways, buildings, stream crossings,
and other features that require special care.
C. Penstock
• Gradient - the penstock is best routed to take advantage
of the natural downward gradient. If the line cannot be
located so as to have a constant downward gradient, an
air relief valve or equivalent device is required at every
local high point, and a drain valve is required at every
local low point.
• Above-or below-ground installation - A buried penstock
has certain advantages over an above-ground installation.
Anchoring and supporting the pipe are simplified,
ultraviolet radiation effects on PVC pipe are eliminated,
and the effects of weather (thermal expansion, freezing)
are reduced. In addition, physical damage to the pipe from
falling rocks and trees or other sources is also prevented.
On the other hand, an above-ground pipe will have a
lower construction cost, may allow for more direct routing
(fewer bends), and is readily accessible for inspection or
repair. Another alternative is to have a combination of
above-and belowground installation.
C. Penstock
Material
The most common penstock materials include:
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
• Steel
• Polyethylene
• Fiber reinforced
• Asbestos cement
For each of these materials, you must consider a
number of factors:
• Cost
• Availability
• Physical properties (friction, strength,
chemistry)
• Joining methods and installation
limitations.
C. Penstock
Valves
Various types of valves can be used.
Valves are used at the intake of penstock, upward

slope, turbine isolation etc...
C. Penstock
Hydrostatic Thrust
To resist this thrust, you

will either have to use
restrained joints (glued
PVC or welded steel) or
push on or unrestrained
joints with thrust blocks.
Above-ground penstocks
must always use
restrained joints. Buried,
unrestrained joints must
include thrust blocks.
Thrust block
5.6.3. Hydraulic Turbine

• The device which converts hydraulic energy into

mechanical energy or vice versa is known as
Hydraulic Machines.
• The hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy are known as
Turbines and that convert mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy is known as Pumps.
The American engineer James B. Francis designed the first

radial-infow hydraulic turbine which became widely used, gave
excellent results and was highly regarded. In its original form it
was used for heads of between 10 and 100m.
The Pelton wheel turbine, named after its American inventor

Lester A. Pelton, was brought into use in the second half of the
nineteenth century. This is an impulse turbine in which water is
piped at high pressure to a nozzle where it expands completely
to atmospheric pressure.
The increasing need for more power during the early years of the
twentieth century also led to the invention of a turbine suitable
for small heads of water, i.e. 3m to 9 m, in river locations where
a dam could be built. It was in 1913 that Viktor Kaplan revealed
his idea of the propeller (or Kaplan) turbine.
Where Ωsp is rotational speed in rad, P is power delivered

by the shaft, HE is the net head at the turbine entry and Ω
the rotational speed in rad/sec.
Classification of Turbines
Operating ranges of hydraulic turbines

Pelton Francis Kaplan
turbine turbine turbine
Specific speed
0.05 - 0.4 0.4 - 2.2 1.8 - 5.0
(rad)
Head (m) 100 - 1770 20 - 900 6 - 70
Maximum power
500 800 300
(MW)
Optimum efficiency,
90 95 94
%

Classification of Turbines
Summery of Hydraulic Turbine
Turbine
Type of Discharg Direction Specific
Head
energy e of flow Speed
Name Type
Pelton Tangential
Impulse Kinetic High Low Low
Wheel to runner
Radial
Francis flow
Medium Medium Medium
Turbine Reaction Kinetic + Mixed
Pressure
Turbine Flow
Kaplan
Low High Axial Flow High
Turbine
Pelton wheel working principle

Breaking jet:
Even after the amount of water striking the buckets is
completely stopped, the runner goes on rotating for a very long
time due to inertia. To stop the runner in a short time, a small
nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of
bucket with which the rotation of the runner is reversed. This
jet is called as breaking jet.
Selection of type of Turbines

Site conditions
• Larger head and low discharge – Pelton
Wheel
• Medium head and medium discharge -
Francis
• Low head and larger discharge – Kaplan
Specific Speed
• The higher specific speed turbine requires
the smaller generator, higher efficiency
and economical powerhouse.
Efficiency
• Efficiency is best at the design head
• Francis turbine has higher fall of efficiency
as compared to Pelton and Kaplan.

Load
- Load is vary with time
- Francis turbine provides better efficiency in a
variable load operation.
Cavitation
- Occurs when local pressure is reduced to the
vapour pressure as a result of increase in velocity or
an ambient drop in pressure.
- High-speed turbines are not used for high-heads
- Francis turbine has less cavitation coefficient than
for Kaplan turbines.
Transportation Cost
- Runner is one of the costliest and the most critical
part
- The runner of Francis turbine is the biggest one
(require high transportation cost.
Maintenance
• Guide vanes/nozzles and runner blades are
vulnerable to damage by cavitation and silt
necessitating regular repair.
• Francis and large Kaplan turbines can
permit, by design, replacement of all runner
blades without dismantling generator.
• Pelton turbines have the merit of replacing
spear and nozzle quickly.
Sediment Content
• Francis turbine is not suitable for sediment
laden water
5.6.4. Surge Tank

5.6.4. Surge Tank

• It is an artificial reservoir introduced along the
pressure conduit system at a suitable point
upstream and/or downstream of a hydropower
station.
5.6.4. Surge Tank
Function of surge tanks:
▪ to absorb the water hammer or elastic shocks waves

coming from the penstock or tunnel on closure or
opening of the valve or turbine gates
▪ to provide a free reservoir surface close to the turbine
▪ to furnish the additional water required by the turbine
▪ to temporarily store water during load rejection
5.6.4. Surge Tank

Location of the surge tank:
• It is located as close to the powerhouse as possible

• The ideal location is at the turbine inlet but it is not
possible in medium head developments.
• Generally it is located at the junction of tunnel and
penstock to limit its height
• The location may be the best at the point where the
ground drops rapidly to the powerhouse.
5.6.5. Powerhouse
5.6.5. Powerhouse
• The purpose of a powerhouse is to house the turbine-generator

set and electrical components suitably in a structural complex.
• The powerhouse protects the equipment from the elements,
limits access for safety and security, and provides space to
maintain and service the mechanical and electrical equipment.
• The powerhouse should be constructed to fit the equipment.
Consequently, the equipment should be selected before the
powerhouse is planned.
• Some powerhouse details will be supplied by the turbine-
generator manufacturer.
• The location of the powerhouse depends on the local site
conditions.
• Generally, it is located adjacent to the stream it should be
above the high water mark of the stream or flooding will result
during runoff.
• The physical orientation of the powerhouse should be set to
keep the penstock straight.
5.6.6. Draft Tube

5.6.6. Draft Tubes
It is a conduit connecting the exit from the runner to

the tailrace to improve efficiency of the plant.
Draft tube has two functions

▪ It allows the setting of the pressure turbine
and the connecting machinery above the
tail-water level under high-water or flood
conditions of river with sacrificing the level
difference
▪ To recover large part of the velocity head of
water leaving the turbine and utilize it by
increasing the total pressure difference on
the runner.
5.6.6. Draft Tubes
Types of draft tubes
Straight Conical
It resembles frustum of a cone.
Hydraucone Type
It is a modification of conical tube by
placing a horizontal baffle under the
exit end of the pipe
Elbow Type
It is efficient type of draft tube and is
generally preferred in the power
plants where vertical draft tube
involves excessive excavation.
5.6.7. Tailrace
5.6.7. Tailrace
A tailrace is a canal or conduit that carries water from the

powerhouse to the next desired location (usually back into the
stream).
Size of the Tailrace
• The tailrace should be large enough to carry the design
flow.
• The power canal and tailrace will have the same cross-
sectional area. Note that the slope for the tailrace must
also be equal or greater than that of the power canal.
Tailrace Intake
• Generally, the tailrace will start below the powerhouse
and is an integral part of the powerhouse design.
• If a draft tube is used, a pool of water must be
maintained in the intake. The pool should also be
drainable and cleanable.
5.6.8. Power Transmission

Electric power transmission can also be carried out

using underground cables. But, construction of an
underground transmission line generally costs 4 to 10
times than an equivalent distance overhead line.
Different Types of Transmission Systems

Single phase AC system
single phase, two wires
single phase, two wires with midpoint
earthed
single phase, three wires
Two phase AC system
two-phase, three wires
two-phase, four wires
Three phase AC system
three-phase, three wires
three-phase, four wires
DC system
DC two wires
DC two wires with midpoint earthed
DC three wires

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Chapter 5

Types of electric power plants

Electric power can be generated from:

Changes in the Global Energy Mix

Hydro is derived from Greek

• Hydropower - is the energy we make with

• We use water energy to make electricity.

1932 Akaki (Akaki River) 6 MW

The main components of a hydropower

Water is flowing to the powerhouse at a considerable

• Run-of-River Development – using the natural flow of

Data required to analysis the hydroelectric power ....

Relevant data about the physical characteristics

Based on plant capacity

A run-of-river power plant is proposed at the

The head available at the site is about 10m and

Plot the power–duration curve and find the firm

Month 2020 2021 2022

Rank Sorted stream flows Probability of Exceedance

The firm energy with 90% reliability is then

Impact of storage on FDC

• Daily Load Curve – a curve showing the

It fulfils the following:

5.6.2. Conveyance System

• Accessibility - the route should be accessible

Valves are used at the intake of penstock, upward

To resist this thrust, you

5.6.3. Hydraulic Turbine

• The device which converts hydraulic energy into

The American engineer James B. Francis designed the first

The Pelton wheel turbine, named after its American inventor

Where Ωsp is rotational speed in rad, P is power delivered

Operating ranges of hydraulic turbines

5.6.3. Hydraulic Turbine

Summery of Hydraulic Turbine

Pelton wheel working principle

Selection of type of Turbines

Selection of type of Turbines

Selection of type of Turbines

5.6.4. Surge Tank

5.6.4. Surge Tank

▪ to absorb the water hammer or elastic shocks waves

5.6.4. Surge Tank

• It is located as close to the powerhouse as possible

• The purpose of a powerhouse is to house the turbine-generator

5.6.6. Draft Tube

5.6.6. Draft Tubes

It is a conduit connecting the exit from the runner to

Draft tube has two functions

Types of draft tubes

A tailrace is a canal or conduit that carries water from the

5.6.8. Power Transmission

5.6.8. Power Transmission

Electric power transmission can also be carried out

Different Types of Transmission Systems

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