4.4 Propulsion

4.4.
1 Spacecraft propulsion
Space Mission Design and Operations
Prof. Claude Nicollier Ariane 5, Kourou
Credits: ESA, CNES,

Arianespace-Service Optique CSG
Tsiolkovsky equation
● ΔV = change of velocity
● ve = exhaust velocity of the gas in the propulsion system
● mi, mf = initial and final mass
● Valid in free space – Gravitational field-induced and drag-

induced ΔVs will be added to the propulsion-induced ΔVs.
Thrust and acceleration
● Thrust of the propulsion system (static case):
● Resulting acceleration of the spacecraft:
● Integrating between the initial and final conditions:

Propulsion system efficiency
● Other form of the Tsiolkovsky equation:
● Isp = specific impulse (s).

● g = Earth’s gravity acceleration, 9.81 (m/s2).
● Isp is a measure of the propulsion system efficiency, it is its thrust (kg-force) divided
by the mass flow of propellants (fuel and oxidizer, kg/s).
There is a ratio of about 10 between the value of I_sp in seconds and the exhaust velocity in m/s.

Kind of chemical propulsion
● Cold gas propulsion: Isp = 50-75

Chemical propulsion is used for all of the stages until orbit insertion. The highest ● Solid motor: Isp = 280-300
value for liquid hydrogen as propellant and liquid oxygen as oxidizer will give 450s Credits: NASA
for the specific impulse, which means an exhaust velocity of 4.5 km/s.
Final velocity VS Mass ratio
For a final velocity of about 10 km/s, which is what

the rocket needs to reach low Earth orbit and
compensate for gravitational losses and drag
losses, if the rocket is oxygen or hydrogen (4.5
km/s exhaust velocity), the mass ratio is about 10,
80-90% of the total mass is the propellant mass.
Credits: « Ascent to Orbit », Arthur C. Clarke

Mass of propellant needed
● mi : initial vehicle mass (kg).

● mf : final vehicle mass (kg).
● mp : propellant mass consumed to produce the given ΔV (kg).
● ΔV : velocity increase of the vehicle (m/s).
●g : gravitational constant, 9.81 (m/s2).
● Isp : specific impulse at which propellant mp was burned (s).

4.4.2 More on spacecraft propulsion
Prof. Claude Nicollier
Credits: Documention of the training division for NASA astronauts in the 90’s.
Liquid and solid propellant rocket motors
The Space Shuttle had solid rocket motors with a star-

shaped surface inside in order to increase the surface
of the burn product.

Liquid propellant rocket engine – Viking 5C example
This motor was used on Ariane rockets with hypergolic

propellant, unsymmetrical monomethylhydrazine,
and nitrogen tetroxide as oxidizer.
The specific impulse of this system was about 350-380,
so less than a cryogenic rocket engine using liquid
oxygen, liquid hydrogen.
Credits: Wikipedia, Sanjay Acharya

Space Shuttle Main Engines – SSME
Three cryogenic engines with liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen
as oxidizer. Oxidizer and fuel were contained in an external tank at the
bottom of the Space Shuttle,
OMS engine using internal propellant containing these parts was used
only for on-orbit maneuvers.
Credits: Documention of the training division for NASA astronauts in the 90’s.
SSME – Fuel and oxidizer supply
The liquid-oxygen tank contains about 1,400,000 lbs. of liquid oxygen. The liquid-hydrogen tank Credits: NASA, JSC, Booster
contains about 230,000 lbs. of liquid hydrogen. Systems Briefs, October 1, 1984
Liquids are fed to the three main engines via 17-inch feeds. Space Mission Design and Operations
SSME – Schematic
Two-stage combustion in the Space Shuttle:

the first stage is in the high-pressure turbo
pumps for fuel and oxidizer. The second
stage is in the main combustion chamber to
produce the thrust.
Credits: « Shuttle Press Kit.com »,

Boeing, NASA and United Space
Alliance, October 6, 1998
Propellant needed for a mission to Mars
Various stages of a mission to and from Mars. At each stage, maneuvers are performed, these maneuvers require a certain ΔV and
each ΔV means propellant.
Based on Tsiolkovsky equation, about 90% of the mass of the spacecraft leaving the Earths' surface is propellant, if the mass of the
payload is increased, the propellants have to be considerably increased to leave the gravity well of the Earth.
The propulsion system with a high specific impulse should be very efficient
General remarks about the propulsion in space
Five rocket engines:

- two solid rocket boosters provide the highest fraction of the
initial thrust;
- three cryogenic engines: liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen fed
from the big external tank.
The two solid rocket boosters were completely used after about two
minutes, separated from the tank and were falling down in the ocean.
For the 6 and 1/2 minutes of the rest of the ascent into space, for 8 and
1/2 minutes total, only the cryogenic engines were used to bring the
Space Shuttle to the desired velocity and the desired altitude, for the
beginning of its mission.
Credits: NASA, KSC, April 7, 2006

4.4.3 Nuclear and electric propulsion
Prof. Claude Nicollier
Credits: Nasa, JPL-Caltech

Nuclear rocket principle
● Hot fuel rods heat hydrogen propellant.

● The hot hydrogen expands in the nozzle as in a
chemical engine.
NERVA – From 1968 to 1972
Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application
Credits: PD, USGOV, NASA

Electric or ion propulsion
Ionization of propellants and acceleration with

the electric field.
Higher velocities than with a liquid-fueled or
solid propellant rocket engine can be reached.
There is high efficiency or very high ejection

velocity, but relatively low thrust, of the order of
a fraction of a newton.
It can be used for propulsion in space, but not
for leaving the Earth's surface and t bring a
spacecraft to orbital conditions.
Credits: Wikipedia, Chabacano,

retrieved from NASA
An example of electric propulsion
● Exhaust velocities of typically

10 to 100 km/s.
● Thrust values of typically 10 -2
N.
● 6 kW Hall thruster in
operation at the NASA JPL.

VASIMR project – Ad Astra Rocket Company
● Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket.
● Development since 1977 under the lead of Franklin Chang Diaz.
Ion engine with possibility to vary the thrust and the

specific impulse.
It uses the properties of plasmas and confinement of
plasma in your electromagnetic field.
This engine requires a lot of energy, generated by solar
panels or nuclear reactor.


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4.4.

Credits: ESA, CNES,

● Valid in free space – Gravitational field-induced and drag-

● Resulting acceleration of the spacecraft:

● Integrating between the initial and final conditions:

Space Mission Design and Operations

● Isp = specific impulse (s).

Space Mission Design and Operations

● Cold gas propulsion: Isp = 50-75

For a final velocity of about 10 km/s, which is what

Credits: « Ascent to Orbit », Arthur C. Clarke

● mi : initial vehicle mass (kg).

Space Mission Design and Operations

The Space Shuttle had solid rocket motors with a star-

Space Mission Design and Operations

This motor was used on Ariane rockets with hypergolic

Credits: Wikipedia, Sanjay Acharya

Two-stage combustion in the Space Shuttle:

Credits: « Shuttle Press Kit.com »,

Five rocket engines:

Credits: NASA, KSC, April 7, 2006

Credits: Nasa, JPL-Caltech

● Hot fuel rods heat hydrogen propellant.

Credits: PD, USGOV, NASA

Ionization of propellants and acceleration with

There is high efficiency or very high ejection

Credits: Wikipedia, Chabacano,

● Exhaust velocities of typically

Credits: Nasa, JPL-Caltech

Ion engine with possibility to vary the thrust and the

Credits: Nasa, JPL-Caltech

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