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5. Conservation of fodders. Storage of feeds and feed ingredients. Recent advances in feed technology
and feed processing and Anti nutritional and toxic factors present in livestock feeds, Feed analysis
and quality control, Digestibility trials – direct, indirect and indicator methods, Predicting feed
intake in grazing animals.

UPSC PYQs
1. Discuss processing methods for roughage to improve its utilization by animals? (2013)
2. Define silage. Discuss the important methods of preparing silage. What are the important crops
used for silage making? (2014)
3. What is silage? Discuss in brief about the anti- nutritional factors commonly found in animal feed?
(2016)
4. Describe different methods of hay making. What are the nutrient losses during hay making and
how to prevent these losses? (2019)
5. Discuss in brief the necessity of processing of animal feeds? (2020)
6. Describe in detail about preparation of silage along with its advantages and disadvantages.
(2021)
7. Discuss the technological applications being put into practice for improving the digestibility and
nutritive value of wheat bran and paddy straw? (2012)
8. Discuss complete feeding systems for dairy farms? (2013)
9. A buffalo is grazing on a pasture. How can the feed intake of that buffalo be predicted? (2015)
10. Discuss the factors affecting digestibility of feed? (2018)
11. Write a short note on the use of indicators for digestibility determination? (2019)
12. Describe the methods by which feed intake in grazing animals is predicted? (2020)
13. Explain why the digestibility trial is considered as the best method for evaluating the nutritive value
of animal feeds? (2022)
14. Justify why more than one digestibility trial needs to be conducted during indirect method of
digestibility determination of feed? (2023)
15. Describe the Van- soest method of forage fiber analysis? (2023).

5.1 Conservation of fodders, Storage of feeds and feed ingredients and Recent advances in feed
technology and feed processing:

Haymaking:

● Drying: Fodder crops, such as grasses or legumes, are cut when they are at their nutritional peak
and then dried to reduce moisture content. Drying methods include sun drying, air drying, or
mechanical drying using hay dryers.

● Baling: Dried fodder is often compressed into bales, which makes it easier to handle, store, and
transport. Baling can be done manually or using mechanized balers.

Silage Making:
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● Ensiling: In the ensiling process, fresh forage crops are chopped into small pieces and packed
tightly into airtight containers or silos. The lack of oxygen inside the silo promotes fermentation,
preserving the forage as silage. Common crops for silage include corn, grass, and legumes.

● Additives: Sometimes, additives like microbial inoculants or acids are used to aid in the
fermentation process and improve the quality of silage.

3. Haylage Production:

● Haylage is a method that combines elements of both haymaking and silage making. It involves
harvesting forage at a higher moisture content than traditional hay, baling it, and then sealing it to
ferment.

● This method allows for a faster harvest than traditional hay making while retaining some of the
benefits of silage preservation.

Haymaking: Haymaking is the process of cutting, drying, and gathering grass or other plants, typically
referred to as "hay," to be used as fodder or feed for livestock, particularly cattle, horses, and other
herbivorous animals.

Aim of Haymaking: The primary aim of haymaking is to reduce the moisture content of freshly harvested
forage crops to a level low enough (typically around 12-14%) to inhibit the action of plant and microbial
enzymes. By reducing moisture, the hay becomes less susceptible to spoilage, molds, and microbial
degradation, allowing it to be stored for extended periods without losing nutritional value.

Methods of Drying:

1. Sun Drying (Field Drying or Natural Drying): The simplest method involves cutting the forage and
letting it dry naturally in the field. The forage is left in rows or windrows to expose it to the sun and air.

2. Baling: Once the forage is sufficiently dry (usually with moisture content below 20%), it is baled using
specialized machines. Bales can be round or square, depending on the baler type.

3. Stacking: In areas with unreliable weather conditions, forage can be stacked into haycocks or loose
stacks for further drying. This method provides some protection against rain but requires more labor.

4. Artificial Drying: In areas with frequent rain or high humidity, artificial drying methods like hay dryers
or dehydrators can be used to reduce moisture content quickly.

Requisites for Good Hay:

1. Crop Selection: Choose forage crops with soft, pliable stems, as they are easier to dry and result
in better-quality hay.
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2. Harvest Timing: Harvest the crop at the 2/3rd flowering stage. This is when the plant typically
has the maximum nutrient content. Delaying the harvest further can lead to a diversion of nutrients
from the plant to seed production, resulting in lower nutritive value.

3. Visual Characteristics: High-quality hay should be leafy and green in color, as these
characteristics are indicators of good nutritive value. It should also be free from molds and weeds
and should retain the characteristic aroma of the crop.

Factors Affecting Nutritive Value:

1. Plant Species: Legume hays, such as alfalfa and clover, are typically richer in protein and minerals
compared to grass hays. Non-legume hays, like timothy or Bermuda grass, have more
carbohydrates but are less palatable.

2. Stage of Growth/Cutting: The nutritive value of hay depends on the stage of growth of the crop
at the time of cutting.

3. Mechanical Damage: Leaves lose moisture more quickly than stems, making them brittle and
easily crushed during handling. To minimize leaf loss, it's advisable to handle hay during the early
morning when moisture levels are higher.

Changes During Storage:

1. Dark Brown Color: Overheated hay stored at higher moisture levels during stacking can develop
a dark brown color. This is due to oxidative degradation of sugars, which combine with amino acids
or proteins.

2. Heat Accumulation: The heat can accumulate in bulk-stored hay, and in extreme cases,
combustion may occur. This is why proper ventilation during storage is essential.

3. Losses in Nutritive Value: Losses in the nutritive value of hay can occur due to various factors,
including late cutting, leaf shattering, fermentation, and leaching.

Biochemical Changes During Storage:

1. Carbohydrates: Plant respiration continues after harvest, leading to the oxidation of sugars to CO2
and H2O. This increases the concentration of cell wall constituents like cellulose and lignin.
Organic acids' concentration decreases during wilting.

2. Nitrogenous Constituents: Plant enzymes can proteolyzed proteins, resulting in the formation of
free amino acids.

3. Vitamins: During sun drying, oxidation can lead to a reduction in carotene concentration.
However, sun drying can also enhance the vitamin D content in hay due to irradiation of ergosterol
present in green plants.
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Nutrient losses during hay making:

1. Protein Loss: Breakdown of protein compounds during drying and exposure to sunlight.

2. Carbohydrate Loss: Degradation of carbohydrates, including sugars and energy rich compounds,
during drying.

3. Vitamin Loss: Water Soluble vitamins like vitamin C can degrade during drying and exposure to
air and sunlight.

4. Mineral Loss: Some minerals may leach out of forage during drying, especially if rehydrated by
rain or dew.

Strategies to help prevent nutrient losses:

1. Timely Harvesting: Harvest forage at the right stage of maturity when it's still lush and green to
maximize nutrient content.

2. Proper Cutting Height: Adjust cutting equipment to leave a sufficient stubble height to preserve
the nutrient rich lower portion of the plants.

3. Storage in Dry, WellVentilated Areas: Store hay in a dry, well ventilated location to prevent
exposure to moisture and humidity.

4. Elevate Bales: Elevate bales off the ground to prevent moisture wicking and potential mold growth.

5. Use Bale Covers: Cover stored hay with tarps or bale wraps to protect it from rain and sunlight.

Silage:

Silage is a preserved feed material produced through the controlled fermentation of crops, typically forages
or grasses, under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions in a structure known as a silo. This process is referred
to as ensilage.

Advantages of Silage Making:

1. Year-Round Feed Supply: Silage production allows for the year-round availability of high-quality
fodder, which is particularly valuable during periods of scarcity or adverse weather conditions
when fresh forage may not be available.

2. Weather Independence: Unlike haymaking, silage can be made even when weather conditions
are not suitable for drying forage. This makes it a more reliable method in regions with
unpredictable or rainy weather.

3. Increased Livestock Capacity: Silage allows farmers to support a higher number of animals per
unit of land, as it provides a concentrated and nutritious feed source.
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Disadvantages of Silage Making:

1. Equipment and Infrastructure: The preparation of silage requires specific equipment (e.g.,
choppers, compactors, silos) and infrastructure (e.g., silo structures), which can be costly.

2. Labor-Intensive: Silage-making can be labor-intensive, especially during the harvesting and

packing stages.

3. Fermentation Odor: Fermentation can produce strong odors, which can be unpleasant for those
working around the silage.

4. Risk of Spoilage: Inadequate packing or sealing can lead to spoilage and nutrient loss. Moldy or
spoiled silage is not suitable for feeding.

Factors to Consider in Silage Making:

1. Crop Selection: Choose crops with soft and pliable stems, as they are more suitable for silage.

2. Time of Harvest: Harvest the crop when about 50% of it is in the ear emergence stage. This stage
is when the crop is both nutritious and has high biomass yield.

3. Wilting: Crops with high moisture content (around 85%) may result in excessive effluent
production. Wilting the crop for a few hours until moisture levels drop to around 60% can reduce
effluent losses.

4. Chafing: Ensuring anaerobic conditions in the silo is crucial. Chafing the crop helps remove air
pockets and facilitates better compaction.

5. Silo Preparation: Silos should be cleaned and re-plastered to create smooth and strong walls.

6. Additives: Molasses (around 2% of the weight of forage) can be added to provide readily available
carbohydrates for lactic acid production by beneficial bacteria. Salt (around 1% of forage weight)
can also improve palatability.

Principles of Fermentation in Silo:

● Fermentation in the silo is primarily achieved by encouraging the formation of lactic acid by
bacteria naturally present on the fresh herbage. Preservatives like sodium meta-bisulfite or weak
acid solutions can also be added to influence the fermentation process.

● Fermentation occurs in four phases: aerobic (with plant enzymes breaking down soluble
carbohydrates), enterobacter bacterial action (producing acetic acid), lactic acid production by
beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillus and Streptococcus spp.), and stabilization of lactic acid
production at a pH range of 3.8 to 4.2, which ensures good crop preservation.

V. good 3.8-4.2
good 4.2-4.5
poor >4.8
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Methods of Preparing Silage:

1. Chopping: The forage crop, such as grass, legumes, or corn, is chopped into small pieces to
increase the surface area for microbial action and ensure uniform packing in the silo or storage
structure.

2. Moisture Management: Ensuring the correct moisture content is crucial. For most crops, the ideal
moisture range is around 6070%. Crops too dry may not ferment well, while overly wet crops can
lead to undesirable spoilage.

3. Packing: Chopped forage is densely packed into airtight storage structures, such as silos, pits,
bunkers, or plastic bags, to exclude oxygen and create anaerobic conditions for fermentation.

4. Sealing: Silage is sealed with an airtight cover, which can be plastic film, tires, or other suitable
materials, to prevent air ingress and promote fermentation.

5. Fermentation: The ensiled forage undergoes lactic acid fermentation, where lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) convert sugars into lactic acid, lowering the pH and preserving the forage.

6. Fermentation Period: The fermentation process typically takes a few weeks. During this time,
the pH drops, and the forage becomes more stable and resistant to spoilage.

Important Crops Used for Silage Making:

1. Corn (Maize): Corn silage is one of the most popular silage crops. The entire plant, including the
stalks, leaves, and cobs, is harvested when the kernels are in the milk to dough stage.

2. Grasses: Grasses like ryegrass, fescue, and timothy can be used for silage. They are often mixed
with legumes like clover to improve nutrient content.

3. Legumes: Legumes such as alfalfa, clover, and vetch can be made into silage. They provide high
protein content and complement grasses well.

4. Sorghum and Sudan grass Hybrids: These crops are drought resistant and suitable for silage in
regions with limited water availability.

Factors Affecting Nutritive Value of Silage:

1. Nature of Crop: Legumes with low soluble carbohydrate content and high buffering
capacity can be challenging to ensile. Sugar additives like molasses can improve ensiling
conditions.

2. Losses of Nutrients During Ensilage: Field losses are minimized by harvesting and
ensiling on the same day.

Characteristics of Silage Categories:

Very Good Silage:

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● Clean, pleasant fruity odor.

● Absence of butyric acid, molds, sliminess, and proteolysis.
● pH between 3.8 and 4.2.
●

Good Silage:

● Traces of butyric acid.

● pH between 4.2 and 4.5.

Poor Silage:

● High butyric acid and proteolysis, resulting in a bad smell.

● Infested with molds.
● Lower acidity, with a pH above 4.8.
● Color tends to be blackish and is not suitable for feeding.

Importance of Proper Feed Storage:

1. Preservation of Nutritional Value

2. Cost Efficiency

3. Animal Health and Performance: Ensuring feed quality helps maintain animal health and
productivity.

4. Year-Round Availability: Proper storage allows farmers to stockpile feed ingredients, ensuring a
continuous supply of feed even during seasonal shortages or emergencies.

Improving the digestibility and nutritive value of wheat bran and paddy straw:

1. Chopping and grinding increase surface area for improved digestion.

2. Ammoniation increases protein content and reduces lignin in straw.
3. Enzyme supplementation aids in breaking down complex carbohydrates.
4. Steam flaking softens wheat bran and straw for better digestibility.
5. Protein supplementation with soybean meal enhances feed quality.
6. Sodium hydroxide treatment breaks down lignin in straw.

Reasons and methods for feed processing:

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1. Improve Feed Efficiency and Profitability

2. Alter Particle Size

3. Adjust Moisture Content:

● Lowering moisture content can make feed safer to store by preventing mold growth.
● Increasing moisture can enhance palatability and digestibility.

4. Increase Nutrient Content: Few feedstuffs, when used in their natural state, meet all the nutrient
requirements of animals. Feed processing may involve adding concentrated nutrients or
supplements to meet these requirements.

5. Detoxify or Remove Undesirable Factors: Certain feed ingredients contain harmful substances
or anti-nutritional factors that must be removed or detoxified.

Processing methods for roughage to improve its utilization by animals:

1. Chopping or Grinding: Reducing the length of roughage through chopping or grinding increases
its surface area, making it easier for animals to consume and digest..

2. Steam Treatment: Steaming or moistening roughage can improve its palatability and
digestibility.

3. Pelleting: Pelleting involves compressing roughage into pellets or cubes, which are easier for
animals to consume and reduce wastage.

4. Chemical or Enzymatic Treatment: Treating roughage with chemicals or enzymes can break
down complex fiber structures, increasing digestibility.

5. Ammoniation: Ammoniating roughage with anhydrous ammonia can improve its digestibility and
protein content. This method is particularly useful for low quality forages.

6. Addition of Molasses: Mixing roughage with molasses can enhance palatability and nutrient
content. It's often used in the production of molasses based liquid feeds.

7. Aerobic and Anaerobic Fermentation: Controlled aerobic or anaerobic fermentation processes

can convert low quality forages into more digestible and palatable feed.

8. Grain Supplementation: Supplementing roughage with grains or concentrates can increase the
energy content of the diet, making it more balanced and nutritionally adequate.

5.2 Anti nutritional and toxic factors present in livestock feeds, Feed analysis and quality control.

Anti-nutritional and toxic factors in livestock feeds are substances that can negatively impact the health,
growth, and performance of animals when consumed. These factors are typically naturally occurring in feed
ingredients and can have various detrimental effects.
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Anti-Nutritional Factors:

1. Protease inhibitors:

Protease inhibitors are substances found in various seeds and legumes that can inhibit proteolytic enzymes,
which are responsible for breaking down proteins in the digestive system.

Types of Protease Inhibitors:

● Kunitz Anti-Trypsin Inhibitor

● Bowman-Birk Chymotrypsin Inhibitors

Effects of Protease Inhibitors:

● Interference with Protein Digestion: Trypsin inhibitors hinder the activity of trypsin, leading to
reduced protein digestion in the animal's digestive system. As a result, dietary proteins are not
broken down efficiently into absorbable amino acids.

Heat Sensitivity of Protease Inhibitors: Most protease inhibitors are heat-labile, meaning they can be
deactivated by heat.

2. Saponins:

Saponins are naturally occurring compounds found in various plant foods, including leguminous fodders
like lucerne, white clover, red clover, and soybeans.

Presence in Leguminous Fodders: Leguminous fodders, as mentioned, contain saponins at levels of

around 3%.

Effects of Saponins on Livestock:

● Inhibition of Proteolytic Enzymes: Saponins can interfere with the action of proteolytic enzymes
in the digestive system.

● Hemolysis: Saponins have the ability to lyse or rupture red blood cells. This can result in hemolysis,
where red blood cells break apart, leading to various health issues.

● Bloating: In ruminant animals, saponins can cause the formation of bloat. Bloat is a condition
characterized by the accumulation of gas bubbles within the rumen, altering the surface tension of
rumen contents.

3. Tannins:
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Polyphenolic compounds, commonly referred to as tannins, are natural substances found in various plants.

Types of Tannins:

● Hydrolysable Tannins: These tannins can be hydrolyzed (broken down) into smaller components,
such as gallic acid and glucose, under certain conditions.

● Condensed Tannins: Also known as proanthocyanidins, these tannins are formed by the
polymerization of flavonoid compounds and cannot be easily hydrolyzed.

Effects of Tannins on Livestock:

1. Reduced Palatability: High tannin content in some herbage plants and grains can result in reduced
palatability. Animals may find these feeds less appealing due to the astringent taste of tannins.

2. Iron Bioavailability: Tannins can reduce the bioavailability of dietary iron.

4. Phytates:

Phytates, or phytic acid, are found in cereals and oilseeds like soybeans. They can have the following
effects:

● Reduced mineral availability: Phytates form complexes with minerals, particularly calcium,
magnesium, and zinc, reducing their absorption in the digestive tract.

● Enzyme inhibition: Phytates can inhibit enzymes like phytase, which is needed for the hydrolysis
of phytic acid and mineral release.

5. Oxalates:

Oxalates are compounds present in certain plants, such as spinach and beet greens. Oxalates can form
insoluble calcium oxalate crystals, which may lead to calcium deficiency and the formation of urinary tract
stones.

6. Lectins:

Lectins, also known as hemagglutinins, are proteins found in various plant foods.

Ricin in Castor Bean Cake: Ricin is a highly toxic lectin found in the seeds of the castor bean plant
(Ricinus communis). It is considered one of the most potent plant toxins. Ricin can agglutinate (clump
together) red blood cells, which is one of its toxic properties. Ingesting castor bean cake, which may contain
ricin, can be extremely harmful or even fatal to animals. Proper detoxification methods are essential to
make castor bean cake safe for animal consumption.
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Effects of Lectins:

1. Disruption of Brush Border: Lectins can bind to carbohydrate moieties on the surface of epithelial
cells in the small intestine. This binding can disrupt the brush border, which consists of microvilli
on the surface of intestinal cells, and impair its normal function.

2. Reduced Efficiency of Absorption: By disrupting the brush border, lectins can reduce the
efficiency of nutrient absorption in the small intestine. This can lead to malabsorption of essential
nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, and minerals.

7. Glucosinolates (Thioglycosides):

Glucosinolates are compounds primarily found in plants belonging to the genus Brassica, including
cabbage, turnips, rapeseed, and mustard seed.

● The main biological effect of glucosinolates is the suppression of thyroid hormone synthesis
(thyroxine and triiodothyronine), potentially leading to goiter.

8. Gossypol:

Gossypol is a polyphenolic compound found exclusively in the pigment of cottonseed. It serves as an

antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor. Gossypol is toxic to simple-stomached animals, including pigs,
rabbits, and poultry.

Symptoms of gossypol toxicity may include a depressed appetite, weight loss, and, in severe cases, cardiac
failure. To reduce gossypol toxicity, calcium hydroxide and iron salts can be added to the diet.

9. Mycotoxins:

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by certain molds (fungi) that can cause pathological or
physiological changes in both humans and animals.

Aflatoxins:

● Aflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin and are among the most potent toxic substances produced by
molds. They are secondary metabolites produced primarily by the molds Aspergillus flavus and A.
parasiticus.

● Aflatoxins are highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic, posing significant health
risks to both animals and humans.

● Young animals are generally more susceptible than adults.

Symptoms and Impact: Animals exposed to aflatoxins can experience liver damage, marked bile duct
proliferation, liver necrosis, and even hepatic tumors.
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Other Fungal Toxins:

In addition to aflatoxins, other fungal toxins can contaminate animal feedstuffs. Examples include T2 toxin,
Ochratoxin A, and Zearalenone, each with its own set of toxic effects and health implications.

10. Cyanogenic Glycosides:

Cyanogens are compounds that can release toxic cyanide (hydrocyanic acid or HCN) when hydrolyzed.

● Cyanogenic Plants: Certain plants, such as sorghum, Sudan grass, linseed, and cassava root,
contain relatively high levels of cyanogenic glycosides. These plants typically contain enzymes
that can hydrolyze cyanogenic glycosides into toxic hydrocyanic acid (HCN) when plant tissues
are damaged.

● Factors Affecting Cyanide Levels: High levels of HCN are often found in new growth that follows
periods of stress, such as drought, heavy trampling, or physical damage caused by frost. Excessive
nitrate fertilization of the soil, followed by abundant irrigation or rainfall, can also increase the
potential for HCN poisoning in these crops.

● Cyanide Poisoning Symptoms: Excess cyanide ions can quickly lead to anoxia (lack of oxygen)
in the central nervous system. Animals affected by cyanide poisoning may exhibit symptoms such
as nervousness, abnormal breathing, muscle trembling or jerking, blue discoloration of the lining
of the mouth, spasms or convulsions, and respiratory failure. Death can occur within seconds in
severe cases of poisoning.

● Treatment: Treatment for cyanide poisoning typically involves the intravenous injection of
antidotes, such as sodium nitrate and sodium thiosulfate. These antidotes help counteract the toxic
effects of cyanide by forming less harmful compounds.

● Susceptibility in Animals: Ruminant animals, such as cattle and sheep, are more susceptible to
HCN poisoning than monogastric animals like horses and pigs. This is because the gastric
hydrochloric acid (HCl) in monogastric animals can destroy the enzyme responsible for the release
of HCN from cyanogenic glycosides.

11. Alkaloids: Alkaloids are toxic compounds found in certain weeds and poisonous plants. They can have
various effects on animals, including neurological issues, liver damage, and digestive tract problems.

12. Nitrates and Nitrites: Nitrates and nitrites are substances found in forages that can cause toxicity in
livestock, particularly in ruminants. Nitrate is a non-protein nitrogenous fraction (NPN) present in various
forages, including certain plants and crops. Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals.

● Toxic Effect in Ruminants: The toxic effect on ruminants is primarily caused by the reduction of
nitrate to nitrite in the rumen, a compartment of the stomach in ruminant animals.
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● Toxicosis Mechanism: In the rumen, nitrate is converted to nitrite by certain microorganisms.

Nitrite is absorbed into red blood cells and reacts with hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying molecule
in blood. This reaction forms methemoglobin, a brown pigment that cannot transport oxygen. As a
result, affected animals experience a range of symptoms, including increased heart rate, rapid
respiration, a blue to chocolate brown tinge in the blood and tissues, muscle tremors, staggering,
and eventually suffocation.
antidote methylene blue
● Protective Measures: A high dose of concentrates in the daily ration and adequate vitamin A
intake can have a protective effect against nitrate toxicity.

13. Anti-Vitamins:

Anti-vitamins are compounds that interfere with the absorption or utilization of essential vitamins in the
body.

1. Anti-Vitamin A: Raw soybeans contain an enzyme called lipoxygenase, which catalyzes the
oxidation of carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. This enzyme can be destroyed by heating soybeans
for 15 minutes with steam at atmospheric pressure.

2. Anti-Vitamin D: Unheated soy protein can depress vitamin D synthesis in chicks and pigs. This
effect can be partially mitigated by increasing the vitamin D content in the diet or by autoclaving
(high-temperature steam sterilization) the isolated soy protein from unheated soybeans.

3. Anti-Vitamin E: Raw kidney beans, particularly those of the Phaseolus vulgaris species, contain
substances that can lead to muscular dystrophy in lambs by reducing plasma vitamin E. Autoclaving
kidney beans eliminates the anti-vitamin E activity, making the beans safe for consumption.

4. Anti-Vitamin K: Dicoumarol, found in plants like sweet clover, can lead to a fatal hemorrhagic
condition in cattle, known as "Sweet clover disease." Dicoumarol interferes with the blood clotting
mechanism by reducing the level of prothrombin in the blood.

5. Anti-Pyridoxine: An antagonist of pyridoxine, a member of the B-vitamins, occurs in linseed

(flaxseed).

6. Mimosine: Mimosine is found in plants of the genus Leucaena, such as subabul. It is a toxic non-
protein free amino acid that is chemically similar to tyrosine. Mimosine can cause health issues
when consumed in large quantities over an extended period. In the rumen, mimosine is degraded
to dihydroxy pyridone (DHP), which can inhibit the biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.

Feed analysis and quality control:

Feed Analysis:

Feed analysis involves the systematic assessment of the nutrient composition, physical properties, and
potential contaminants in animal feeds. The primary goal of feed analysis is to determine the nutritional
value and safety of the feed for specific livestock species. Here are the key aspects of feed analysis:

Proximate Analysis: Proximate analysis breaks down feed components into several categories, including:
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● Moisture Content: Determining the water content of the feed, which affects its stability
and shelf life.

● Crude Protein: Estimating the total protein content, which is essential for growth and
maintenance in animals.

● Crude Fat: Assessing the lipid content, which provides energy and fat-soluble vitamins.

● Crude Fiber: Measuring the indigestible fiber content, which impacts digestibility and gut
health.

● Ash Content: Determining the mineral content, which is essential for various
physiological processes.

Van Soest method:

The Van Soest method, also known as the Van Soest detergent fiber system or Van Soest fiber analysis, is
a widely used procedure for quantifying the fiber fractions in forage and feedstuffs. It was developed by
Dr. Pieter Van Soest and is commonly employed in nutritional studies and feed quality assessments. The
method divides plant fiber into several fractions based on their solubility and resistance to chemical
treatments. Here's an overview of the Van Soest method:

Procedure:

● Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) Determination

● Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) Determination
● Lignin Determination(ALD)
acid

5.3 Digestibility trials, direct, indirect and indicator methods and Predicting feed intake in grazing
animals:

Digestibility trials are essential for assessing the nutritional value of animal feeds by measuring the
proportion of nutrients that are absorbed and utilized by animals. These trials help in formulating balanced
diets and optimizing feed efficiency.

Factors affecting digestibility of feed:

1. Feed Quality: Higher-quality feeds are more digestible.

2. Fiber Content: High fiber levels can reduce digestibility.

3. Anti-Nutritional Factors: Substances like tannins can hinder digestion.

4. Feed Additives: Enzymes and probiotics can enhance digestibility.

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5. Animal Factors: Species, age, and health impact digestibility.

Methods of measurement of digestibility:

I. In vivo method:

1. Direct Method or Conventional method.

2. Indirect Method
● By Difference Method
● Indicators/Markers Method

II. Semi in vivo methods:

● Nylon bag technique: This technique involves placing a known quantity of the test feed into nylon
bags and inserting these bags into the rumen of a living ruminant animal. After a certain time, the
bags are retrieved, and the undigested feed residues are analyzed to determine digestibility.

● VIVAR Technique: The Voluntary Intake and Voluntary Apparent Digestibility (VIVAR)
technique involves offering the test feed to animals, usually in a confined space where they have
access to the feed, and measuring their voluntary intake. The excretion of nutrients is then measured
to calculate digestibility.

III. In vitro methods:

● Using rumen liquor: In this method, rumen liquor is collected from a living ruminant and used to
simulate the digestive processes that occur in the rumen. The test feed is mixed with rumen liquor,
and the extent of digestion is determined by analyzing the residues.

● Using enzymes instead of rumen liquor: Enzymes that mimic the digestive enzymes present in
the animal's gastrointestinal tract are used to digest the feed in vitro. This method is particularly
useful for studying the digestibility of specific nutrients under controlled conditions.

Direct Digestibility Trials:

Direct digestibility trials involve the direct collection and analysis of feces and urine from animals to
determine the amount of nutrients consumed and excreted. These trials are considered the most accurate
method for assessing nutrient digestibility but are often more labor-intensive and require specific
equipment.

direct digestibility trials working:

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● Feeding Phase: During this phase, animals are fed a controlled diet, and their intake is carefully
measured to determine the exact amount of each nutrient consumed.

● Collection Phase: After the feeding phase, feces and urine are collected from the animals over a
specific period. The collections are usually made continuously or in timed intervals.

● Analysis Phase: Collected samples are analyzed to determine the nutrient content in the feed, feces,
and urine. This information allows for the calculation of nutrient digestibility coefficients.

Precautions During Digestion Trials:

1. Animal Comfort: Ensure that the experimental animals are kept comfortable to allow normal feed
intake and behavior.

2. Water Supply: Provide the animals with an adequate supply of drinking water.

3. Deworming: De-worm the animals at the start of the feeding trial to ensure their health and prevent
any interference with nutrient absorption.

4. Body Weight Recording: Record the body weight of the animals both at the start of the feeding
trial and at the end of the collection period.

Indirect Digestibility Trials:

Indirect digestibility trials estimate nutrient digestibility without direct collection of feces and urine. These
trials are less invasive and may be more practical for certain situations, such as field conditions or when
dealing with large groups of animals.

Difference method: This method involves conducting a series of digestibility trials with different
combinations of feeds to estimate the digestibility of specific components.

How the indirect method works:

1. First Digestion Trial: In this trial, animals are fed a good quality roughage like legume hay to
determine the digestibility of nutrients in that roughage. This trial serves as a baseline for nutrient
digestibility.

2. Second Digestion Trial: The same animals that were used in the first trial are fed the same good
quality fodder as in the first trial. Additionally, a known quantity of concentrate feed, such as
groundnut cake or maize grain, whose digestibility is to be estimated, is also provided. The
digestibility of the concentrate feed is determined by the difference in nutrient intake compared to
the baseline (first trial).

3. Third Digestion Trial: In this trial, the same animals are fed the concentrate feed whose
digestibility was estimated in the second trial. Alongside the concentrate feed, a poor quality
roughage like grass, whose digestibility needs to be determined, is also provided. The digestibility
of the poor quality roughage is estimated by difference using the predicted value of the concentrate
feed obtained from the earlier trials.
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Justify why more than one digestibility trial needs to be conducted during indirect method of
digestibility determination of feed:

1. Variability in Animal Response: Different animals may have varying digestive efficiencies due
to factors like age, health, and genetics.

2. Seasonal and Environmental Variations: Feed and forage quality can vary significantly with
seasonal changes and environmental conditions.

3. Dietary Composition: Livestock may be exposed to different diets over time, which can impact
their digestive processes.

4. Statistical Validity: Multiple trials improve the statistical validity of the results.

Indicator Digestibility Trials:

This method involves the use of markers or inert substances to estimate nutrient utilization without the need
for daily collection of intake and excretion data.

● Internal (Natural) Indicators: These are substances that are naturally present in the feed itself.
Examples include silica, lignin, and acid-insoluble ash (AIA). These indicators are constituents of
the feed and are used to estimate nutrient digestibility.

● External Indicators: These are substances added to the feed from outside. Common external
indicators include chromic oxide (Cr2O3), ferric oxide, chromium EDTA, cesium, and titanium
dioxide. Among these, chromic oxide is one of the most commonly used external indicators.

Chromic Oxide: Chromic oxide is preferred for its insolubility and indigestibility. Chromium is unlikely
to be present in significant amounts in natural feeds, making it a suitable marker. It does not have a
pharmacological action on the digestive tract and is considered inert to the digestive system.

Ideal Indicator Specifications:

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1. Totally indigestible/Inert to the digestive system.

2. Lacking pharmacological effects on the digestive tract.

3. Able to mix uniformly in the digesta.

4. Passing through the digestive tract at a consistent rate and being entirely voided.

5. Preferably a natural constituent of the feed being tested.

Predicting feed intake in grazing animals:

Predicting feed intake in grazing animals involves various methods and techniques to estimate how much
forage or pasture an animal will consume. These methods can be categorized into direct and indirect
approaches.

1. Animal Based Methods: Involves estimating the amount of feces produced by animals and
determining the digestibility of the grazed forages. Typically includes collecting fecal samples and
analyzing them to measure nutrient content and digestibility. Provides direct insights into how
effectively animals are utilizing the forage.

2. Vegetation Based Methods: Involves estimating forage intake by monitoring the difference in
forage mass on the ground before and after animals graze.Often uses techniques like clipping and
weighing forage samples to assess consumption.

3. Feeding Behavior Methods: Based on observing the weight of each bite taken by animals, their
biting rate, and grazing time.

4. Marker Methods: Predicting feed intake in grazing animals using the indicator method involves
estimating forage intake by monitoring the consumption of a specific marker or indicator
substance by the animals. The indicator method helps determine how much forage the animals
are eating without directly measuring every mouthful of forage consumed.

Steps in indicator method:

1. Selection of an Indicator Substance: Choose a non nutrient substance that is safe for animals to
consume and easy to detect in their feces.

2. Feeding the Animals: Provide the marker mixed forage or diet to the grazing animals. Ensure that they
have access to this feed source during the entire feeding period.

3. Fecal Collection: Collect fecal samples from the animals during the study period. Samples should
represent a typical period of forage consumption.
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4. Marker Analysis: Analyze the fecal samples for the concentration of the chosen indicator substance.
This can be done using chemical analysis techniques specific to the selected marker.

5. Calculation: Calculate the daily intake of the indicator substance by dividing the total marker excreted
in the feces by the concentration of the marker in the feces.

6. Estimation of Forage Intake: Use the marker intake data to estimate the intake of the entire forage or
diet.

Advantages of the Indicator Method:

● It doesn't require direct measurements of forage intake.

● Suitable for large groups of animals.

● Provides estimates of total forage intake over a specific period.

● Useful for research and nutritional studies in grazing animals.

Limitations of the Indicator Method:

● Assumes uniform distribution of the marker in the forage.

● Requires knowledge of the marker's recovery rate, which may vary.

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