AIRCRAFT

DESIGN
T. BANU
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR SG / AERONAUTICAL
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
• The design process involves the use of knowledge in various fields to reach a product that meets the

requirements related to functional aspects, safety and cost

• The design of an airplane involves gathering knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures,

propulsion, systems and manufacturing techniques.

• The objective is to reach the configuration of an airplane, which will satisfy aforementioned

requirements.
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the following.

❑ Obtaining the specifications of the airplane, selecting the type and determining the

geometric parameters.

❑ Selection of the power plant.

❑ Structural design and working out details of construction.

❑ Fabrication of prototype.

❑ Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural integrity from flight tests.
 CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES
It is generally based on

(a) The purpose of the airplane

(b) The configuration

(c) Design Mach number

BASED ON THE PURPOSE OF THE AIRPLANE
There are two main types of airplanes are

• Civil airplanes – Passenger, Cargo, Agricultural, Sports and Ambulance.

• Military airplanes – Fighter, Bomber, Interceptor, Reconnaissance and airplanes for logistic

support like troop-carriers and rescue airplane.

BASED ON THE PURPOSE OF THE AIRPLANE
BASED ON THE PURPOSE OF THE AIRPLANE
INFLUENCE OF THE FUNCTION OF AIRPLANE ON
SPECIFICATIONS/DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

A passenger airplane should have :

• high level of safety in operation

• adequate payload carrying capacity

• economy in operation,

• comfort level depending on range and cruising altitude

• ability to fly in weather conditions normally encountered on chosen routes

• ability to use airfields of intended destinations.

INFLUENCE OF THE FUNCTION OF AIRPLANE ON
SPECIFICATIONS/DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

A bomber airplane should have:

• range corresponding to the mission,

• capacity to carry and deploy intended bomb load,

• high values of speed, endurance, and ceiling

• adequate protection against accidental fire.

INFLUENCE OF THE FUNCTION OF AIRPLANE ON
SPECIFICATIONS/DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

An interceptor airplane should have:

• Adequate thrust to give high
(i) rate of climb,
(ii) maximum flight speed and
(iii) manoeuvrability
• ceiling 3 to 4 km above that of contemporary bombers
• ability to fly in adverse weather conditions
• appropriate armament
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES ACCORDING
TO CONFIGURATION

• Shape, number and position of wing.

• Type of fuselage.
• Location of horizontal tail.
• Location and number of engines.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
WING CONFIGURATION
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
WING CONFIGURATION
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
WING CONFIGURATION
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
WING CONFIGURATION
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
FUSELAGE
Generally airplanes have a single fuselage with wing and tail
surfaces mounted on the fuselage

In some cases the fuselage is in the form of a pod.

The horizontal tail is placed between two booms

originating from the wings

It have two vertical tails located on the booms.

The booms provide required tail arm for the tail surfaces
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
FUSELAGE
Some airplanes with twin fuselage had been designed in the past
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
• In a conventional configuration, the horizontal stabilizer is located behind the
wing
• In some airplanes there is no horizontal stabilizer and the configuration is called
tailless design.
• In these airplanes, the functions of elevator and aileron are performed by
ailevons located near the wing tips.
• When both ailevons (on left and right wings) move in the same direction, they
function as elevators and when the two ailevons move in opposite direction,
they function as ailerons.
• In some airplanes, the control in pitch is obtained by a surface located ahead of
the wing. This configuration is called canard configuration
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER

Conventional configuration Tailless design. Canard configuration

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
NUMBER OF ENGINES AND THEIR LOCATION

• The engine, when located in the fuselage, could be in the

nose or in the rear portion of the fuselage

• When located outside the fuselage the engines are enclosed in

nacelles, which could be located on the wings or on the rear

fuselage

• In case of airplanes with engine-propeller combination, there are

two configurations – tractor propeller and pusher propeller

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON
NUMBER OF ENGINES AND THEIR LOCATION
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION

The configuration of an airplane is finalized after giving consideration to the following factors.

• Aerodynamics

• Low structural weight

• Lay-out peculiarities

• Manufacturing procedures

• Cost and operational economics

• Interaction between various features

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
AERODYNAMICS
The aerodynamic considerations in the design process involve the following.

• Drag

• Lift

• Interference effects
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
AERODYNAMICS
Drag

• The drag of the entire configuration must be as small as possible.

• This requires

– THIN WINGS

– SLENDER FUSELAGE

– SMOOTH SURFACE CONDITIONS,

– PROPER VALUES OF ASPECT RATIO (A)

– SWEEP (Λ).
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
Lift
AERODYNAMICS
The airplane must be able to develop sufficient lift under various flight conditions including
maneuvers.
The maximum lift coefficient also decides the landing speed.
These considerations require proper choice of
(a) Aerofoil
(b) Means to prevent flow separation
(c) High lift devices.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
AERODYNAMICS
Interference effects
• In aerodynamics the flows past various components like the wing, the fuselage and the tail are
usually studied individually.
• In an airplane these components are in proximity of each other and the flow past one
component affects the flow past the others(components).
• The changes in aerodynamic forces and moments due to this proximity are called interference
effects.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
AERODYNAMICS
Interference effects
• The lay-out of the airplane should be such that increase in drag and decrease in lift due to
interference effects are minimized.
• These can be achieved in subsonic airplanes by proper fillets at the joints between (a) wing and
fuselage, (b) tail and fuselage and (c) wing and engine pods.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
LOW STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
The weight of the aircraft must be as low as possible.
This implies use of
• High strength to weight ratio material
• Aerofoil with high thickness ratio
• Wing with low Aspect Ratio
• Relieving loads

The airplane structure must be strong enough, to take all permissible flight loads and stiff enough
to avoid instabilities like, divergence, aileron reversal and flutter.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
LAYOUT PECULIARITIES
• The specific function of the airplane often decides its shape

• The fuselage of a cargo airplane generally has a rectangular cross section and a large cargo
door.

• The height of fuselage floor should be appropriate for quick loading and unloading.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
• During the detail design stage, attention must be paid to the manufacturing processes.

• The cost of manufacture and quality control also must be kept in mind.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
COST AND OPERATIONAL ECONOMICS
• The DOC relates to the cost of hourly operation of the airplane viz. cost of fuel, lubricants,

maintenance, overhaul, replacement of parts for airframe and engine.

• IOC relates to crew cost, insurance cost, depreciation of airplane and ground equipment,

hangar rental, landing charges and overheads.

• The total operating cost of an airplane = (DOC) + (IOC).

• For a personal plane lower initial cost of the airplane may be more important

• For a long range passenger airplane lower cost of fuel may be the primary consideration.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION -
INTERACTION OF VARIOUS FACTORS
• Some of the considerations mentioned may lead to conflicting requirements.

• Optimization techniques are employed to arrive at the best compromise.

• Wing with an airfoil of relatively higher thickness ratio, has lower structural weight but at the
same time has higher drag.
 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
High Wing configuration
Merits :
• Allows placing fuselage closer to ground, thus allowing loading and unloading without special
ground handling equipment.

• Jet engines & propeller have sufficient ground clearance without excessive landing gear length
leading to lower landing gear weight.
 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
High Wing configuration
Merits :
• For low speed airplanes, weight saving can be effected by strut braced wing
 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
High Wing configuration
Merits :
• For short take off and landing (STOL) airplanes, the high wing configuration has the following
specific advantages.

(a) Large wing flaps can be used.

(b) Engines are away from the ground and hence ingestion of debris rising from unprepared
runways is avoided.
 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
High Wing configuration
Merits :
(c) Prevents floating of wing due to ground effect

which may occur for low wing configuration.

 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
High Wing configuration
Demerits :
• Fuselage generally houses the landing gear in special pods leading to higher weight and drag.

• Pilot’s visibility may be blocked during a turning flight.

 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
Mid wing configuration
Merits :
• Lower drag.
• Advantages of ground clearance as in the case of high wing configuration.
• No blockage of visibility. Hence, used on some military airplanes.
Demerits:
• Wing root structure passing through the fuselage is not possible, which leads to higher weight.

In HFB Hansa airplane,

A swept forward mid-wing is located behind the passenger cabin.
This permits wing root structure passing through the fuselage
 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
Low-wing configuration
Merits:
• Landing gear can be located in the wing thereby avoiding pods on the fuselage and hence lower
drag.
However, to provide adequate ground clearance, the fuselage has to be at a higher level as
compared to the high wing configuration
• Wing structure can be through the fuselage.
 MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS
Low - Wing configuration
Demerits:
• Low ground clearance.

• A low-wing configuration has unstable contribution to the longitudinal and lateral static
stability.

• In addition that for low-wing airplanes the dihedral angle may be decided by need to avoid
wing tip hitting the ground during a bad landing.

• A wing with high value of dihedral may require higher vertical tail area to prevent tendency to
Dutch roll.
STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN
The design process can be divided into the following three stages.
• Project feasibility study.

• Preliminary design.

• Design project
STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PROJECT
FEASIBILITY STUDY.
The aim of this study is to

It involves the following steps.

i) Comprehensive market survey to assess the number of airplanes needed.

Evolve a complete set of specifications for the airplane.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PROJECT
FEASIBILITY STUDY.
ii) Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane.

These conditions include

(a) Landing field length

(b) Type of landing field

(c) Weather conditions in flight and near landing sites

(d) Visibility.
 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PROJECT
FEASIBILITY STUDY.
iii) Study of the relevant design requirements as laid down by the civil and military regulating agencies.

Some of the regulating agency for civil airplanes are :

FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) in USA;

EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency) in Europe;

DGCA (Director General of Civil Aviation) in India.

The military airplanes are governed by more stringent regulations called MIL specifications in USA.
 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PROJECT
FEASIBILITY STUDY.
iv) Evaluation of existing designs of similar airplanes and possibility of incorporating new concepts.

v) Collection of data on relevant power plants.

vi) Laying down preliminary specifications which may consist of the following.

• Performance: Maximum speed, Maximum rate of climb, range, endurance, rate of turn, radius of turn, take-off

and landing field lengths.

• Payload.

• Operating conditions at the destinations.

• Maneuverability.
 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PRELIMINARY
DESIGN
This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containing preliminary drawings and

stating the estimated operational capabilities of the airplane.

This is used for seeking approval of the manufacturer or the customer.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PRELIMINARY
DESIGN
This stage includes the following steps.

(i) Preliminary weight estimate.

(ii) Selection of geometrical parameters of main components based on design criteria.

(iii) Selection of power plant.

(iv) Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - PRELIMINARY
DESIGN
(v) Aerodynamic and stability calculations.

(vi) Preliminary structural design of main components.

(vii) Revised weight estimation and c.g. travel.

(viii) Preparation of 3-view drawing.

(ix) Performance estimation.

(x) Preparation of brochure (It is also called aircraft type specification)

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - DESIGN
PROJECT
After the preliminary design has been approved by the manufacturer / customer.

The detailed design studies are carried out

These include the following stages.

• Wind tunnel and structural testing on models of airplane configuration arrived after

preliminary design stage. These tests serve as a check on the correctness of the estimated

characteristics and assessment of the new concepts proposed in the design.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - DESIGN
PROJECT
Mock-up: This is a full scale model of the airplane or its important sections.

This helps in

(a) efficient lay-out of structural components and equipments,

(b) checking the clearances, firing angles of guns, visibility etc.

Currently this stage is avoided by the use of CAD(Computer Aided Design) packages which

provide detailed drawings of various components and subassemblies.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - DESIGN
PROJECT
Complete wind tunnel testing of the approved configuration.

Currently CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) plays an important role in reducing the number

of tests to be carried-out.

In CFD, the equations governing the fluid flow are solved numerically. The results provide flow

patterns, drag coefficient, lift coefficient, moment coefficient, pressure distribution etc.
 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - DESIGN
PROJECT
Through the results may not be very accurate at high angles of attack, they are generally accurate

near the design point. Further, they provide information on the effects of small changes in the

geometric parameters, on the flow field and permit parametric studies.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - DESIGN
PROJECT
• Preparation of detailed drawings.

• Final selection of power plant.

• Calculations of (a) c.g. shift (b) performance and (c) stability.

• Fabrication of prototypes

– These are the first batch of full scale airplane. Generally six prototypes are constructed.

– Some of them are used for verifying structural integrity and functioning of various systems. Others

are used for flight testing to evaluate performance and stability.

 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN - DESIGN
PROJECT
• Series production and flight testing to meet specified operational and airworthiness

requirements

• Obtaining type certificate: it is a legal document, issued by a regulating agency like DGCA in

India allowing the manufacturer to offer the item (e.g. airplane) for sale.
Thank you
• Cost analysis While purchasing a vehicle generally, the cost of the vehicle, running expenses and
maintenance are considered.

• In the case of an airplane the cost analysis is more complex because the design and development
of airplane is a very expensive activity and its cost must be added to the cost of fabrication of the
airplane.

• Further, use of airplane requires hangars, maintenance facilities and airport equipment.

• The operation and maintenance of airplane requires significant investment and needs services of a
large body of professionals.

• Earlier way of carrying out the cost analysis was to calculate the direct operating cost and indirect
operating cost.

• However, the current approach is to calculate the life cycle cost which is the cost involved over
the useful life of the airplane.