2BIOS

Fungi

Bacteria

Vines

Protozoa

Algae

Achea

BACTERIA

- Single cell organisms

- They multiply by binary fission
- Prokaryotes

ACHEA

- Prokaryotes

FUNGI

- Protozoa
- They lack cell wall
- Examples are plasmodium
- Reproduce through sexual and asexual reproduction and they b.

VIRUS

- Smallest form of organisms in nature

Assignment

Write exhaustively on the possibility of either virus are living or non-living

organisms

SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY

BIOGENESIS OF MICROBIOLOGY

- Robert Hooke (1635-1700) first person to discover the cell

- Anthony Vanwhenhulk- invent the microscope
- Robert Coach- Started the study of bacteria called Bacteriology. Also
discovered the coaches postulate ;
Disease must be caused by a disease causing organism
If the organism enters your body it overtakes you
- Joseph Lister: Father of antiseptic surgery

Viruses are not living things. Viruses are complicated assemblies of molecules,
including proteins, nicteic acids, lipids and carbohydrates, but on their own they
can do nothing until they enter a living cell. Without cells, viruses would not be
able to multiply. Therefore, viruses are not living things.

When virus encounters a cell, a series of chemical reactions occur that lead to
the production of new viruses. These steps are completely positive. That is ,
they are predefined by the nature of the molecules that comprise the virus
particle. Viruses don’t actually do anything. Often scientists and non-scientists
alike ascribe actins to viruses such as employing, displaying, destroying,
evading, exploiting, and so no. these terms are incorrect because viruses are
passive, completely at the mercy of their environment.
Scientists categorize viruses as neither living nor non-living due to the fact
viruses posses the characteristics of both the living and the non-living. For
instance, viruses can reproduce inside a host just like any other living organisms
but this ability is lost when the virus outside the host cell. This is because
viruses do not have the cellular machinery that is required to multiply hence
they hijack a living cell.

- Another aspect that makes viruses lie on the border is their ability to be
crystallized. Which was first discovered in the Tobacco Mosaic virus in
1892 and replicated under laboratory conditions in 1935.
- Another cax that supports the view of viruses as being alive is that they
follow Derwinian evolution. This is supported by the fact that over the
aeons, viruses have gradually altered their DNA or RNA to overcome the
immune reponses of its host, helping it to sustain and replicate new viruses,
essentially undergoing Darwinian Evolution.
- Living things use energy outside the cell of a host, viruses do not use any
energy. They become active when they come into contact with a host cell.
Once actiatal they use the host cell’s energy to make more viruses.
In conclusion virus is both living and non-living because it possess both
characteristics.
BIOLOGY:- It is derived from a Greek Word “Bios” meaning life (living
things) and “LOGOS” meaning STUDY. Biology is therefore defined as
“The study of living things” or as the science of living things.
Branches of Biology
The field of biology is sub-divided into:
1. BOTANY:- Study of plants
2. ZOOLOGY:- Study of animals
3. MICROBIOLOGY:- Study of micro organisms
4. ECOLOGY:- The study of plants and animals in relation to environment
5. MEDICINE:- Refers to as the science of diagnosis, treatment and
prevention of disease.
6. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY:- Refers to the study of composition,
structure and cellular molecules such as nuclear acid (RNA & DNA)

Note: RNA: Ribonucleic acid (sugar)

DNA: Deoxy ribo nucleic acid (canny genetics)

7. GENETICS:- refers to the study of heredity

8. EVOLUTION:- refers to change in heritable characteristics of biological
population over a successive generation.
9. PHYSIOLOGY:- deals with the normal function of living organisms
and their parts e.g function of retina.
10.MORPHOLOGY:- refers to study of characteristics and parts of living
things e.g eye, nose etc
 IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY
The following are the importance of biology
1. Understanding living things (how they function, evolve and interact with
each other in a given environment.
2. Biology through medicine, agriculture, bio-technology has brought about
improvement in the quality of life hybridization (a process of breeding a
mixed off-spring from two different stains or species of plant.
3. It explains the change in human bodies
4. It provides answers to large scale problems relating to organisms.
5. Helps in scientific (investigation)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF BIOLOGY

The process of acquiring biological knowledge is known as scientific

method the steps are. ORHEAC

1. Observation
2. Research question
3. Hypothesis
4. Experimentation
5. Analysis
6. Conclusion

OBSERVATION:- This involves stating to problem based on the

observation. Here the scientists recognizes that something has happened and
occurred repeatedly.

RESEARCHED:- refers to formation of question stating the problem for

investigation.
HYPOTHESIS:- This refers to as exploring resources that may have
information about the question or problem hence the scientist conduct a
literature review and interact with other scientist to develop knowledge
about the question at hand.

EXPERIMENTATION:- the information gotten from the other authorities

are rested through experiments to ascertain if there are correct.

CONCLUSION:- after analyzing the data, conclusion is down. A valid

conclusion must be based on facts observed in the experiments. If the data
from the repeated experiment support the hypothesis, the scientist publishes
hypothesis and experiment data for the other scientist to review and disclose.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Living things are quiet distinct from non-living with the following
characteristics (Mr. NIGER)

MOVEMENT/LOCOMOTION:- living things more about for one activity

or the other. Plants cannot more from place to place but show growth
movement in certain parts of their bodies. However some microscopic plants
like euglena can more from place to place during water current. In contrast
nor-living do not move at all except some outside force is applied.

RESPIRATION:- All living things respire in order to optain energy to

exidize food in order to provide energy. Non-living things do not respire.

NUTRITION:- Living things feed while non-living things do not feed.

IRRITABILITY/RESPONSE: Living things are sensitive to exterior

stimuli and internal stimuli while non-living things do not have this ability.
GROWTH: Living things have the ability to increase in size while non-
living things do not posses this ability.

EXCRETION:- Living things posses the ability to remove their waste or

Sto in harmless form while non-living things do not have this ability.

REPRODUCTION:- Living things have the ability to produce offspring of

their kind while non-living things do not reproduce.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

The difference between plants and animal include:

MOVEMENT/LOCOMOTION: Animals more freely from place to place

in search of food shelter. Plants on the other hand are fixed to the soil and
therefore unable to move except for few unicellular water plants e.g Euglena
and spirogyra.

RESPIRATION:- Animals take in oxygen while plants take in carbon

dioxide.

NUTRITION:- Animals depend on other organisms for survival known as

reterotrophic nutrition while plants through the process of photosynthesis
produce food by themselves known as autotrophic nutrition.

IRRITABILITY/RESPONSE:- Plants respond slowly to external stimuli

while animals respond quickly.

GROWTH:- In animals growth occurs uniformly in all part of the body.

This is known as intercalcry growth. While in plants, growth takes place at
the tip of shoots and tip of root this is know as Apical growth.
EXCRETION:- In animals, waste product are removed through specialized
excretory system while in plants waste product are stored in harmless form.
In certain cells of plants.

REPRODUCTION:- Animals undergo sexual reproduction while plant

undergo both sexual and sexual reproduction.

CELL STRUCTURE

CELL: all living things are made up of some smallest independent unit
cells. Cell is therefore the smallest independent unit, functional, structural,
fundamental unit of life. Cells where discovered by an English scientist and
inventor, ROBERT HOOKE in 1665. HOOKE observed a thin piece of coke
(The outer surface of the back of tree). Described the cork as been made by
hundreds of little boxes giving it the appearance of a honey lab, he called
this little boxes cells.

CELL THEORY

Cell theory states that

1. Cells are universal in occurrence and are the basic structural, fundamental
units of life.
2. All existing cells are from reproduction of the already existing ones.
3. They are independent, a single cell on its own produces others through
fission.
4. Cells contain inherited information which controls their activities.
 TYPES OF CELLS

Cells can be divided in to two broad groups

1. Prokaryotic cells
2. Eukaryotic cells
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS:- Simple structure with no definite nucleus.
They include the cells of bacteria & blue-green algae.

Characteristics of Prokaryotic cells

- They are characterized as follows

1) They lack membrane bonded nuclear
2) The cytoplasm contain enzymes, Ryzosomes and food storage granules but
lack endoplasmic reticulum, golgi body, mitochondria and chloroplast.
3) They have pieces of genetic material called plasa

Eukaryotic Cells: Has a complex structure with definite nucleus. They include
cells of plants, animals and fungi.

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are characterized as follows;

1. They have their nucleus bounded and posses nucleic membrane.

2. They posses organells (part of the cell) like mitochondria for respiration,
chloroplast for photosynthesis, endoplasmic reticulum and golgi bodies.
3. They are either unicellular or multicellular organisms

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION OF A GENERALISED CELL

All Eukaryotic cell has the same basic structure. Generally they consist of two
basic part.
1. The cell membrane/plasma membrane
2. Protoplasm
 CELL MEMBRANE/PLASMA MEMBRANE
1) It is very thin and encloses the protoplasm
2) It is found in all cells except viruses
3) It is semi permeable in nature where it allows selective passage of materials.

FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE

1. It protects the protoplasm

2. It controls a selective passage of material in and out of the cell.

CELL WALL

1. Cell wall is a fairly rigid structure found in plants, fungi which gives support
and protectioj to the cell.
2. Cell wall is the outer covering surrounding the cell membrane
3. It is composed of non-living material called cellulose in plants.
4. It is permeable in nature.

Functions of cell wall

1. Provide protection and shell foe cell

2. Provide mechanical support for cell
3. Allow the selective passage of nutrient in and out of the cell

PROTOPLASM

The plasma membrane encloses the protoplasm the patoplasm is made up of the
following;

1) Cytoplasm
2) Nucleus

CYTOPLASM:

1) It is a jellylike transparent material compose mainly of water.

2) It exist in liquid or semi liquid state
3) It has mainly organic and inorganic substances dissolved in it
4) It is a sight for all metabolic processes.

FUNCTIONS OF CYTOPLASM

1) It surrounds the nucleus

2) It carries the organelles in cell

(i) VACUOLE: It is characteristics

i) It is found in the cytoplasm

ii) It is very prominent in plant cell where they occupy a large part of the
cell. While in animal there are usually small.
iii) They store cell sap which is largely composed with salt and sugar
dissolved in it.

FUNCTIONS OF VACUOLE

1) Contain cell sap which serve as osmoregulator by helping to remove excess

water in the cells.
2) In plant cells, it’s vacuole serves as means of transporting materials in and
out of the cell.

(ii) MITOCHONDRIA

i) They are found in the cytoplasm

 ii) They contain DNA and Ribosome, however their ribosomes are smaller
than the cytoplasmic ribosome

FUNCTIONS

They are sights for cellular respiration and energy production and therefore
referred to as the power house of the cell.

(iii) PLASTIDS: This are spherical organelles found only in the cytoplasms of
plant cells. They are 3 basic types of plastids.

(1) Leucoplasts
(2) Chromoplasts
(3) Chloroplasts

LEUCOPLASTS:- They are colourless plastics that contain no pigment.

FUNCTIONS OF LEUCOPLASTS

- They are essential for food storage

- They store starch and oil
- CHROMOPLASTS: They are coloured plastics that contain pigment. Red
orange or yellow chromoplast contain carrotenoid pigment.

FUNCTIONS OF CHROMOPLASTS

1) They impact colour on plants parts e.g ripe tomato, carrot.

CHLOROPLAST: They contain green pigment called the chlorophyll. The

chloroplast are bounded by double membrane and are very useful during
photosynthesis.
FUNCTIONS OF CHLOROPLAST

i) The chlorophyll contained by chloroplast help in helping sunlight in

energy, which produce its fruit during photosynthesis.

(ii) Ribosomes: This are small spherical bodies bound in the cytoplasm.

FUNCTIONS OF RIBOSOMES

- They are responsible for protein synthesis (building)

(v) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: This is a system of membranes within

the cytoplasm of plants and animal cell, it forms a link or channels between the
cell and nuclear membrane, that is, they help in the transportation of materials
within the cell. They are two types,

i) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

ii) Rough endoplasmic reticulum

(vi) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

- They lack ribosomes and at sight for important metabolic reaction including
phospholipids and fatty acid synthesis.

FUNCTIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

- They are involved in synthesis packaging and transport of lipid and steroids.

(vii) Rough Endoplasm reticulum

- They are ribosome attached to their surface

- Proteins synthesis on the ribosome and are transported to the golgi
apparatus.
Function of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

- They package and transport protein made by ribosomes, through the channel
from one part of the cell to another.

(viii) GOLGI APPARATUS

- They are also called golgi body or golgi complex

This is an assembly of folded membrane within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. They store and transport secretory product such as enzymes and
hormones and play a role in the formation of cell wall.
FUNCTION OF GOLGI APPARATUS
- They help in packaging and transporting of secondary product.

LYSOSOMES

- They are membrane bounded are found within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells.
- They contain enzymes responsible for the digestion of foreign particles that
enter the cell e.g bacteria
- They help to breakdown dead cells
FUNCTIONS
- They help the cell to digest and destroy foreign bodies
- They serve as basal body from which flagrella or cellia arise

(ix) NUCLEUS

This is a large spherical body from embedded in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cell. They are very prominent and denser than the cytoplasm. The nucleus is
surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear membrane. The nuclear
membrane allows the selective passage of material from the cytoplasm to the
cell and the cell to the cytoplasm.

The nucleus contain the neueloplasm which consist of nucleus and chromatin
materials (RNA & DNA)

FUNCTIONS OF THE NUCLEUS

- They contain heredity material (gene or DNA or chromosomes) and are

involved in all division
- They control all cellular activities.

BIOLOGY

Cytology is the branch of life science that deals with the study of cells in terms
of structure function and chemistry.

History of cytology

Robert Hook was the first scientist to use the word cell in 1665. He looked at
slices of cork (Bark of an oak tree) through alight compound microscope. He
observed small spaces which were like tiny rooms or cells. Further more, in
1683 Anthon Vanlecuwenhock produced a more powerful magnifying
microscope where he viewed closely at specimen found in human body fluids.
He noticed tiny specimen that were capable of movement and named this little
moving objects anima cules. With his more advanced microscope, he was able
to observe structure within cells including neveleus of red blood cells. However
the importance of cells to all forms of life was not fully recognized until the
development of a classical cell theory in 1838 by a plant scientist Martins
Schceiden and animal scientist Theodore Schwann. They state that;
i) All living things are made up of one or more cells
ii) Cells are the fundamental, functional and structural unit of life.

In 1858, Rudolf Virchow abled to the classical cell theory that cells only come
from existing cells.

CELL DIVISION

This is a process of splitting a cell into two or more new cells (daughter cells)
with the same genetic material.

Types of cell division

- Mitosis
- Meiosis

MITOSIS

All cells are derived from other living cells. Mitosis is therefore a cell division
which gives rise to two daughter cells. These involve the synthesis of
photoplasm leading to the doubling of the chromosomes number (also known as
replication).

Mitosis is therefore a division of cell to produce two identical cells with the
same number of chromosomes and characteristic as those of the parent cells.
Mitosis occurs in somatic (body) cell such as skin, bone marrow, lymph nodes,
and injured place as well as meristematic tissues in plants.

STAGES OF MITOSIS

Interphase

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

 Interphase :- This is the resting or relaxing stage of the cell. At this

stage, the cell prepares itself for division by replicating its DNA.
 Chromosomes become elongated and form a network of fine thread
called chromatides (when chromosomes split, the particles two centuries
are formed just outside the nuclear membrane.

 Prophase:- they are two stages in prophase of mitotic division. The early
and late stage.
- Early prophase: early prophase is characterized as follows
(i) The chromatin thread become condensed
(ii) Nucleous start shrinking, centroiles starts moving away from each other
(iii) Formation of spindle fibres.

Early Prophase
- Late Prophase:- Late prophase of mitotic division is characterized as follows
i) The chromosomes becomes shorter, thicker and very visible
ii) Each chromosome forms distinct chromatids joined by centromere
iii) Nuclear membrane disappear allowing the moving up of cytoplasmic
materials
iv) Nucleus disappear

Late Prophase of Mitotic Division

METERPHASE:- Meterphase of the mitotic division a characterized as

follows

(i) The chromosome (paired chromatic) arrange themselves along the

equator of the cell (middle). The chromoses are attached to the spinde
fibres by the centromere of centroles separate to the poles in the cell
(north & south)

Metaphase of Mitotic Division

  Anaphase:- Anaphase of mitotic division is characterized as follows;
i) The set of chromatids more towards the poles of the cell by the
elongation of the spindle fibres.
The eventual reach the poles

Anaphase of Mitotic Division

 TELOPHASE:- Telophase of mitotic division is characterized as follows;

(i) The cell scap divides into two by constricting at the equator.
(ii) Nuclear material, nucleus and nuclear membrane are formed
(iii) Spindle fibre disappear
(iv) Constriction is completed and two daughter cells are formed

Early Telophase of Mitotic Division

Late Telophase

IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS

 Mitosis is important for repair.

 Mitosis happens when the parent cell divides creating two identical copies
called daughter cells.
 When people have injury, such as a cut on their skin mitosis allows the
body to heal itself by creating new cells to replace damaged one.
 Mitosis is important for a growing child, when a child grows taller
mitosis helps create new cells that will be needed for the growing of the
body.
 In humans, the incrutible way and tear that is normally associated with
the aging process, causing damage to new cells could be replaced by
mitotic division. Injuries and accident may result to cell impairment
therefore mitosis play an important role in replenishing the body with cuts
cell or repairing damaged body parts.
MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a type of cell division that occurs during spermatogenesis(sperm

formation) and oogenesis(egg formation) in which there is a reduction of
chromosomes to half of the original numbers of chromosomes. During
spermatogenesis or oogenesis in humans. The 46 chromosomes are reduced to
23 chromosomes.

Stages of meiosis
 The stage in meiosis consist of the first and the second division.

PMAT

PCI)

MCI)

ACI)

TCII)

PROPHASE (1)

This consist of three phases

i. Early prophase
ii. Middle prophase
iii. Late prophase

Early prophase is characterized as follow

Chromosomes becomes visible as long thread consist of nucleolus, centroils,

nuclear membrane.

MIDDLE PROPHASE

Middle prophase of meiotic division is characterized as follows

Chromosomes become thicker, shorter and clearly visible.

Midde prophase I of meiotic division

Middle prophase I of meiotic division

Spindles are formed

Late prophase

Late prophase of the meiotic division is characterized as follows

 Nuclear membrane starts disappearing

 Nucleus disappears
 It possess crossed-link called chiasmata which are formed between
chromosomes. Chaismata helps to hold two homologous chromosomes
together and also helps in exchange of genetic materials which result to
variation or mutation.

Late prophase I of the meiotic division

METAPHASE I

It is characterized as follows

Chromosomes are arranged at the equator and are attached to the spindle fibre by
their centromen.

Metaphase I of meiotic division

ANAPHASE (I)

It is characterized as follows

Chromosomes move apic towards the poles of the cell by shortening of spindle
fibre.

Anaphase I of Meiotic Division

TELOPHASE (I)

It is characterized as
 Chromosomes arise at the poles of the cell
 The nuclear membrane appears around each group of chromosomes.
 Nucleus appears on each nucleus
 The two nuclei have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
No cleavage of cytoplasm takes place. The cell proceed to the second division.

Prophase I of Meiotic Division

PROPHASE (II)
It is characterized as follows
 The cleavage finally occurs
 Chromosomes becomes most visible
 Spindle fibres are formed

Prophase II of Meiotic Division

METAPHASE

Nuclear membrane disappear and get dissolved in the cytoplasm

Chromosomes are arranged at the equator

Metaphase of meiotic division

ANAPHASE

Characterized by

The chromosomes separate and moves to the poles of the cell

Formation of the cleavage of the cytoplasm start

Anaphase ii of meiotic division

TELOPHASE II

 Chromosomes drive the pole of the cell and cleavage of the cytoplasm
completely occurs with the formation of nuclear membranes
 Nucleus appears in each of the cell
 This division result to four daughter cells.

Importance of Meiosis

 Meiosis is important because it reduces the number of chromosomes by half

allowing sexual reproduction to take place or occur. If meiosis did not
happen, it will result in death of a cell or other life threatening complications
with offspring.
 Meiosis helps to introduce genetic variations. The process of meiosis result
in various combination of genetic material from parent.
 Meiosis ensures that all produced organisms have the correct number of
chromosomes.
  Meiosis is important because it reprogrammed which help the fertilized egg
develop and grow
Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis.

Mitosis Meiosis
Takes place somatic cells Takes place in reproductive cells
Produces two diploid cells (two Produces four haploid (four daughter
daughter cells )from one parent cells from one parent)
No paring of chromosomes occur There is paring of chromosomes
Only one nuclear division occur Two nuclear division occur
Consist of shot prophase Consist of long prophase
No chiasmata occur Chiasmata occur
There is no exchange of genes

Similarities between mitosis and meiosis

Both

 Form new cells from preexisting cell through cell division.

 Nucleus gets dissolve at the prophase in
Both mitosis and meiosis

There is formation of spindle fibres in both.

ECOLOGY

Ecology may be defined as the study of plants and animals in relation to their
environment.

Types of Ecology

 Autecology
 Synecology
AUTEECOLOGY: is concerned with the study of individual organisms or
single series of an organism in relation to their environment. Example,
SYNECOLOGY: Is concerned with the of interrelationships between groups of
organisms or species of organisms living together in relation to their
environment. For example: study of different organisms in an aquatic
environment in relation in to their environment.

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPT

They are some important concepts commonly used in the study of ecology
which enables us to understand the subject matter some include:

1. Environment
2. Biosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Hydrosphere
5. Atmosphere
6. Habitat
7. Biome or biotic community
8. Ecological niche
9. Population
10.Ecosystem
ENVIRONMENT: environment refers to all factors external and internal
and non-living factors which surround and affects an organism.

BIOSPGERE: also known as ecosphere is the zone can be found on land,

soil, water and air. It provides habitats for organisms like animals, plants
and microorganisms.

LITHOSPHERE: is the solid portion of the earth. It is the outermost layer

ozone of the earth crust accepted by living organisms. It is made up of
rocks and mineral materials, and it also represent 30% of the earth. The
outermost layer of the land mark is made up of 100x rock material like
grand, sand and soil. Lithosphere forms all the basis of human settlement.

HYDROSPHERER: is the liquid or aquatic part of the earth occupied by

living things. It covers about 70% of the earth crust. It had water in
different forms solid(ice), liquid(water), gases (water vapor). Examples of
hydrosphere are: cake, pools, springs, ocean or sea, pounds, Oasis, rivers,
and stream.
ATMOSPHERE: is the gasses portion of the earth were living organisms
occupy. It is a layer of gases surrounding the earth. Over 99% of the
atmosphere lies within 30km of the earth surface. It contains 78% nitrogen,
20% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and 0.97% rare in gases.

HABITAT: is any environment in which an organism lives naturally. It is

also the natural dwelling place in which an organism can live e.g. the
habitat of fish is water. Habitat consist of aquatic habitat these include,
freshwater pumps, lakes, ditches, pools, salt water pumps, etc. terrestrial
habitat this include ground, underground, abs oral habitat.

BIOME OR BIOTIC COMMUNITY: a biome is any natural occurring

group of different organisms living together and interacting in the same
environment. A biome is the largest community of organism e.g. rain
forest ( is characterized with low temperature, tall trees with broad leaves
animals like monkey, snakes, chameleon and squared etc. Sahel savanna is
characterized with high temperature, low rainfall, short and scanty grasses
as well as rare animal species.

ECOLOGICAL NICHE: refers to the specific portion of a habitat which is

occupied with a particular species of organism. It is a cater-pillar and an
organism within the community e.g. a carter-pillar and an aphid which
lived on the same plant. The caterpillar lived mainly on the leaves and
feeds on tam while the aphid lives on young shoot and sucks sap from it
although those organisms live on some habitat, each has its own living
space and source of food.

POPULATION: is defined as the total number of organism. The same

species living together in a given area at a particular time. For example, the
total number of tilapia fish in a pound constitute the population of tilapia
fish in that pound.

ECOSYSTEM: refers to the community of plants and animals functioning

together in order words ecosystem consist of living factors (plant and
animal) interacting with non-living factors in the environment.
 FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS

 The factor affecting the distribution of organism may be broadly

divide into;
 Biotic factors
 Abiotic factors
BIOTIC FACTORS

Biotic factors are made up of effects of living organism on a given

organism. They consist of

i. Competition
ii. Parasitism
iii. Compensation
iv. Predation
v. Grazing
vi. Man
Competition: refers to interaction among two organisms of the same species or
different species in which one outgrows the other and survive while the other can
not grow nor survive. Competition is often based on limited environmental
resources which can be in short supply such as food, water, nutrients, gases, light
and space. During competition, one organism controls one or more of these
resources which enables it to grow and survive leading to its evolution.

When the competition is between members of the same species it is called intra-
species. Examples are (1) the flowing plant due to its size and numerous branches
and leaves an capable of differentiating the gases by deriving the gasses of
nutrients, space and sunlight. The gasses may eventually be eliminated.

PAASITISM: refers to an association between two organisms which are known as

the parasite lives in or on and feeds at the expense of the other organism which is
known as the host. The parasite benefits from the association while the host usually
suffers harm and dies. Example, man and tap warm. The tape warm is a parasite
that live in the small intestine of man where it derives the habitat and food. The
man who is the host suffers because he loses to tape the tape worm part of the food
he has eaten and digested.
COMMENSALISM: this is an association between two organism living together
in which only one commensation benefits from the association while the other is
neither benefiting or harmed. Example, remora fish attaches itself to the sody of
shark which carries it around, the remora fish feeds on the particles of it from the
shark. By so doing the remora fish gains shelter, protection and food from the
shark. The shark is neither benefiting nor harmed.

PREDATION: this is an association between two organisms in which the predator

kills the other called pray and directly feeds on it. The predator which is usually
tagger in size and always stronger than the pray benefits by deriving its food while
the pray is completely eliminated. Example of predation hawk and chick of
domestic fowl, the hawk is the predator that catches and kills the pray (chicks of
domestic fowls)the hawk is stronger and bigger than the chick. The hawk benefits
while the chick is killed.

GRAZING: Animals like sheep, horses, rabbit and cattle are all examples of
grazers. They feed on herbs and growing grass and these attract some plant species
more than the other e.g in a given place where animals graze on some species of
plants more than the other, those species of plants are likely to be less abundant
than the ones they reject.

MAN: Man is the most powerful biotic factor. Man has to a great extent altered the
residation of many places, turning wood lands into savanna and desert lands. Man
in his capacity as a hunter has also hunted some animals to the point of extinction.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

Abiotic factors are non living factors that can be affect the existence of living
things. They consist of

 Climate factor
 Chemical factor
 Edaphic factor
 Topography
CLIMATIC FACTORS

This arenon living factors that can affect the existence of living things. They
include temperature, rainfall, wind, pressure, sunlight or shine, humidity etc.

Chemical factors

These are non living factors that can affect the existence of living things. They
include: oxygen, nitrogen.

EDAPHIC FACTORS

Non living factors that can affect the existence of living things. These consist of
soil, its water, chemical and the physical composition as well as PH, nutrients
profile, structure and texture.

Topography

Non living factor that affect the existence of living things which are caused as a
result of the earth surface, e.g effect of rivers, hills, mountains and valleys.

FEEDING RELATIONSHIP IN ECOSYSTEM

The following are feeding relationship in an ecosystem

1. Food chain
2. Food web
FOOD CHAIN

It may be defined as a feeding relationship involving the transfer of energy through

food from producers to consumers. Examples of food chain in terrestrial habitat

Guinea grass grasshopper Toad Snake Hack

(producer) (primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)(Tertiary consumer)

Grass Antelope Lion

(producer) (primary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

Furthermore, every food chain usually begins with a producer(green plants) which
is feeding on by a herbivores(primary consumer) and in turn feed by a carnivores
Example in aquatic habitat

Diatons mosquito larva Tilapia fish Wale

(Producer) (primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (tertiary)

Humus Earthworm Domestic fowl Man

(Producer) (Primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary)

FOOD WEB

It may be defined by a complex feeding relationship among organisms in the

environment with two or more interrelated food chains. Food web contain two or
more food chain and therefore there are more organism in food web.

In nature, the interaction in feeding are more complex because a single plant
may be fed on by one or more organism. When a consumer feeds on different types
of plants or animals in a food web. It allows a better chance of survival in the
ecosystem.
 Food chain Food web
It involves linear feeding It involves complex feeding
relationship relationship
It involves one food chain It involves one or two food chain
It involves fewer organisms It involves many organisms
Organisms have lesser chance of Organisms have greater chances of
survival survival

TROPHIC LEVEL

It may be defined as the number of link in which food energy is transferred from
producers to consumers in a particular food chain.

Grass Antelope Lion

(First trophic level) (second trophic level) (third trophic level)

PYRAMID NUMBER

It can be as the number of individual organisms at each trophic level in a food

chain. It decreases progressively from the first to the last trophic level in a food
chain.

GENETICS

Genetics is a branch of biology that studies the origin and organization of

biological variation, their mode of transmission from generation to generation. The
chromosomes carry a heredity factor which brings about these variations. Heredity
on the other hand, is the ways and manner by traits are inherited from parents to
offspring. Gene is a unit of heredity of an organism.

GENETICAL CONCEPTION

In order to have a full understanding of the subject matter, there is need to define
some genetical concept.

1. Gene: This refers to a unit of heredity.

2. Chromosomes: There are threadlike structures of nucleic acid and protein
found in living cells. They are responsible in carrying genetic information or
genes.
3. Allele: These refers to an alternative form of the same gene occupying a
given position on a chromosomes, example Tt stands for height where T is
tallness and t is shortness.
4. Gametes: are the cells used during sexual reproduction to produce new
organism or zygote. The male gamete is sperm and the female gamete is egg
or oval. They are produced during meiosis.
5. Hybrid: These are the progeny or offspring of two plants or animal of
different species or varieties.
6. Dominant trait or gene: These are the dominant or pronounced inherited
characteristic that appears in an offspring which can come from just one
parent. It is designated by uppercase letter.
7. Recessive gene or trait: These are the weak and unpronounced inherited
characteristics in an offspring from just one parent. It is designated by
lowercase letter.
8. Phenotype: These are the observable characteristics of an organism. They
are the expressed trait both physical and physiological, for example a tall
man expresses tall trait a dark girl expresses dark traits.
9. Genotype: This is the genetic composition of an organism i.e both
expressed and unexpressed.
10.Homozygotes: This is when an offspring inherit genes from parents that
match e.g genes AA from parents are homozygote as well as aa e.g

Father Mother
TT T T

TT TT TT TT
11.Heterozygote: This is where an offspring inherit genes from parents that do
not match e.g gene of Aa from parents are heterozygous
 Father Mother
Tt T t

TT Tt tt Tt

MENDELS LAWS:

1) Mendel’s first law or principle of segregation: This states that the

characteristics of an organism are determined by inherited factors which
occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a
single gamete.
2) Mendel’s second law or principle of independent assultment states that
anyone of the pairs or characteristics may combine with either one of
another pair. This means that traits are transmitted to offspring
independently of one another. Furthermore it explains that when one or two
characteristics are inherited individuals heredity factors assault
independently during gamete production(meiosis)giving different traits and
equal opportunity of occurring together.
3) LAW OF DOMINANT: This states that if an individual offspring inherit 2
alleles(genes) from parents the phenotype of only one allele is said to be
dominant. This is also called Mendel’s third law.

METHODS OF SHOWING TRANSFER OF GENETIC MATTERS

1. TEST cross
2. Punnette square

TESTcross:These techniques involve showing traits of homozygotes dominant

and homozygous recessive as well heterozygous. Example:

Considering a tall father with dominant gene TT and a short mothertt determine
their offspring.
 Parents:Father Mother

TT t t

Tt Tt Tt Tt

1st generation

Ratio

Ratio 4:0

Tt T t

TT Tt Tt tt

2nd generation:TT=1

Tt=2

tt=1

Therefore phenotypic ratio=3:1

Genotypic ratio=1:2:1

If asked to find percentage ratio of phenotype

⁄ and ⁄ and

Genotype: ⁄ , ⁄ and ⁄
PUNNETTE SQUARE

This involve showing traits of four possible arrangement of alleles (gene) found in
parent gamete as its inherited offspring, example;

Let Y represent yellow (dominant)

r represent wrinkled seed (recessive)

R represent round seed (dominant)

y represent green seed (recessive)

RY RY ry ry
Ry Ry Ry ry ry
Ry O Ry O Ry O Ry O
Ry Ry Ry ry ry
Ry O Ry Ry O Ry
Ry Ry Ry ry ry
ry O ry O ry ry
Ry Ry Ry ry ry
ry O ry ry ry B
KEY

O= round Yellow: 9, = round green: 3, = wrinkle yellow:3, B= wrinkle

green:1

CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH INHERITANCE

1. Sickle cell disease

2. Albinism

SICKLE CELL DISEASE: This is a hemolytic disease characterized by a

tendency of the red blood cells to become abnormal in shape (sickle shaped) which
causes low oxygen tension. However sickle cell disease is a serious inheritable
disease caused by abnormal shape of red blood cells which can be inherited from
parents to offspring. The function of the red blood cell is to transport oxygen with
the help of hemoglobin contained in it helps various living cells in the body. The
abnormal red blood cell contains less hemoglobin therefore not efficient as oxygen
carrier.
 More so, for a person to become a stickler, he must inherit the gene for
sickle cell in a double condition. A person who inherits the gene from both parents
suffers from sickle cell anemia. The disease is called sickle cell because the red
blood cells look like sickle. The sickle shape red blood cells cornicing less
hemoglobin and therefore carry less volume of oxygen to respiring cells and hence
to loss of energy in which victim occurs. The sickle cells are rapidly destroyed thus
the patient becomes anemic.

The bone marrow becomes over active in an attempt to build new red blood
cells. This causes severe pains on the bone, severe anemia causes weakness of the
heart which could lead to heart failure. Some of complications due to restricted
blood flow to various parts of the body as a result of abnormal red blood cells are
as follows;

1. Failure of blood supply to muscle leading to romatism.

2. Failure of blood supply to brain leading to paralysis.
3. Failure of blood supply to intestine leading to severe abdominal pain.

Genotype are interpreted as follows

AA=Normal gene

AS=Carrier gene

SS=Sickle cell gene

Case 1

A cross between normal gene and sickle cell gene which give the following result.

Parent: A A S S

Offspring :AS AS AS AS
 Case 2

A cross between two carriers will give the following result.

Parent: A S A S

Offspring :AS AS AS SS

ALBINISM

This occurs when an allelic gene fails to produce a certain enzyme tyrosinase
which builds the pigment tyrosine. Such a gene is mutated and persist in the cell
which can be inherited by offspring. It is characterized with light skin, white hair
and pink eyes. The gene for normal skin is represented as AA or AS while for an
albino is aa.

Example: consider a cross between two parents who themselves are not albino but
carry the albino genes. Determine the result.

Parent: A a A a

Offspring :AA Aa Aa aa

DETERMINANT OF SEX IN MAN

The sex baby of an offspring may be determined at conception. The spermatozoa

produced by male have X and Y chromosomes while the eggs produced by female
have X and X chromosomes. If the sperm fertilizes the egg with X chromosomes
the outcome in the zygote will result to a female child. But on the other hand if the
sperm fertilizes the egg with the Y chromosome in the zygote the outcome will
result to a male child.
 Male Female

Parent: X X X Y

Offspring :XX XY XX XY

A,B,O Blood group

Blood cells have a combination of substances on the red blood cells known as
Antigens which are on their surfaces and can be inherited. The antigens which are
on the surfaces of the red blood cell function to enable our immune system
distinguish the body’s own cell from foreign invaders. When invaders are
recognized they are destroyed by antibodies which are produced by immune
system. The A,B,O blood group helps to provide understanding of how individual
differ in the body way their body works. This is helpful during blood transfusion.
The knowledge of one’s blood group is very important in preventing crisis as a
result of blood loss during accident and ailment like anemia. There is a need to
replace the blood loss by transfusion if such happens. This is made possible when
the person’s blood group is known.

TYPES OF BLOOD GROUP

1. Blood group A
2. Blood group B
3. Blood group AB
4. Blood group O
 RECIPIENT

A B AB(universal recipient) O
because it has all the
antegens that is A,B,
AB and O
DONOR
A X X
B X X
AB X X X
O(universal donor) it
has no antigen on its
surface

APPLICATION OF GENETICS

Genetics may be applied in the following areas

Taxonomy

Agriculture

Medicine

Evolution

TAXONOMY: Genetic characters like chromosomes are of taxonomic

significance.Chromosomes help in classification of organisms such as plant e.g

Genus: Triticum to which wheat belongs has been classified into three groups

i. Diploid
ii. Tetracloid
iii. Hexacloid

In animals, the degree of chromosomes homology is studied from

chromosomes pairing during meiosis. These give an idea about the relationship
of parental species. Higher the homology, closer is the relationship between
two species. Some species have B chromosomes which help in the
identification of similar species.
AGRICULTURE: The contribution of genetics in the field of agriculture is
significant in two ways

1. Improvement of crop plants

2. Improvement of domestic animals

Improvement of crop plants: Various principles and methods of genetics have

been applied for the development of plant usefulness to mankind. This is
controlled by hybridization and artificial selection of species which has
increased usefulness of many plants. These application results to:

i. Good use
ii. Good quality
iii. Maturity duration
iv. Resistance to insect/disease, salinity, drought, Faust.
v. Adaptability

Improvement of domestic animals: Improvement of domestic animals has been

initiated through selective breeding of various animal species. The milk
production in cows, meat production in sheep, goat, pigs and egg production
capacity in poultry have significantly improved through the application of
genetic principles. More so, many improved breeds of pet animals like horse,
dogs, cat, pigeon and rabbit have been developed.

MEDICINE: The field of genetics has aid in the advancement of medicine in

many ways

i. Detection of hereditary diseases

ii. Production of antibiotics

Detection of hereditary diseases: Recently hereditary diseases can be detected

at the early stage of life when it is possible to provide secondary ever in most
cases. Also genetic diseases can be prevented by advising future parents with
the help of family pedigrees.

Production of antibiotics: Special genetic strains of fungi and bacteria have

been isolated to greatly increase the use of antibiotics and other drugs. Also
genetics helps in settling the disputed case of children through blood groups.
EVOLUTION: Both natural and artificial selection has been responsible for
evolution of various crop plants. However, selection is effective when
sufficient amount of variability exist in the population in which selection has to
be practiced.

Write on bio-molecules

ENZYMES

Enzymes are proteins that help speed up chemical reactions in our body.
Enzymes are essential for digestion, liver function and much more. Too much
or two little of a certain enzyme can cause health problem. Enzymes in our
blood can also health care providers check for injuries and diseases.

However, enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism or chemical

reaction in our bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All
living things have enzymes. Also our bodies naturally produce enzymes thus
enzymes are also in manufactured product and food.

Importance of enzymes

One of the most important uses of enzymes is to aid in digestion. Digestion is

the process of turning the food we eat into energy. For example there are
enzymes in our saliva, pancreas, intestine, and stomach. They break down fat,
proteins and carbohydrates.

Furthermore, some enzymes use these nutrients for growth and cell
repair. Enzymes also help with;

i. Breathing
ii. Building muscles
iii. Nerves function
iv. Ridding our bodies of toxins

Types of enzymes

They are thousands of individual enzymes in the body, each type of enzymes
only has one job. For example, the enzyme sucrose break down the sugar
called sucrose, lactase breaks down lactose (all kind of sugar found in milk).
Some of the most common digestive enzymes are;

i. Carbohydras breaks down carbohydrate into sugar

ii. Lipase breaks down fat into fatty acids
iii. Protease breaks down protein into amino acids.

Factors that affect enzymes

Enzymes need the right conditions to work. If conditions are not right,
enzymes can change it morphology. They no longer fit with substrates, so they
don’t work correctly. Factors that affect enzymes are as follows:

1. Temperature
2. Ph

Temperature: Enzymes works best when the body temperature is normal that
is 37C.As temperature increases enzymes reaction increase. But if the
temperature gets too high the enzyme stops working that is why the high fever
can disrupt bodily functions.

Ph:

Enzymes are sensitive to acidity and alkalinity. They don’t work properly if an
environment is too acidic or basic. For example: enzymes in the stomach
called pepsin breaks down proteins. If your stomach doesn’t have enough acid,
pepsin can’t function optometry.