Nucleic Acid
Nucleic Acid
Nucleic Acid
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The Molecules of Heredity
• By the 1940s, it became clear that deoxyribonucleic
acids (DNA) carry the hereditary information.
• Other work in the 1940s demonstrated that each gene
controls the manufacture of one protein.
• Thus the expression of a gene in terms of an enzyme
protein led to the study of protein synthesis and its
control.
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
- are molecules that store the patterns of life and
these patterns are passed from one generation
to the next.
- a polymer in which the monomer units are
nucleotides
- nucleotides joined together by phosphodiester
bonds
- found in cells as nucleoproteins
Base
Phosphate Sugar
RNA DNA
Nitrogen-Containing Heterocyclic Bases
1. Purine Bases
adenine (A) and guanine (G)
2. Pyrimidine Bases
thymine (T), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)
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Phosphate
- third component of a nucleotide, is
derived from phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
sugar
sugar
+
amine base
amine base
nucleoside
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Reserved.
Nucleotide Formation
- a nucleic acid constituent consisting of a sugar residue
bonded to both a heterocyclic purine or pyrimidine base
and to a phosphate group
sugar sugar H3PO4
+ H3PO4
nucleoside nucleotide
DNA RNA
Structure Double stranded Single stranded
N-bases A, G, C, T A, G, C, U
❖ primary
❖ secondary
❖ tertiary
❖ quaternary
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Primary Nucleic Acid Structure
Unreacted
phosphate
Unreacted OH
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DNA Double Helix
A and T pair by
forming two
hydrogen bonds.
G and C pair by
forming three
hydrogen bonds.
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DNA Sequence: the sequence of bases on one
polynucleotide is complementary to the other
polynucleotide
• Example :
• List of bases in sequential order in the direction from the 5’ end to 3’
end of the segment:
• 5’-A-A-G-C-T-A-G-C-T-T-A-C-T-3’
5’ A–A–T–G–C–A–G–C–T 3’
Answer:
3’ T–T–A–C–G–T–C–G–A 5’
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QUATERNARY LEVEL
of DNA structure
• Prokaryotes
• In the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.
• Their DNA is circular loop.
• Eukaryotes
• In certain subcellular components: mitochondria,
chloroplasts, nucleus
• Most of the DNA of an organism is found in the nucleus,
and occur as structures known as chromosomes.
THE CENTRAL DOGMA
OF GENETICS
FEATURES:
1. Both strands are replicated.
2. There is a start, but no stop signals.
3. Primers are needed before polymerization
can occur.
4. Polymerization is catalyzed by DNA
polymerases. Direction of synthesis is
5’ → 3’.
5. Mode of replication is semi-conservative.
Information Copying:
REPLICATION
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RNA
codon
3'
5'
-Contains the
anticodon loop
~ a sequence of
three bases
complementary
to the codon
mRNA: 5’ A- A- U- G-C-A- G -C -U 3’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gG7uCskUOrA
Mutation
• An error in base sequence reproduced during DNA
replication
• Errors in genetic information is passed on during
transcription.
• The altered information can cause changes in amino
acid sequence during protein synthesis and thereby
alter protein function
-Involves a change in shape, structure or nucleotide
sequence of the DNA
Protein equation:
amino acid
DNA sequence conformation function
sequence
MUTATION
▪ Chemical/Environmental Substances
Deaminating Agents
▪ Obtained from sodium nitrite, which is used as a
preservative, color enhancer and fixative in bacon,
smoked fish, tocino etc. When ingested, it is
converted to nitrous acid in acidic conditions.
▪ Nitrous acid is a deaminating agent and removes
amino groups from adenine, guanine, cytosine. This
may result in point mutations.
Mutagens
▪ Chemical/Environmental Substances
Intercalating agents
▪ Their structures can interact with the bases of the DNA. They have
flat structures, similar to the DNA bases, thus they can intercalate or
insert in the DNA molecule.
▪ These substances do not chemically modify DNA, but they physically
bind to it, becoming inserted in the DNA sequence.
▪ Intercalating agents include the following:
• Benzopyrene – automotive exhaust and cigarette smoke
• Benzene – an organic solvent
• Aflatoxin – a metabolic product of molds in peanuts, oils and
grains
Viruses
◼ Tiny disease causing agents with outer protein envelope and
inner nucleic acid core
◼ Some viruses contain oncogenes (cancer-causing genes)
which can be activated once they insert their DNA in their
host’s genome. As a consequence, the sequence of the
bases in the host DNA may be altered, resulting in altered
protein product or activation of certain destructive genes.
◼ Virus invade bacteria, plants animals, and humans:
◼ Many human diseases are of viral origin, e. g. Common
1. Enzymes
2. Free-radical scavengers/
antioxidants
3. Dark repair mechanism
Repair Mechanisms
1. Enzymes
2. Free-radical scavengers/antioxidants
3. Dark repair mechanism
Repair Mechanisms
Enzymes
• Cells are equipped with enzymes that can repair
damage in the structure of their DNA.
Eg. A photoreactivating enzyme, photolyase, monomerizes
the thymine-thymine cyclobutane dimer
Eg. DNA glycosylases recognize altered bases and
catalyze their hydrolytic removal from DNA
Repair Mechanisms
Gene therapy
◼ Treatment of a genetic disease by introduction of a gene
Gene therapy
◼ The goal of planned therapy is to take bone marrow cells