DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

1. Define the term digital.

The term digital refers to any process that is accomplished using discrete
units
2. What is meant by bit?
A binary digit is called bit
3. What is the best example of digital system?
Digital computer is the best example of a digital system.
4. Define byte?
A group of 8 bits.
5. List the number systems?
i) Decimal Number system
ii) Binary Number system
iii) Octal Number system
iv) Hexadecimal Number system
6. State the sequence of operator precedence in Boolean expression?
i) Parenthesis
ii) AND
iii) OR
7. What is the abbreviation of ASCII and EBCDIC code?
ASCII- American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
EBCDIC- Extended Binary Coded Decimal Information Code.
8. What are the universal gates?
NAND and NOR
9. What are the different types of number complements?
i) r’s Complement
ii) (r-1)’s Complement.
10.Why complementing a number representation is needed?
Complementing a number becomes as in digital computer for simplifying
the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation complements are
used.
11.How to represent a positive and negative sign in computers?
Positive (+) sign by 0
Negative (-) sign by 1.
12.What is meant by Map method?
The map method provides a simple straightforward procedure for
minimizing Boolean function.
13.What is meant by two variable map?
 Two variable map have four minterms for two variables, hence the map
consists of four squares, one for each minterm
14.What is meant by three variable map?
Three variable map have 8 minterms for three variables, hence the map
consists of 8 squares, one for each minterm
15.Which gate is equal to AND-inverter Gate?
NAND gate.
16.What is the use of Don’t care conditions?
Any digital circuit using this code operates under the assumption that these
unused combinations will never occur as long as the system
17.Express the function f(x, y, z)=1 in the sum of minterms and a product of
maxterms?
Minterms=∑(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
Maxterms=Nomaxterms.
18.What is the algebraic function of Exclusive-OR gate and Exclusive-NOR
gate?
F=xy’ + x’y
F=xy +x’y’
19.What are the methods adopted to reduce Boolean function?
i) Karnaugh map
ii) Tabular method or Quine mccluskey method
iii) Variable entered map technique.
20.Why we go in for tabulation method?
This method can be applied to problems with many variables and has the
advantage of being suitable for machine computation.
21.State the limitations of karnaugh map.
i) Generally it is limited to six variable map (i.e.) more then six variable
involving expressions are not reduced.
ii) The map method is restricted in its capability since they are useful for
simplifying only Boolean expression represented in standard form.
22.What is tabulation method?
A method involving an exhaustive tabular search method for the minimum
expression to solve a Boolean equation is called as a tabulation method.
23.What are prime-implicants?
The terms remained unchecked are called prime-implicants. They cannot be
reduced further.
24.Explain or list out the advantages and disadvantages of K-map method?
The advantages of the K-map method are
i. It is a fast method for simplifying expression up to four variables.
ii. It gives a visual method of logic simplification.
 iii. Prime implicants and essential prime implicants are identified fast.
iv. Suitable for both SOP and POS forms of reduction.
v. It is more suitable for class room teachings on logic simplification.
The disadvantages of the K-map method are
i. It is not suitable for computer reduction.
ii. K-maps are not suitable when the number of variables involved exceed
four.
iii. Care must be taken to fill in every cell with the relevant entry, such as a
0, 1 (or) don’t care terms.
25.List out the advantages and disadvantages of Quine-Mc Cluskey method?
The advantages are,
a. This is suitable when the number of variables exceed four.
b. Digital computers can be used to obtain the solution fast.
c. Essential prime implicants, which are not evident in K-map, can be clearly
seen in the final results.
The disadvantages are,
a. Lengthy procedure than K-map.
b. Requires several grouping and steps as compared to K-map.
c. It is much slower.
d. No visual identification of reduction process.
e. The Quine Mc Cluskey method is essentially a computer reduction
method.

26.What are the problems involved in asynchronous circuits?

The asynchronous sequential circuits have three problems namely,
a. Cycles b) Races c) Hazards

27.Define cycles?
If an input change includes a feedback transition through more than unstable
state then such a situation is called a cycle.

28..Define primitive flow table?

A primitive flow table is a flow table with only one stable total state in each
row. Remember that a total state consists of the internal state combined with
the input.

29.Define Positive Logic.

When high voltage or more positive voltage level is associated with binary
‘1’ and while the low or less positive level is associated with binary ‘0’ then
the system adhering to this is called positive logic.

30.Define Negative Logic.

When high voltage level is associated with binary ‘0’ and while the low
level is associated with binary ‘1’ then the system adhering to this is called
negative logic

31.List the characteristics of digital Ics

i) propagation delay
ii) power dissipation
iii) Fan-in
iv) Fan-out
v) Noise margin

32.What is propagation delay?

It is the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate from input
to output when the signals change in value.

33.What is Noise margin?

It is the limit of a noise voltage, which may be present with out impairing
the proper operation of the circuit.

34.What is power dissipation?

It is the power consumed by the gate, which must be available from the
power supply.

35.Why parity checker is needed?

Parity checker is required at the receiver side to check whether the expected
parity is equal to the calculated parity or not. If they are not equal then it is
found that the received data has error.

36.What is meant by parity bit?

Parity bit is an extra bit included with a binary message to make the number
of 1’s either odd or even. The message, including the parity bit is transmitted
and then checked at the receiving and for errors.

37.Why parity generator necessary?

Parity generator is essential to generate parity bit in the transmitter.
38.What is IC?
An integrated circuit is a small silicon semiconductor crystal called a chip
containing electrical components such as transistors, diodes, resistors and
capacitors. The various components are interconnected inside the chip to
form an electronic circuit.

39.What are the needs for binary codes?

a. Code is used to represent letters, numbers and punctuation marks.
b. Coding is required for maximum efficiency in single transmission.
c. Binary codes are the major components in the synthesis (artificial
generation) of speech and video signals.
d. By using error detecting codes, errors generated in signal transmission can
be detected.
e. Codes are used for data compression by which large amounts of data are
transmitted in very short duration of time.

40.Mention the different type of binary codes?

The various types of binary codes are,
f. BCD code (Binary Coded decimal).
g. Self-complementing code.
h. The excess-3 (X’s-3) code.
i. Gray code.
j. Binary weighted code.
k. Alphanumeric code.
l. The ASCII code.
m. Extended binary-coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC).
n. Error-detecting and error-correcting code.
o. Hamming code.

41.List the advantages and disadvantages of BCD code?

The advantages of BCD code are
a. Any large decimal number can be easily converted into corresponding
binary number
b. A person needs to remember only the binary equivalents of decimal
number from 0 to 9.
c. Conversion from BCD into decimal is also very easy.
The disadvantages of BCD code are
a. The code is least efficient. It requires several symbols to represent even
small numbers.
b. Binary addition and subtraction can lead to wrong answer.
c. Special codes are required for arithmetic operations.
d. This is not a self-complementing code.
e. Conversion into other coding schemes requires special methods.

42.What is meant by self-complementing code?

A self-complementing code is the one in which the members of the number
system complement on themselves. This requires the following two
conditions to be satisfied.
a. The complement of the number should be obtained from that number by
replacing 1s with 0s and 0s with 1s.
b. The sum of the number and its complement should be equal to decimal 9.
Example of a self-complementing code is
i. 2-4-2-1 code.
ii. Excess-3 code.

43.Mention the advantages of ASCII code?

The following are the advantages of ASCII code
a. There are 27 =128 possible combinations. Hence, a large number of
symbols, alphabets etc.., can be easily represented.
b. There is a definite order in which the alphabets, etc.., are assigned to each
code word.
c. The parity bits can be added for error-detection and correction.

44.What are the disadvantages of ASCII code?

The disadvantages of ASCII code are
a. The length of the code is larger and hence more bandwidth is required for
transmission.
b. With more characters and symbols to represent, this is not completely
sufficient.

45.What is the truth table?

A truth table lists all possible combinations of inputs and the corresponding
outputs.

46.Define figure of merit?

Figure of merits is defined as the product of speed and power. The speed is
specified in terms of propagation delay time expressed in nano seconds.
Figure of merits=Propagation delay time (ns)*
Power (mw)
It is specified in pico joules (ns*mw=PJ).

47.Define Combinational circuit.

A combinational circuit consist of logic gates whose outputs at anytime are
determined directly from the present combination of inputs without regard to
previous inputs.

48.Define sequential circuits.

Their outputs are a function of the inputs and the state of memory elements.
The state of memory elements, in turn, is a function of previous inputs.

49.What is a half-adder?
The combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits are called a
halfadder.

50.What is a full-adder?
The combinational circuit that performs the addition of three bits are called a
halfadder.

51.What is half-subtractor?
The combinational circuit that performs the subtraction of two bits are called
ahalfsubtractor.

52.What is a full-subtractor?
The combinational circuit that performs the subtraction of three bits are
called a half- subtractor.

53.What is Binary parallel adder?

A binary parallel adder is a digital function that produces the arithemetic
sum of two binary numbers in parallel.

54.What is BCD adder?

A BCD adder is a circuit that adds two BCD digits in parallel and
produces a sum digit also in BCD.

55.What is Magnitude Comparator?

A Magnitude Comparator is a combinational circuit that compares two
numbers, A and B and determines their relative magnitudes.

56.What is decoder?
 A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information
from ‘n’ input lines to a maximum of 2n unique output lines.

57.What is encoder?
A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information
from 2nInput lines to a maximum of ‘n’ unique output lines.

58.Define Multiplexing?
Multiplexing means transmitting a large number of information units
over a smaller number of channels or lines.

59.What is Demultiplexer?
A Demultiplexer is a circuit that receives information on a single line and
transmits this information on one of 2n possible output lines

60.Give the truth table for a half adder.

61.Give the truth table for a half Subtractor.

62.From the truth table of a half adder derive the logic equation

63.From the truth table of a half subractor derive the logic equation

64.From the truth table of a full adder derive the logic equation
65.What is code conversion?
If two systems working with different binary codes are to be
synchronized in operation, then we need digital circuit which converts
one system of codes to the other. The process of conversion is referred to
as code conversion.

66.What is code converter?

It is a circuit that makes the two systems compatible even though each
uses a different binary code. It is a device that converts binary signals
from a source code to its output code. One example is a BCD to Xs3
converter.

67.What do you mean by analyzing a combinational circuit?

The reverse process for implementing a Boolean expression is called as
analyzing a combinational circuit. (ie) the available logic diagram is
analyzed step by step and finding the Boolean function

68.Give the applications of Demultiplexer.

It finds its application in Data transmission system with error
detection.
One simple application is binary to Decimal decoder.
69.Mention the uses of Demultiplexer.
Demultiplexer is used in computers when a same message has to be sent
to different receivers. Not only in computers, but any time information
from one source can be fed to several places.

70.Give other name for Multiplexer and Demultiplexer.

Multiplexer is other wise called as Data selector.
Demultiplexer is otherwise called as Data distributor.

71.What is the function of the enable input in a Multiplexer?

The function of the enable input in a MUX is to control the operation of
the unit.

72.Give the truth table for a full Subtractor.

73.Give the truth table for a full adder.

74.From the truth table of a full subtractor derive the logic equation

75.What is priority encoder?

A priority encoder is an encoder that includes the priority function. The
operation of the priority encoder is such that if two or more inputs are
equal to 1 at the same time, the input having the highest priority will take
precedence.
76.Can a decoder function as a Demultiplexer?
Yes. A decoder with enable can function as a Demultiplexer if the enable
line E is taken as a data input line A and B are taken as selection lines.

77.List out the applications of multiplexer?

The various applications of multiplexer are
Data routing.
Logic function generator.
Control sequencer.
Parallel-to-serial converter.

78.List out the applications of decoder?

 The applications of decoder are
Decoders are used in counter system.
They are used in analog to digital converter.
Decoder outputs can be used to drive a display
system.

79.List out the applications of comparators?

The following are the applications of comparator
Comparators are used as a part of
the address decoding circuitry in
computers to select a specific
input/output device for the storage
of data.
They are used to actuate circuitry
to drive the physical variable
towards the reference value.
They are used in control applications.

80.What are the applications of seven segment displays?

The seven segment displays are used in
LED displays
LCD displays
81.List the types of ROM.
Programmable ROM (PROM)
Erasable ROM (EPROM)
Electrically Erasable ROM (EEROM)

82.Differentiate ROM & PLD’s

83.What is digital comparator?

A comparator is a special combinational circuit designed primarily to
compare the relative magnitude of two binary numbers.
84.What are the different types of RAM?
The different types of RAM are
NMOS RAM (Nitride Metal Oxide Semiconductor RAM)
CMOS RAM (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor RAM)
Schottky TTL RAM
ELL RAM.

85.What are the types of arrays in RAM?

RAM has two type of array namely,
Linear array
Coincident array

86.Explain DRAM?
The dynamic RAM (DRAM) is an operating mod, which stores the
binary information in the form of electric charges on capacitors. The
capacitors are provided inside the chip by MOS transistors.
 The stored charges on the capacitors tend to discharge with time and the
capacitors must be tending to discharge with time and the capacitors must
be periodically recharged by refreshing the dynamic memory.
DRAM offers reduced power consumption and larger storage capacity in
a single memory chip.

87.Explain SRAM?
Static RAM (SRAM) consists of internal latches that store the binary
information. The stored information remains valid as long as the power is
applied to the unit. SRAM is easier to use and has shorter read and write
cycle. The memory capacity of a static RAM varies from 64 bit to 1
mega bit.

88.Differentiate volatile and non-volatile memory?

89.What are the terms that determine the size of a PAL?

The size of a PLA is specified by the
Number of inputs
Number of products terms
Number of outputs

90.What are the advantages of RAM?

The advantages of RAM are
Non-destructive read out
Fast operating speed
Low power dissipation
Compatibility
Economy

91.What is VHDL?
VHDL is a hardware description language that can be used to model a
digital system at many level of abstraction, ranging from the algorithmic
level to the gate level.
The VHDL language as a combination of the following language.
Sequential language
Concurrent language
Net-list language
Timing specification
Waveform generation language.
Volatile memory Non-volatile memory
They are memory units which lose stored information when power is
turned off.
E.g. SRAM and DRAM
It retains stored information when power is turned off.
E.g. Magnetic disc and ROM

92.What are the features of VHDL?

The features of VHDL are
VHDL has powerful constructs.
VHDL supports design library.
The language is not case sensitive.

93.What is meant by memory decoding?

The memory IC used in a digital system is selected or enabled only for
the range of addresses assigned to it .
What is access and cycle time?
The access time of the memory is the time to select word and read it. The
cycle time of a memory is a time required to complete a write operation.

94.What is sequential circuit?

Sequential circuit is a broad category of digital circuit whose logic states
depend on a specified time sequence. A sequential circuit consists of a
combinational circuit to which memory elements are connected to form a
feedback path.

95.List the classifications of sequential circuit.

i) Synchronous sequential circuit.
ii) Asynchronous sequential circuit.

96.what is Synchronous sequential circuit?

A Synchronous sequential circuit is a system whose behavior can be defined
from the knowledge of its signal at discrete instants of time

97.What is clocked sequential circuits?

Synchronous sequential circuit that use clock pulses in the inputs of memory
elements are called clocked sequential circuit. One advantage as that they
don’t cause instability problems.

98.What is a characteristic table?

A characteristic table defines the logical property of the flip-flop and
completely characteristic its operation

99.What is called latch?

Latch is a simple memory element, which consists of a pair of logic gates
with their inputs and outputs inter connected in a feedback arrangement,
which permits a single bit to be stored

100.List different types of flip-flops.

i) SR flip-flop
ii) Clocked RS flip-flop
iii) D flip-flop
iv) T flip-flop
v) JK flip-flop
vi) JK master slave flip-flop

101.What do you mean by triggering of flip-flop.

The state of a flip-flop is switched by a momentary change in the input
signal. This momentary change is called a trigger and the transition it causes
is said to trigger the flip-flop

102.What is an excitation table?

During the design process we usually know the transition from present state
to next state and wish to find the flip-flop input conditions that will cause the
required transition. A table which lists the required inputs for a given chance
of state is called an
excitation table.

103.Give the excitation table of a JK flip-flop

104.Give the excitation table of a SR flip-flop

105.Give the excitation table of a T flip-flop

106.Give the excitation table of a D flip-flop

107.Give the characteristic equation of a SR flip-flop.

108.Give the characteristic equation of a D flip-flop.

109.Give the characteristic equation of a JK flip-flop.

110.Give the characteristic equation of a T flip-flop.

111.What is the difference between truth table and excitation table.
i) An excitation table is a table that lists the required inputs for a given
change of state.
ii) A truth table is a table indicating the output of a logic circuit for various
input states.

112.What is counter?
A counter is used to count pulse and give the output in binary form.

113.What is synchronous counter?

In a synchronous counter, the clock pulse is applied simultaneously to all
flipflops. The output of the flip-flops change state at the same instant. The
speed of operation is high compared to an asynchronous counter

114.What is Asynchronous counter?

In a Asynchronous counter, the clock pulse is applied to the first flip-flops.
The change of state in the output of this flip-flop serves as a clock pulse to
the next flip-flop and so on. Here all the flip-flops do not change state at the
same instant and hence speed is less.

115.What is down counter?

A counter that decrements the output by one binary number each time a
clock pulse is applied.

116.What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous counter?

117.Name the different types of counter.

a) Synchronous counter
b) Asynchronous counter
i) Up counter
ii) Down counter
iii) Modulo – N counter
iv) Up/Down counter
118.What is up counter?
A counter that increments the output by one binary number each time a
clock pulse is applied.

119.What is up/down counter?

A counter, which is capable of operating as an up counter or down
counter,Depending on a control lead.

120.What is a ripple counter?

A ripple counter is nothing but an asynchronous counter, in which the output
of The flip-flop change state like a ripple in water.

121.What are the uses of a counter?

i) The digital clock
ii) Auto parking control
iii) Parallel to serial data conversion.

122.What is meant by modulus of a counter?

By the term modulus of a counter we say it is the number of states through
which a counter can progress.

123.what is meant by natural count of a counter?

By the term natural count of a counter we say that the maximum number of
states through which a counter can progress.

124.What is a ring counter?

A counter formed by circulating a ‘bit’ in a shift register whose serial output
has been connected to its serial input.

125.What is Johnson counter?

It is a ring counter in which the inverted output is fed into the input. It is also
know as a twisted ring counter.

126.What is BCD counter?

A BCD counter counts in binary coded decimal from 0000 to 1001 and back
to 0000. Because of the return to 0000 after a count of 1001, a BCD counter
does not have a regular pattern as in a straight binary counter.

127.Form the truth table for 3-bit binary down counter.

128.What are the uses of a ring counter?
i) Control section of a digital system.
ii) Controlling events, which occur in strict time sequence.

129.What is a register?
Memory elements capable of storing one binary word. It consists of a group
of flip-flops, which store the binary information.

130.What is a shift register?

In digital circuits, datas are needed to be moved into a register (shift in) or
moved out of a register (shift out). A group of flip-flops having either or
both of these facilities is called a shift register.

131.What is serial shifting?

In a shift register, if the data is moved 1 bit at a time in a serial fashion, then
the technique is called serial shifting.

132.What is parallel shifting?

In a shift register all the data are moved simultaneously and then the
technique is
called parallel shifting.

133.Write the uses of a shift register.

i) Temporary data storage
ii) Bit manipulations.

134.What is a cycle counter?

A cycle counter is a counter that outputs a stated number of counts and then
stops.
135.Define state of sequential circuit?
The binary information stored in the memory elements at any given time
defines the “state” of sequential circuits.

136.Define state diagram.

A graphical representation of a state table is called a state diagram.

137.What is the use of state diagram?

i) Behavior of a state machine can be analyzed rapidly.
ii) It can be used to design a machine from a set of specification.

138.What is state table?

A table, which consists time sequence of inputs, outputs and flip-flop states,
is called state table. Generally it consists of three section present state, next
state and output.

139.What is meant by race around condition?

In JK flip-flop output is fed back to the input, and therefore changes in the
output results change in the input. Due to this in the positive half of the
clock pulse if J and K are both high then output toggles continuously. This
condition is known as race around condition.

140.What is flow table?

During the design of synchronous sequential circuits, it is more convenient
to name the states by letter symbols without making specific reference to
their binary values. Such table is called Flow table.

141.What is primitive flow table?

A flow table is called Primitive flow table because it has only one stable
state in each row.

142.Define race condition.

A race condition is said to exist in a synchronous sequential circuit when
two or more binary state variables change, the race is called non-critical
race.

143.Define critical & non-critical race with example.

The final stable state that the circuit reaches does not depend on the order in
which the state variables change, the race is called non-critical race.
The final stable state that the circuit reaches depends on the order in which
the state variables change, the race is called critical race.

144.How can a race be avoided?

Races can be avoided by directing the circuit through intermediate unstable
states with a unique state – variable change.

145.Define cycle and merging?

When a circuit goes through a unique sequence of unstable states, it is said
to hav a cycle.
The grouping of stable states from separate rows into one common row is
called merging.

146.Give state – reduction procedure.

The state – reduction procedure for completely specified state tables is based
on the algorithm that two states in a state table can be combined in to one if
they can be shown to be equivalent.

147.Define hazards.
Hazards are unwanted switching transients that may appear at the output of a
circuit because different paths exhibit different propagation delays.

148.Does Hazard occur in sequential circuit? If so what is the problem

caused?
Yes, Hazards occur in sequential circuit that is Asynchronous sequential
circuit. It may result in a transition to a wrong state
149.Give the procedural steps for determining the compatibles used for the
purpose of merging a flow table.
The purpose that must be applied in order to find a suitable group of
compatibles for the purpose of merging a flow table can be divided into 3
procedural steps.
i. Determine all compatible pairs by using the implication table.
ii. Find the maximal compatibles using a Merger diagram
iii. Find a minimal collection of compatibles that covers all the states and is
closed.

150.What are the types of hazards?

The 3 types of hazards are
1) Static – 0 hazards
2) Static – 1 hazard
3) Dynamic hazards

151.What is mealy and Moore circuit?

Mealy circuit is a network where the output is a function of both present
state and input.
Moore circuit is a network where the output is function of only present state.

152.Differentiate Moore circuit and Mealy circuit?

153.How can the hazards in combinational circuit be removed?

Hazards in the combinational circuits can be removed by covering any two
minterms that may produce a hazard with a product term common to both.
The removal of hazards requires the addition of redundant gates to the
circuit.

154.How does an essential hazard occur?

An essential hazard occurs due to unequal delays along two or more paths
that originate from the same input. An excessive delay through an inverter
circuit in comparison to the delay associated with the feedback path causes
essential hazard.

155.What is Timing diagram?

Timing diagrams are frequently used in the analysis of sequential network.
These diagrams show various signals in the network as a function of time.

156.What is setup and hold time?

The definite time in which the input must be maintained at a constant value
prior to the application of the pulse is setup time The definite time is which
the input must not chance after the application of the positive or negative
going transition of the pulse based on the triggering of the pulse.

157.Define bit time and word time.

The time interval between clock pulses is called bit time.
The time required to shift the entire contents of a shift register is called word
time.

158.What is bi-directional shift register and unidirectional shift register?

A register capable of shifting both right and left is called bi-directional shift
register.
A register capable of shifting only one direction is called unidirectional shift
register.

159.Define equivalent state.

If a state machine is started from either of two states and identical output
sequences are generated from every possible set of sequences, then the two
states are said to be equivalent.

160.What is gate delay?

If the change in output is delayed by a time e with respect to the input. We
say that the gate has a propagation delay of ∑. Normally propagation delay
for 0 to 1 output (∑1) may be different than the delay for 1 to 0 changes
(∑2).

161.Define state reduction algorithm.

State reduction algorithm is stated as “Two states are said to be equivalent if,
for each member of the set of inputs they give the same output and send the
circuit either to the same state or to an equivalent state. When two states are
equivalent, one of them can be removed without altering the input-output
relation.

162.What is meant by level triggering?

In level triggering the output of the flip-flop changes state or responds only
when the clock pulse is present.

163.Write the uses of a shift register.

i) Temporary data storage.
ii) Bit manipulations.

164.What is meant by flow table?

During the design of asynchronous sequential circuits, it is more convenient
to name the states by letter symbols without making specific reference to
their binary values. Such a table is called a flow table.
165.Define merging?
The primitive flow table has only one stable state in each row. The table can
be reduced to a smaller numbers of rows if two or more stable states are
placed in the same row of the flow table. The grouping of stable states from
separate rows into one common row is called merging.