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Functional food and nutra-pharmaceutical perspectives of date (Phoenix

dactylifera L.) fruit

Article in Journal of Food Biochemistry · June 2020

DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13332

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Received: 1 March 2020 | Revised: 9 May 2020 | Accepted: 24 May 2020

DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13332

REVIEW

Functional food and nutra-pharmaceutical perspectives of date

(Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruit

Atia Younas1 | Summar A. Naqvi2 | Moazzam Rafiq Khan1 | Muhammad Asim Shabbir1 |
Mushtaque Ahmed Jatoi3 | Farooq Anwar4 | Muhammad Inam-Ur-Raheem1 |
Nazamid Saari5 | Rana Muhammad Aadil1

1
National Institute of Food Science and
Technology, University of Agriculture, Abstract
Faisalabad, Pakistan Date palm counts among the oldest fruit crops of the world and is mainly cultivated
2
Institute of Horticultural Sciences,
for its highly nutritious fruits consumed as a staple food in many countries, especially
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan in the Gulf region. Dates are enriched with numerous therapeutic bioactives and
3
Date Palm Research Institute, Shah Abdul functional compounds such as phenolics, flavonols, carotenoids, minerals, and vita-
Latif University, Khairpur, Pakistan
4
mins that not only provide an appreciable amount of energy required for the human
Department of Chemistry, University of
Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan body but also act as an effective therapeutic agent against several diseases. This
5
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, review aimed to provide a deep insight into the nutritional as well as phytochemicals
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
profile of date fruit and its seeds in order to explore their biological (anti-cancer,
Correspondence anti-diabetic, cardio-protective, anti-inflammatory properties), functional food, and
Muhammad Inam-Ur-Raheem and Rana
nutra-pharmaceutical attributes.
Muhammad Aadil, National Institute of
Food Science and Technology, University of Practical applications
Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan.
Email: [email protected] (M. I-U-R.), This review provides updated information regarding the date fruits and seeds phy-
[email protected] (R.M. A.) tochemicals composition together with highlighting dates potential as a natural
therapeutic agent against several diseases. The study also urges the importance of
consuming dates as a great package to live a healthy life due to the functional food
and nutraceutical properties of this valuable fruit. The study also provides informa-
tion first time as recommending dates to cope with the hidden hunger or micronutri-
ent deficiency faced by the third world inhabitants. Hence, the review may further
help the industry and researchers to explore the potential of dates for future medici-
nal and nutra-pharmaceutical applications.

KEYWORDS

antioxidant potential, dates, hidden hunger, nutraceutical, Phoenix dactylifera L., polyphenols,
therapeutic agent

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N and cultivated in hot and dry areas of Southwest Asia and North
Africa on large scale, while small population also found in dispersed
Dates are known to be the staple food of many regions of the world areas of USA, South America, and Southern Europe due to the ex-
due to their excellent nutritive properties and exceptionally longer tension of military expeditions and missionary works first from Asia
storage or preservative properties as dried fruit (Zhang, Aldosari, to Europe and then Europe to the new world (American continent).
Vidyasagar, Shukla, & Nair, 2013). Date palm is traditionally found But, with the advancement of tissue culture technology, it enables

J Food Biochem. 2020;44:e13332. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfbc © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. | 1 of 18

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13332
2 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

date palm cultivation in some non-dates producing regions includ- Moreover, physical properties of seeds also differ greatly with a
ing Thailand and Indonesia (Abul-Soad, Jain, & Jatoi, 2017). It is change in environmental condition and variety to variety. The seed
ought to be originated in Mesopotamia or gulf region, while several weight ranges from 0.5 to 4 g, length and width, 1–3 cm and 0.5–
other countries including Egypt and Pakistan are in the list claim- 1.3 cm, respectively. Seed is composed of a small embryo with hard
ing the date palm origin in their ancient civilizations (Zohary, Hopf, endosperm form by the cellulose that is found inside the cell wall and
& Weiss, 2012). As per the figures of FAOSTAT (2010), Egypt, Iran, usually have an oblong and oval shape (Zaid, & Arias-Jimenez, 2002).
Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, UAE, and Pakistan ranked top in terms Growth of date fruits is influenced by various external and in-
of production, while Pakistan consistently grabbed first or second ternal factors that mainly categorize on the basis of various phys-
position in terms of dates export since a long time. ical and chemical alterations like color changes during different
Due to high nutritious value and economic advantages, stages of growth and developments (Khalid, Khalid, Khan, Ahmed,
dates are considered an important fruit crop worldwide (Baliga, & Ahmad, 2017). Based on the different fruit development stages,
Baliga, Kandathil, Bhat, & Vayalil, 2011; Briones, Serrano, Younes, dates are categorized as Hababouk, Kimri, Khalal, Rutab and Tamar
Mondragon, & Labidi, 2011). Presently, date fruits are not only used (Al Harthi, Mavazhe, Al Mahroqi, & Khan, 2015). For example,
directly for dietary intake but also processed into different other Hababouk stage, small rounded green color fruits are formed soon
value-added products such as date sweets, confectionery, date after fertilization, followed by the Kimri stage and takes around
syrups, date cola, date juices, and candies (Magazù, Migliardo, & 4–5 weeks to complete. At Hababouk stage, dates contain more than
Telling, 2008). As a low-cost food, it can be used as the best nutri- 5% proteins, 0.5% fat, and more than 3% ash at this stage. At the
tious source to overcome the food insecurity and increasing food Kimri stage, the fruit turns apple green in color, but is quite hard and
demand, especially in third world countries. Meanwhile, the seeds of high in tannins and hence not suitable for consumption. Moreover,
dates also exhibit great health advantages, but it is mostly treated as during this, the stage diameter of fruit enhanced to 20 millime-
under-utilized agro-waste by the food industries and is not yet fully ters and fruits turn to full-size green date from small green berry
explored for the manufacturing of value-added natural health prod- shape with a reduction in protein, fat, and ash approximately 2.5%,
ucts. It is a sacred tree for all three major religions including Islam, 0.3%, and 2.8%, respectively. While the average weight of fruit at
Christianity, and Judaism, and especially Islam whereas dates are a the Kimri stage increase to more than 8.5% (Al-Hooti, Sidhu, &
must to serve items during Ramadan to break the fast which not only Qabazard, 1997). The third stage is known to be the physiologically
a religious activity but also dates quickly recover the need of calories mature stage, called as Khalal that’s hard and ripe. Color changes
burn during fasting. from green to greenish yellow or pink followed to the red depending
Dates exhibit high nutritional importance and therapeutic char- on the cultivar. This stage lasts from 3 to 5 weeks on the basis of
acteristic against the number of health disorders and impart both cultivar. Both protein and ash contents of the fruit further decrease
nutritional and medicinal benefits. Keeping in view the revival of to 2.6%, with no change seen in the ash content (Ali, Waly, Essa, &
interest in the use of plants as a source of food and medicine cou- Devarajan, 2012). At the fourth stage—Rutab, certain physiological
pled with new trends of optimal nutrition, there is prompt need to changes are seen. Tips at apex soften, ripen, and change their color
explore functional food and nutraceutical perspectives of dates. to brown or black. The final and fully ripe stage is known as Tamar
This review mainly focuses on the detailed nutritional, nutraceutical, stage in which fruits become dehydrated and darker in color, with
and high–value components profile along with pharmaceutical and further reduction in protein, fat, and ash contents to almost 2%,
therapeutic properties of date fruit and its seeds with the main aim 0.2%, and more than 1.5%, respectively (Amira et al., 2012).
to highlight their potential nutra-pharmaceutical perspectives on a Dates are consumed at their Khalal (fresh), Rutab (half ripened),
scientific basis. The ultimate aim of this review is to encourage the and Tamar (fully ripened or dried form) stage of maturity depend-
industrialists and researchers to explore the potential uses of dates ing on the nature of cultivar. Some cultivars are also categorized
for future practical applications on human health as well as the uti- into soft, semidry, and dry cultivars as per their moisture content,
lization of date seed in different valuable functional food products. texture, fruit appearance, and sugar content. There are two forms
of dried dates “tamar” either naturally dried on trees or sun-dried
and the other is “Chuhhara or Khalal matbookh” in which dates at
2 | DATE S PH O N O LO G I C A L S TAG E S A N D Khalal stage first boiled and then sun-dried which have longer shelf
FRU IT S TRU C T U R E life without disturbing its main nutritional composition and mainly
practice in Pakistan (Khalid et al., 2017).
Date fruit is composed of mesocarp, endocarps, and one seed which Morphological characteristics of date’s weight, length, and width
is also known as pit or kernel. A major portion of the fruit flesh rep- are significantly different among several varieties of date. The com-
resents mesocarp which consists of parenchymatous cells and is position of dates is greatly affected by the degree of ripening and va-
divided into inner mesocarps and outer-mesocarps (Zaid, & Arias- riety (Al-Kharusi et al., 2009). Various external and internal changes
Jimenez, 2002). Usually, dates are oblong, oval or some rounded in have been observed in date fruit during growth and development
shape with an average length of almost 1.8 to 11 cm, width of 0.8 to with respect to maturity, sweetness, color, texture, and chemical
more than 3 cm, and weight of 2–60 g per fruit (Al-Farsi & Lee, 2011). composition. Phytochemical characteristics and nutritional profile
YOUNAS et al. | 3 of 18

not only vary from cultivar to cultivar; nevertheless, ripening stages possess vital advantages to human health (Auda, Al-Wandawi, & Al-
also affect these attributes (Al-Shahib & Marshall, 2003). The com- Adhami, 1976). Concerning with protein content of dates, it varied
positional characteristics of some important date palm cultivars are between 1.57% and 3.51% among different date varieties. Seed
expressed in Table 1. The moisture concentration of dates varies of dates are also known to be a rich source of protein, glycinin and
among different varieties. The moisture proportion of mature dates β-conglycinin. Protein and lipid concentration of different dates va-
is significantly important with regard to their stability and shelf-life rieties are expressed in Table 1 wherein all data are shown based on
during processing and storage. It also contributes to dates fruit’s tex- the wet weight, while the carbohydrate concentration is obtained by
ture through interaction with carbohydrates. In short, the moisture subtracting the total percent values of protein, fat, ash, and moisture
content is used to classify the dates as soft, semi-dry, and dry cul- from 100 g. Total carbohydrate contents of dates comprise 50% of
tivars (Espiard, 2002). The numbers of date palm cultivars are esti- fresh weight of fruit at Tamr stages and sucrose is converted into
mated to be around 3,000 to 5,000 round the globe but only 10% glucose or fructose. These types of sugars are readily absorbed
has commercial importance (Abul-Soad et al., 2017). In addition, the during digestion. On the basis of the sugar content, dates are con-
number of top commercial cultivars is small since every date produc- sidered as an excellent source of readily available energy, providing
ing countries have few major exporting cultivars while most of the about 160–230 kcal/100 g. The sugar level of dates changed during
germplasm either consumed locally or used as a mixture of different ripening stages; more accumulation of sugar occurs at the final ma-
cultivars to make different by-products. All varieties vary in their turity stage. Moisture contents also affected the sugar content as
size, physical appearance, aroma, taste, and biochemical attributes. dried dates contain higher level of sucrose than semi-dried and soft
For example, Medjool, Anbarah, Mebroom, Zaghloul are big sized dates. Dates total sugar comprises of reducing and non-reducing
with thick pulp whereas Barhi, Ajwa, etc., are medium to small sized. sugar which significantly differ among various varieties of dates. The
total sugar content of dates ranged from 59.03% to 73.92% on the
dry weight basis in different cultivars. While the reducing sugar con-
3 | N U TR ITI O N A L AT TR I B U TE S O F DATE S tent ranged from 52.76% to 68.95% and non-reducing sugar content
between 4.65% and 7.66% among different dates varieties (Nadeem
Dates are considered to be a good source of instant energy as they et al., 2019).
provided simple sugars and possess high nutritional value on the Dates are also an impressive source of micronutrients that con-
basis of their dietary fibers (Al-Shahib & Marshall, 2002). The sugar tribute to several therapeutic aspects and normal functioning of the
contents of different varieties of dates may vary between 35% and human body. Among the minerals, dates possess high concentration
88% depending on the degree of maturation (Al-Farsi et al., 2007). of potassium and magnesium. Moderate concentrations of calcium,
Mainly both monosaccharides and disaccharides (glucose, fructose, zinc, copper, and selenium are also found (Al-Farsi & Lee, 2008a).
and sucrose) have been detected from both fresh and dried form of Different minerals exhibit their own health benefits and potent
dates and relative amounts of these sugars are commonly used to physiological role in the formation of bones, teeth, soft tissues, he-
identify specific variety (Ali et al., 2012). moglobin, muscle, and nerve cells (Sardesai, 2003; Vayalil, 2012).
Proteins and lipids are present in dates in relatively less amount The minerals proportion of several date varieties is shown in Table 2.
as compared to carbohydrates (Chaira, Mrabet, & Ferchichi, 2009). Dates are also considered to be an important source of water-
Despite the low content of proteins and lipids, date fruit contributes soluble vitamins providing a moderate amount of vitamins such as B1,
to the high quality of essential amino acids and fatty acids, which B2, B9, A, and C. Dates also contain carotenoids such as β-carotene,

TA B L E 1 Proximate composition of
Varieties Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Moisture References
different varieties of date palm (mg/100 g
dry weight) Fresh dates
Khunaizy 1.9 0.1 58.8 1.2 37.9 Ahmed, Ahmed, and
Khalas 1.1 0.1 56.8 1.0 41.3 Robinson (1995)

Barhi 1.8 0.2 56.9 1.1 39.7

Khasab 1.1 0.1 47.8 1.0 50.4
Bushibal 1.4 0.1 54.2 1.1 43.2 Al-Hooti et al. (1997)
Dried dates
Deglet Noor 2.5 0.4 75.0 1.6 20.0.5 USDA (2007)
ÁMedjool 1.8 0.2 75.0 1.7 21.3
Khalas 1.7 0.5 83.4 1.8 12.6 Al-Farsi et al. (2005)
Khasab 1.6 1.0 79.3 1.6 16.5
Bushibal 1.9 0.1 79.9 1.8 16.3 Al-Hooti et al. (1997)

Note: All data are expressed on wet weight basis.

4 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

TA B L E 2 Minerals profile in date flesh of different varieties of date palm (mg/100 g dry weight)

Variety K Na Mg Ca Fe Zn Mn P Cu Se References

Khunaizy 704 197 59 15 1.5 0.2 0.4 − 0.1 − Ahmed et al. (1995)
Khalas 630 82 62 16 1.7 0.4 0.3 − 0.4 −
Khasab 603 2.4 67 55 1.1 0.6 0.2 63 0.6 0.28 Al-Farsi et al. (2005)
Deglet Nour 863 10.2 41.6 47.7 2.5 − − 101 − − Elleuch et al. (2008)
Medjool 539 − 50 54 0.83 0.58 0.36 − − − Rock et al. (2009)
Barhi 855 75 82 12 0.3 0.1 − − 0.2 0.24 Ahmed et al. (1995)
Ruzeiz 413 55 41 − 1.4 0.38 0.4 − − 0.24 Ismail, Haffar, Baalbaki, Mechref,
Boumaan 1,248 9.1 25 − 0.7 0.2 0.3 − − − and Henry (2006)

Safawi 1,287 1.4 150 132 0.1 0.02 − − 0.03 −

Fard 882 176 42 8.7 0.8 0.2 o.3 − 0.2 − Ahmed et al. (1995)
Lulu 382 76 43 5.0 0.7 0.2 0.2 − 0.2 −
Naghal 451 169 34 7.8 0.3 0.2 0.4 − 7.8 −
Dhakki 913.2 4.07 63.55 195.18 1.94 1.48 1.33 − 1.08 − Nadeem et al. (2019)
Aseel 843.9 4.39 33.38 148.40 1.75 0.67 0.24 − 0.53 −

Note: All data are expressed on wet weight basis.

TA B L E 3 Carotenoids content of
Variety α– Carotene β-Carotene Lutein Neoxanthin Total References
different varieties of date palm (µg/100 g)
Deglet Noor − 6.4 156 − 167 Boudries
et al., 2007)
Fard − − − − 1,390 Al-Farsi
et al. (2005)
Hamraya − 2.5 33.6 − 37.3 Boudries
et al., 2007)
Hayany − 116 541 381 1,270 Gross, Haber,
and Ikan
(1983)
Khasab − − − − 1,310 Al-Farsi
Khalas − − − − 1,330 et al. (2005)

Note: All data are expressed on wet weight basis.

lutein and neoxanthin; which are the precursors of retinol (Boudries, acid that are not usually found in cranberries and various other dried
Kefalas, & Hornero-Méndez, 2007). Table 3 shows the carotenoid fruit like apricot, prune, and pear (Chang, Alasalvar, & Shahidi, 2016).
content of some important varieties of dates. Chemical structures of some important bioactives distributed in
Dates are also enriched with natural antioxidants such as phe- dates fruit and seed are presented in Figure 1. Phenolic compounds may
nolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, and anthocyanins (Oni, Adeosun, be present both in free and bound form and contribute to functional
Ladokun, Ighodaro, & Oyedele, 2015). Mrabet et al., (2016) deter- food and nutraceutical attributes of dates. Al-Farsi, Alasalvar, Morris,
mined the phenolic profile of different Tunisian date cultivars and Baron, and Shahidi, (2005) analyzed several phenolic acids in dates,
found that all respective varieties rich of protocatechuic acid, syrin- given in Table 4, while various antioxidants and phenolics found in fresh
gic acid, vanillic acid, and gallic acid. Lemine et al. (2014) identified and dried dates of some important varieties are given in Table 5.
the concentration of phenolic acid in dates at different stages and
found that the khalal stage exhibit higher phenolic contents than fully
ripe Tamr stage. Mansouri, Embarek, Kokkalou, and Kefalas, (2005) 3.1 | Composition of date seed
reported that dates also contain xanthoxylin, hydrocaffeic, and cou-
maroylquinic acids along with different isomers of shikmic acids. In Date seed, also known as date pit, kernel or stone, constitutes about
comparison to cranberries phenolics contents, dates contain fewer 10%–15% of fruit weight (Al-Bowait & Al-Sultan, 2006) and its
types of phenolics compounds; berries contain several derivatives of composition varies according to the variety. Since ancient era date
hydroxybenzoic acid additionally. In contrast, dates contain more bi- seeds have been mainly used as animal feed. According to estima-
ologically important phenolic acids such as syringic acid and vallinic tion around 50,000 tones date pits is marketed worldwide on the
YOUNAS et al. | 5 of 18

FIGURE 1 Chemical structures of some important bioactives in dates

annual feed basis. Like fleshy part of date, the seed portion also pos- Al-Resayes, 2010). The composition of date seeds of some important
sesses appreciable contents of dietary fibers in which insoluble fib- varieties is shown in Table 6.
ers (cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose) are known to possess major
proportion. Date seeds also contain 5%–7% of protein by weight
and possess a notable concentration of phenolic acids, antioxidants, 3.2 | Miscellaneous uses of date palm
and flavonoids with multiple health benefits against several illnesses
(Aldhaheri, Alhadrami, Aboalnaga, Wasfi, & Elridi, 2004). Moreover, In ancient era, date palm, date fruit, and their byproducts were used
it contains several important minerals including magnesium, iron, as ruminant’s diet. Date pits had also been used for centuries for
sodium, and calcium (Habib & Ibrahim, 2009; Nehdi, Omri, Khalil, & feeding the livestock, but, with the passage of time whole dates
6 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

have also been used for this purpose. This includes low grade, re- Traditionally, date seeds have been used for the germination
jected, and damaged portion of dates which are not mainly used and propagation of date fruit and for animal feed due to the pres-
for the dietary purpose of human or wasted during processing. ence of high amount of proteins, fats, and dietary fibers (Al-Farsi &
According to estimation, around 20% of dates produced in Saudi Lee, 2008b; Rahman, Kasapis, Al-Kharusi, Al-Marhubi, & Khan, 2007),
Arabia are used as a mix or pelleted feed for animal consumption which makes them a highly beneficial constituent for animal feed
(Al-Farsi & Lee, 2011). In Saudi Arabia, a research was conducted production (Ali-Mohamed & Khamis, 2004). Hussein, Alhadrami, and
to identify the role of dates in improving the weight of lambs. The Khalil, (1998) suggested that diet rich in date seed improved the body
results of the study suggest that it is economically feasible to feed weight of animals especially chicks. Furthermore, the inclusion of date
lambs with 20% of low-quality date flesh for obtaining the desired pits to animal feed also improves feed efficacy and enhances the pal-
well-being of animal without any adverse effects. Moreover, a high atability of mutton (Rashid, 1976). Whole date including flesh and pits
sugar content of dates influences rumen chemistry, since the rumen is known to increase the body weight and also enhances the deposi-
fluid of such animals showed reduced acetate to propionate ratio tion of fat at the back of sheep (Elgasim, Alyousef, & Humeid, 1995).
(Al-Dabeeb, 2005). These effects could be contributed to the presence of estrogen in
date flesh and pits. El Hag and El Khanjari, (1992) used complete diets
containing 20% date pits and 20% date leaves for feeding Omani
TA B L E 4 Different types of phenolic acids present in dates goats. They observed that goats fed with date-based diets had higher
intake and attained more body weight than those which were fed bar-
Contents
ley-based diets. Dates and dates by-products have been also used in
Types of phenolic acids (mg/100 g) References
the feed of aquaculture to minimize the feed cost.
Ferulic acid 11.83 Al-Farsi
Most importantly, due to a wide range of therapeutic effects, dates
Caffeic acid 2.58 et al. (2005)
are used in different Ayurveda preparations. The term “Ayurveda”
Gallic acid 1.56 means the science of life. It is a traditional system of medicine and
o-Coumaric acida 2.88 healing that is based on the use of natural resources and is more pop-
p-Coumaric acid 5.77 ular among the native Indian system of health care. Ayurveda physi-
Protocatechuic acid 4.94 cians use dates for the cure of teeth and gum problems, urinary tract,
Syringic acid 2.89 and respiratory infections, nervous disorders, skin problems, anxiety,
Vanillic acid 2.26 cardiovascular disorders, kidney, and liver disorders as well as micro-

shikimic acid ND
bial and viral infections (Ali et al., 2012). Various constituents of date
palm have been used in Ayurveda formulations including the leaves,
Hydrocaffeic acids ND
flowers, fruits, roots, and seeds (Moss & Ramji, 2016).
Coumaroylquinic acids ND
Currently, date seeds have also been used for the manufacturing
Note: All data are expressed on weight basis. of caffeine-free coffee; previously prepared by Arabs as a substitute
Abbreviation: ND: not detected.

TA B L E 5 Phenolics and antioxidants content of fresh and dried fruits of different varieties of date palm

Anthocyanins Phenolics Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC)

Varieties (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (μmol Trolox/100 g) References

Fresh fruita
Fard 0.9 280 1738 Al-Farsi
Khasab 1.5 167 1,169 et al. (2005)

Khalas 0.2 134 2060

Dried dates
Fard ND 343 999 Al-Farsi
Khasab ND 217 821 et al. (2005)

Khalas ND 339 1,254

Deglet-Noor − 661 3,695 Wu et al. (2004)
Medjool − 572 2,387
Tazerzait − 3.91 ND Mansouri et al.
Tafiziouine − 4.59 ND (2005)

Note: All data are expressed on wet weight basis.

Abbreviation: ND, not detected.
YOUNAS et al. | 7 of 18

TA B L E 6 Composition of date seeds of different varieties of date palm

Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Ash Fiber Phenolic Antioxidant

Varieties (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (g/100 g) (mg/100 g) (µmol/100) References

Mabseeli 3.14 3.92 5.02 86.89 1.03 79.84 4,430 58,000 Al-Farsi et al. (2007)
Khalas 7.1 6.0 13.2 71.9 1.8 64.5 − − Hamada, Hashim,
and Sharif (2002)
Deglet Noor 9.4 5.04 9.23 75.3 1.0 − − − Besbes, Blecker,
Deroanne, Drira,
and Attia (2004)
Lulu 9.9 5.2 10.5 73.4 1.0 68.8 − − Hamada et al. (2002)
Fard 10.3 5.7 9.9 72.7 1.4 67.8 − −
Sifri 4.5 5.92 10.03 78.5 1.05 − − − Sawaya, Khalil, and
Safi, (1984)

Note: All data are expressed on weight basis.

for regular caffeinated coffee (Habib & Ibrahim, 2009). Furthermore, natural remedy to treat various non-communicable diseases and
date seed also possesses beneficial health effects and contain physi- disorders. Compositional analysis of dates shows that dates exhibit
ologically important unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic and linoleic strong antioxidant potential through free radical scavenging ability.
acid with 50 and 19% concentration, respectively (Nehdi et al., 2010). Carotenoids, polyphenols, and tannins are known to be the major
These fatty acids play a significant role in the prevention of heart dis- antioxidants that are found in dates flesh as well as in seeds. These
eases and the oils rich in these fatty acids are used in the prepara- antioxidants play a preventive role in the neuroprotection by act-
tions of various cosmetic and other personal care products (Vermaak, ing as a marker of antioxidant enzyme in defense mechanism (Pujari,
Kamatou, Komane-Mofokeng, Viljoen, & Beckett, 2011). Dates have Vyawahare, & Thakurdesai, 2014). Such natural antioxidants exhibit
become an important commercial crop, as through their processing, multiple health benefits like the prevention of cancer, protection
varieties of products are manufactured which include date bars, date against microbes and chronic inflammation, reduction of the risk
syrup, jam, butter, date pickle, date wine, etc. Date syrup has been of heart illnesses, and anti-mutagenic properties (Neeser & Bruce
used for hundreds of years as a nutritious food for human consump- German, 2004). Due to these health benefits, dates consumption is
tion. It can also be utilized as a sweetening agent or as a substitute of vital importance toward enhancing the intake of natural antioxi-
for honey, maple syrup, molasses, high fructose, and various other dant in the human daily diet as these possess high concentration of
modified food products. It is suggested that date syrup can be used related phytochemicals. Food and therapeutic medicine industries
in the chocolate-flavored cake as a substitute for sucrose (Almana & have growing concerns regarding the use of synthetic antioxidants
Mahmoud, 1991). Nowadays, dates Cola is commonly used as a re- due to their perceived side effects compared to the natural antioxi-
freshing drink that provides satisfaction due to natural sugar as well dants that are safer in use (Soong & Barlow, 2004).
as with no sodium contents and can be stored for months. It com- Dates are known to be the major source of natural antioxidants
prises of honey and dates as both ingredients and exhibits high nu- such as carotenoids, phenolics, tocopherols, flavonoids, and ascor-
tritional benefits and is equally useful for all age groups. Moreover, bic acid that may be present in various concentrations and forms
juices made up of fresh Doka or Khalal dates are also getting popular depending upon the genotype of date palm and post-harvest pro-
in many countries. Due to high nutritional value, the seeds of dates in cessing techniques (Ali et al., 2008). Among natural antioxidants,
powder form are used in bakery products as well as in pharmaceutical tocopherols are considered to be one of the most effective natural
industries. As date seeds comprise of several bioactive compounds antioxidants mainly present in vegetable oils and their anti-oxidative
with therapeutic effects and thus can be employed for the develop- potential depends on the structures of the isomers. Similarly, the
ment of various processed functional foods and natural pharmaceuti- total antioxidant activity of date seed oil depends on the type and
cal products and to cure different ailments (Adeosun, Oni, Ighodaro, concentrations of different antioxidant compounds depending upon
Durosinlorun, & Oyedele, 2016; Al Harthi et al., 2015). the date variety and extraction process (Seneviratne, HapuarachchI,
& Ekanayake, 2009).
Interestingly, the seeds exhibit more dietary fiber and an-
4 | B I O LO G I C A L A N D TH E R A PEU TI C tioxidant contents due to the presence of phenolic and flavo-
P OTE NTI A L O F DATE S noids higher than the fleshy portion (Al-Farsi & Lee, 2008b).
Furthermore, date seed oil contains appreciable contents of to-
4.1 | Antioxidant potential cols (tocopherols + tocotrienols) in which α-tocotrienol possesses
greater proportion and these tocotrienols have the potential to
Dates possess multiple therapeutic effects and biological activi- reduce and control the risk of several cancers such as breast can-
ties along with high nutritious value and have been employed as a cer (Nehdi et al., 2010; Schwenke, 2002). Moreover, tocotrienols
8 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

capsule are recommended to fatty people to reduce the choles- was observed between antioxidant activity and phenolic concentra-
terol more specifically low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in humans tion, due to the major contribution of phenolics compounds toward
(Yuen, Wong, Lim, Ng, & Choy, 2011). Marinova, Toneva, and antioxidant potential. Ardekani, Khanavi, Hajimahmoodi, Jahangiri,
Yanishlieva (2008) suggested that the antioxidant potential of and Hadjiakhoondi, (2010) determined the antioxidant activity and
α-tocopherol can be enhanced when used in combination with fla- TPC of 14 different varieties of date palm seed extracts by different
vonoids such as myricetin. solvent (water, methanol, acetone, and formic acid). Folin–Ciocalteu
Protocatechuic acid (PCA), a polyphenolic antioxidant in dates, reagent method and FRAP were used for the evaluation of antioxi-
has been used for cancer treatment as it reduces tumor growth. But dant activity. Zahedi variety possessed the highest content of anti-
the amount of PCA is critical as the unstandardized amount may oxidant (37.4 mmol/100 g dry plant) and TPC value (3,541 mg/100 g
enhance the growth of cancerous cells (Guan, Ge, Liu, Ma, & Cui, dry plant) among others. A significant correlation was observed be-
2009; Lim, Lim, & Tee, 2007). Neoxanthin, lutein, and β-carotene are tween the antioxidant activity and phenolic concentration of Zahedi
known to be the major carotenoids found in date fruits and these variety seed extract indicating that polyphenols (TPC) are the
are the precursor of vitamin A, which has a beneficial role in the main antioxidant contributors. Saafi, Arem, Issaoui, Hammami, and
vision, normal functioning of the immune system, cellular signaling, Achour, (2009) determined the phenolic contents and antioxidant
and reproduction. In a study, it has been reported that dates exhib- activity of four cultivars of Tunisian date palm at the tamar stage. All
ited second highest antioxidant value after Hawthorn out of more four date varieties were found to be rich in TPC ranging from 209.4
than 25 commonly consumed fruits (Guo et al., 2003). The concen- to 447.7 mg equivalent gallic acid /100 g fresh weight and antioxidant
tration of antioxidant found in dates differs from cultivars to culti- activity ranging from 866.8 to 1,148.1 µmol Equivalent Trolox/100 g
vars depending on various factors like climate change, maturation fresh weight by the ABTS method. The result suggested that all four
stage, and harvesting condition. A number of studies reported the Tunisian varieties of date palm serve as an excellent source of natural
antioxidant potential of date. antioxidants.
For example, Haider, Khan, Naqvi, Jaskani, and Shahid (2014) Al-Turki, Shahba, and Stushnoff, (2010) evaluated the antioxidant
studied the antioxidant profiling of three cultivars (Aseel, Dhakki, characteristics and phenolic contents of various cultivars of Saudi
and Deglet Nour) of date at their three edible stages. The result Arabia and United States. ABTS and DPPH analysis was done that
showed that the total phenolic contents (TPC) and antioxidant ac- indicated the higher antioxidant activity as related to phenolic con-
tivity of all these three cultivars are decreased gradually from kha- tents in most of the cultivars collected from Saudi Arabia. The higher
lal to tamar stages. TPC was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu antioxidant activity of Saudi date cultivars can be correlated with
reagents method and the result expressed as gallic acid equivalent higher contents of phenolics. Khanavi et al., 2009) identified the an-
(GAE). The result depicted a significant variation in the mean value of tioxidant contents of 10 different cultivars of dates by their metha-
TPC among the developmental stages selected. Aseel, Dhakki, and nolic and water extracts through DPPH and ferric reducing power
Deglet Nour, possess 498.99 mg GAE/100 g, 441.07 mg GAE/100 g, analysis. The results revealed that the Khenizi variety possessed the
and 393.54 mg GAE/100 g of TPC, respectively, showing a decreas- highest reducing ability with 33 µmol/100 g along with more than
ing trend in khalal to tamar stages. The antioxidant activity of date 50% of antioxidant ability. While Shahabi variety exhibited the high-
extracts was determined by measuring their ability to scavenge 2-2 est phenolic concentration (276.8 mg GAE/100 g) compared to other
diphenyl-l-picrylhydrazyl stable free radicals. The result depicted tested varieties.
a significant decline in antiradical efficacy (AE) of the tested culti- Zhang et al. (2013) determined the antioxidant activity of Ajwa
vars at three different maturation stages ranging from 2.0 to 1.5 AE, dates through MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetra-
1.8 to 1.3 AE, and 1.1 to 0.9 AE, respectively. These variations may zolium bromide) assay along methanolic, acetate, and water ex-
be linked to the genetic difference in cultivars as well as to varied tracts of date at 250 µg/ml that resulted in the inhibition of lipid
agronomic practices and analytical techniques used for the quan- peroxidation by 88%, 70%, and 91%, respectively Furthermore,
tifications of antioxidant activity. Haider et al., (2018) studied the Zhang, Aldosari, Vidyasagar, Shukla, and Nair (2017) evaluated
biochemical profiling and antioxidant potential of different culti- the antioxidant potential of 29 different varieties of Saudi Arabian
vars of Pakistani date at ripening stages. The results showed similar dates by water and methanolic extracts in MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthi-
trends of decreasing TPC (354.5–26.9 mg GAE/100 g) and antioxi- azole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] antioxidant assay. The
dant (3.25–1.27 AE) value from Khalal to Tamar stages, supporting result revealed that the methanolic extract (250 µg/ml) possesses
a superior antioxidant nutritional status of date at the khalal stage. moderate activity with an absorbance value in a range of 0.14–0.41.
Allaith (2008) evaluated the antioxidant activity of Bahraini date While water and methanolic extracts at 100 µg/ml inhibited lipid
palm fruit of 16 cultivars at different ripening stages by ferric reduc- peroxidation by 50%–67% and 58%–82%, respectively. Ragab,
ing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. The result showed a significant Elkablawy, Sheik, & Baraka, 2012) examined that the ethanolic ex-
decrease in the antioxidant activity with the ripening of fruit, pos- tract of Ajwa dates exhibited an increased level of serum antioxidant
sessing highest value at the biser stage with a mean FRAP value of enzymes along with decrease in lipid hydroperoxides using rab-
5.71 mmol /100 g of fresh weight (FW) and lowest at the rutab stage bit experimental modeling. Another study conducted by Al-Yahya
with FRAP value of 1.2 mmol/100 of FW. A significant correlation et al., 2016) reported that the date methanolic extract prevented
YOUNAS et al. | 9 of 18

the depletion of a major antioxidant such as superoxide dismutase, and were effective against enteric diseases as they suppressed the
glutathione peroxidase, and carnitine acyltransferase. All these anti- activity of Enterococcus faecalis.
oxidant effects occur due to the reduction of free radicals that is in Bokhari, and Perveen, (2012) determined the in vitro antimi-
turn lead to the reduction of disease proliferation. crobial activity of aqueous, methanolic, and acetone extracts of
Saleh, Tawfik, & Abu-Tarboush, 2011) evaluated the antioxidant Ajwa dates leaves and pits. The result revealed the inhibition of F.
capability of three varieties of Saudi date (Khalas, Sukkari, and Ajwa) solani, Fusarium, A. alternata, A. flavus, and Trichoderma sp. growth.
and found that highest concentration of phenolics was present in the The Ajwa pit exhibited inhibitory activity of 40% against A. alternata
alcoholic extract of Ajwa variety (450 mg/100 g), while the Sukkari and 38% against F. Fusarium and mild activity was observed against
and Khalas were found to be richer in the catechin content and caf- F. solani and Trichoderma sp. While leave extracts expressed the in-
feic acid (7 mg/kg), respectively). Amira et al., (2012) conducted a hibitory activity of 51% against A. alternata, 29% and 38% against F.
research on different cultivars (Gondi, Gasbi, Dhahbi, and Rtob) of solani and F. fusarium, respectively. Moreover, methanolic and ace-
Tunisian dates to analyze their antioxidant potential by 2,2 diphe- tone pit extract exhibited more activity than leave extracts. Jassim,
nyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical reducing power method. The and Naji (2010) determined the antimicrobial potential of date pit
highest antioxidant activity was observed at the besser stage and against the Pseudomonas phage and results exhibited an effective
lowest value was noted at a full ripe stage, exhibiting a significant de- antiviral activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of
crease (p < .05) during ripening. They determined the total phenolics 10 µg/ml. It can be suggested that date extracts provide protec-
(380.81 mg GAE/100 g, flavonoids (87.34 to 246.83 mg CE/100 g) and tion against viral infection through the inhibition and inactivation of
tannin (234.70 mg CE/100 fruit weight) contents and reported that phage lysis. The antimicrobial attributes of dates might be due to
16 different phenolic compounds were present in selected varieties various selective and synergetic actions of bioactives present in date
of Tunisian cultivars. Among them ferulic (14.35–56.35 mg/100 g), palm. Bammou, Sellam, Benlyas, Alem, and Filali-Zegzouti (2016) ex-
catechin (3.34–3.84 mg/100 g), caffeic (3.48–5.96 mg/100 g), and amined the antimicrobial and hemolytic activity of Moroccan dates.
protocatechuic acids (3.241–4.41 mg/100 g fruit weight) were more The hemolytic activity of different date extracts was determined
prominent. The findings suggest that dates are a rich source of nat- against erythrocytes, while that of the antimicrobial activity against
ural antioxidants and can be used as a natural remedy against sev- Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The methanolic extract
eral chronic diseases. Zineb, Boukouada, Djeridane, Saidi, and Yousfi from Bousrdon and Jihl date varieties exhibited potent inhibitory
(2012) investigated the antioxidant contents of Algerian dates variet- activity with minimum inhibitory concentration/MIC (2.5 mg/ml,
ies (Deglet Nour, Tamjhourt, and Tafezauine) by methanolic extracts. 10 mg/ml, respectively) against selected microbial strains and sug-
The result showed that significant scavenging ability was exhibited gested that both of these varieties can be explored as a natural
by all the tested varieties (11–12 mg/L) and reducing trend was also source of antibacterial agents/constituents.
noted in order of Deglet Nour, Ghars, Tamihourt, and Tafezauine, Experimental evidence also suggests that the phytochemical
respectively. Al Harthi et al. (2015) also investigated the antioxidant composition of date fruits possesses therapeutic potential against
potential of Omani dates cultivars with ethanolic extract through the certain cancers (Chang et al., 2016; Khalid et al., 2017). According to
analysis of phenolics by high-performance liquid chromatography Mills, Beeson, Phillips, and Fraser, (1989) enhanced dietary intake of
(HPLC) technique. The findings revealed different concentrations of dried fruits like beans, raisin, lentils, and dates is strongly linked with
phenolic acids such as caffeic, syringic, vanillic, and gallic acids to reduced risk of prostate cancer. Toxic chemicals cause the genera-
be present in the tested varieties. These phenolics might have been tion of excessive free radicals and reactive oxygen species that lead
responsible for exerting free radical scavenging activity and other to the production of excessive oxidative products which, in turn,
therapeutic effects. These findings suggested that dates are loaded lead to the activation of potent carcinogen hence resulting in cancer.
with natural antioxidant, this aspect of high antioxidant nutrition is Dates contain strong antioxidant/ potent chemopreventive agents
of valuable for the food industries from human health perspectives. that tackle free radicals and prevent oxidative damage of biologi-
cally important macromolecules with the inhibition of carcinogen-
esis (Vayalil, 2002). Moreover, the micronutrients such as vitamins
4.2 | Antimicrobial, anti-carcinogenic, and anti- and minerals in date fruits also contribute toward the activation of
inflammatory potential antioxidant defense mechanism endogenously. The minerals pres-
ent in date flesh and seeds (magnesium, zinc, copper, potassium, and
Microbial resistance is known to be a vital challenge against antimi- selenium) act as a cofactor for such enzymes and boost up their an-
crobial drugs. The possible solution to this issue is to use some natu- tioxidant activity. Dietary fibers in dates enhance fecal gastrointes-
ral antimicrobial agents and bioactive extract as they exhibit no or tinal transit time which may contribute to cancer-preventive activity
least side effect. Experimental evidence showed that dates and their in vivo (Al-Qarawi, Ali, Al-Mougy, & Mousa, 2003). Furthermore,
seed’s bioactive ingredients play a significant role in the treatment of dates also contribute to the activation of immune system which
microbial infections. Aamir, Kumari, Khan, and Medam, (2013) inves- prevents cancer. It has been shown that dates enhanced the innate
tigated that the methanolic and acetone extracts of Ajwa dates pit and adaptive immunity (Puri et al., 2000). These immunomodulatory
inhibited the growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria effects of dates are considered to be in part due to the presence
10 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

of polyphenols and polysaccharides (Karasawa, Uzuhashi, Hirota, methanolic and water extracts of dates and their pits. The result sug-
& Otani, 2011). Numerous studies proposed that the daily intake gested that both extracts of fleshy portion significantly decreased
of dates as a functional food has therapeutic potential to prevent foot swelling by 68% and 60%, respectively. While the methanolic
cancer (Surh, 2003). Consumption of raw dates is traditionally con- extract of date seed suppressed swelling 35.5%. Furthermore, the
sidered as a medicinal remedy against breast cancer in Palestine administration of these alcoholic extracts significantly enhanced the
(Jaradat et al., 2016). Zhang et al. (2013) determined the cycloox- antioxidant level (Vitamin C, E, and A). EI Abed et al. (2018) investi-
ygenase inhibitory potential of dates that resembled ibuprofen, as- gated the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidants potential
pirin, and naproxen. Dates possess this effect due the presence of of parthenocarpic dates extracts (water, ethanolic). These activities
polyphenols that increase the activities of antioxidant enzymes such were determined through DPPH, phospholipase A 2 activity, and
as superoxide dismutase (SOD), Glutathione S-transferases (GST), MTT test (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bro-
and catalase in the body which in turn reduce the damaged cell pro- mide), respectively. These finding supported the ethanopharmaco-
liferation followed by the low occurrence of mutagenesis. Moreover, logical significance of parthenocarpic dates by tackling free radicals,
Eid et al., (2014) reported that the extracts of dates both whole date reduced edema volume, and exhibited the anti-proliferative activity.
extract and polyphenolic extract helped in the inhibition of colon Kehili, Zerizer, Beladjila, and Kabouche (2016) determined the
adenocarcinoma cell growth and increased the growth of beneficial anti-inflammatory activity of Algerian dates by understanding of
bacteria (bifidobacteria and bacteroids) leading to the maintenance its high nutritive value and therapeutic potential. A concentration
of bowel health and reduction of colorectal colon cancer develop- of 50 mg/kg of dates extract was given to mice to determine their
ment. Zhang et al. (2017) reported that aqueous and methanolic anti-inflammatory potential. They observed a significant decrease
extracts of Ajwa dates at 100 µg/ml concentration inhibited the in the C-reactive protein value and plasma homocysteine level and
marginal cell proliferation against human lung, breast, gastric, and suggested that the organic extract of dates has enough potential to
colon cell lines. These therapeutic anticancer activities of date can reduce the inflammation.
be attributed to the presence of flavonoids such as quercetin, ste-
roids, and polyphenols.
Dates also exhibit strong potential against chronic inflammatory 4.3 | Use in cosmetic for skin protection
diseases and are used to cure anti-inflammatory disorders including
arthritis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and gas- In the modern era, people are becoming more conscious about their
trointestinal disturbances (Yasin, El-Fawal, & Mousa, 2015). Due to outlook especially skin and they seek natural alternatives to replace
anti-inflammatory potential, various constituents of date fruits are hazardous chemical cosmetics available in the market. Therefore,
also used in the pharmaceutical industry in the manufacturing of pain the use of date seed oil has been increased dramatically for the care
relief medicine such as part of paracetamol and ibuprofen (El-Far and protection of skin, as it is comprised of essential fatty acids that
et al., 2019; Sani et al., 2015). These biologically active substances our body cannot synthesize like linoleic acid (Adeosun et al., 2016).
exert anti-inflammatory potential by inhibiting unwanted biochem- Deficiency of essential fatty acids may cause skin problems resulting
ical reactions. Taleb, Maddocks, Morris, and Kanekanian, (2016) in dry and scaly skin, brittle nails, and hair loss. Interestingly, several
hypothesized that polyphenols of date syrup have the potential to cosmetic products contain linoleic acid to treat acne vulgaris, der-
lower the angiogenic response through the inflammatory process matoses, and sun burns (Lautenschläger, 2003). Furthermore, high
by cell migration, tube development, and activation of metallopro- concentration of linoleic acid in date seed oil makes them useful for
teinase. These mechanisms lead to the exertion of prostaglandin the treatment of chronic rheumatic illnesses (Larrucea, Arellano,
enzyme; cyclo-oxygenase-2(COX-2) and vascular endothelial growth Santoyo, & Ygartua, 2001). Oil of date seed is also used to protect
factor (VEGF). COX-2 and VEGF expression trigger tumor necrosis skin from the ultraviolet radiation due to its high absorbance range of
factor (TNF) that was notably decreased by the dose of date syrup ultraviolet (UV)-C (100–290 nm) and UV-B (290–320 nm) (Dammak
compared to the untreated cells. These findings suggest that poly- et al., 2007). Due to the presence of natural antioxidants such as
phenols found in date syrup have the ability to reduce the inflamma- phenols and tocopherols in date seed oil has the ability to repair the
tion and different stages of angiogenesis (invasion, migration, and damage caused by hydrogen peroxide exposure (Ines et al., 2010).
tube formation). It has also been observed that nitric oxide (NO) and Additionally, date seed oil also has the potential to protect skin from
Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) production and proliferation can oxidative stress damage that is caused by the process of lipid peroxi-
be inhibited by dates as daily diet. dation (Dammak et al., 2007). Date palm possesses wrinkle fighting
Dates as an anti-inflammatory agent can be used against NO and properties due to the presence of phytohormones, which decrease
TNF-α which play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of inflammation. the wrinkle surface area and depth. Meer, Akhtar, Mahmood, and
Methanolic and aqueous extracts of date flesh and seed possess an- Igielska-Kalwat (2017) determined the efficacy of date palm cream
ti-inflammatory characteristics and can be used to reduce the swell- on the healthy skin of female volunteers. In this study, efficacy of
ing in adjuvant arthritis patients. P. dactylifera L. methanolic extract (4%) was evaluated in cream form
Mohamed and Al-Okbi, (2004) evaluated the anti-inflamma- after 8 weeks of treatment compared with the baseline. Treating skin
tory and antioxidant potential in the arthiritic model of mice by the with P. dactylifera L. extract significantly improved the skin elasticity,
YOUNAS et al. | 11 of 18

brightness, pigmentation, and redness. This is due to the presence of of several chronic illnesses such as hypertension, renal, and heart
various active ingredients like polyphenols, flavonoids, glycosides of diseases. Epidemiological studies with animal experiments have
luteolin, quercetin, and apigenin. The date extracts have superoxide shown that increased potassium intake and low mineral diet have
and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity that contributes to a de- a beneficial effect on cardiac health (Chang et al., 2016). Date flesh
crease in the level of erythema with time. The presence of vitamins and pit have high potassium and low sodium and can be helpful in
like ascorbic acids and vitamin E in date extracts helps to improve alleviating potassium deficiency, maintaining sodium-potassium bal-
the hydration level of skin through dermal fibroblasts stimulation ance, and aiding in the treatment of the cardiac disorders especially
and increase collagen synthesis. Furthermore, the presence of min- after gastrointestinal disturbance and after the intake of diuretic
erals and vitamin C can be linked to the anti-aging potential of dates. medications. High potassium concentrated diet enhances the serum
potassium level leading to the vasodilation by the hyperpolarization
of the endothelial cell and as a result sodium pumps are stimulated
4.4 | Potential against cardiovascular diseases and potassium channels open that maintain the normal blood flow
(Haddy, Vanhoutte, & Feletou, 2006).
Cardiovascular diseases account for more than 30% of mortality Dietary fibers in dates have potential against hypercholesterol-
worldwide and cause millions of deaths annually (Mendis, Puska, emia that is known to be the major etiological factor for the onset
& Norrving, 2011). Ischemic heart disease and cerebral stroke are of chronic heart diseases. Dietary fibers help in minimizing choles-
considered to be the most common cause of mortality among car- terol absorption and reabsorption in the lumen of intestine from bile
diac patients. For the development of heart diseases main etiologi- acid. Moreover, dietary fibers help in inhibiting the hepatic choles-
cal and risk factors include smoking, inappropriate diet, elevated terol biosynthesis by generating the short-chain fatty acid series.
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, less value of high-density Furthermore, dietary fiber in date fruit is also associated with the
lipoprotein (HDL), obesity and hypertension (Members et al., 2012). reduction of atherogenicity of the LDL a particle that consequently
Moreover, underlying factors behind the onset of heart diseases reduces the risk of Cardiovascular Disorder (CVD).
include pro-inflammation usually cause by the deregulated plasma Phytochemicals present in dates such as phytosterols and phy-
lipid normal range and increased free radical generation (Gonzalez toestrogen significantly reduce hypercholesterolemia by the inhibition
& Selwyn, 2003). It has been suggested that there is a strong need of cholesterol absorption from intestine particularly by displacing cho-
to utilize the balanced diet as a daily routine for the prevention of lesterol from micellar binding (John, Sorokin, & Thompson, 2007). The
cardiovascular diseases. More specifically, the diet that is com- low fat content of date fruit also contributes to hypercholesterolemia.
prised of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, sterols, mi- As date fruit contains many molecules including antioxidants which
cronutrients, and dietary fibers are more beneficial (Kulczyński & are not involved directly in human biochemistry and metabolism;
Gramza-Michałowska, 2016). they still appear to have a high cardioprotective potential (Petyaev &
Several dietary guidelines suggested that more than 3–5 serv- Longevity, 2016). Several studies indicated that carotenoids have high
ings of fruits, vegetable, and legumes per day have the potential to antioxidant efficacy and thus can be beneficial to inhibit the onset of
lower the risks of cardiovascular diseases, myocardial infarction, and heart diseases. Among carotenoids, lycopene a highest anti-oxidative
cardiovascular mortality. A survey was conducted that observed potential to decrease cardiovascular disease risk (Jacques, Lyass,
that large population consuming 3–5 serving of fruits and vegetables Massaro, Vasan, & D’Agostino, 2013; Yeo, Kim, Lim, Kim, & Lee, 2011).
on daily basis caused more than a 15% reduction in the incidence Lycopene that mostly found in fruits and vegetables like tomato
of heart diseases (Hodge, English, O’Dea, & Giles, 2007). Fruits and also in dates exert multiple beneficial effects mainly including
and vegetables as an important food group are known to be a rich the modulation of various crucial events that play an etiological role
source of antioxidants, dietary fibers, polyphenols, minerals, and vi- in the development of heart diseases such as apoptosis, chronic in-
tamins. Among fruits, dates exhibit potent free radical scavenging flammation, and excessive cellular oxidation (Tapiero, Townsend, &
potential than other fruits, which are thought to be cardioprotective Tew, 2004; Thies, Mills, Moir, & Masson, 2017). Ahmed, Alam Khan,
(Al-Farsi & Lee, 2008a). Date fruit comprises various subclasses of and Jamil, (2016) evaluated the anti-hyperlipidemic effect of the Aseel
polyphenols and flavonoids including iso-flavonoids, catechin, lignin, variety of dates. In vivo study was performed on hyperlipidemic in-
and phytosterols; all these have significant participation in lowering duced albino rats which were categorized in five group including con-
the cholesterol level and thus prevent from heart diseases (Hamad trol, standard, positive control. The albino rats were treated with 300
et al., 2015; Samad, Hashim, Simarani, & Yaacob, 2016). While the and 600 mg/kg date fruit suspension. After 14 days, serum lipid profile
oil of date seed comprises oleic acid that is helpful to increase the significant decrease observed in triglyceride, very low-density lipopro-
HDL level and lower LDL concentration in blood and prevents car- tein (VLDL) and alkaline phosphates animals treated with date fruit
diovascular diseases directly by promoting a favorable balance of extract. Very less in vivo and in vitro studies have been demonstrated
both good and bad cholesterol (Gilmore et al., 2011). on the date fruit cardioprotective effect, it requires future insight into
Dietary minerals also possess a significant role in the mainte- the confirmation of these effects on human subjects.
nance of normal blood pressure and electrolyte balance as an im- Alsaif et al. (2007) reported the hypercholesterolemic effect
balance in sodium and potassium ions ratio enhances the chances of date fruit as it accounts a major risk factor for cardiovascular
 12 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

diseases. In this research, hamsters were fed with chow alone or

Pujari et al. (2014), Ali et al. (2008);

Puri et al. (2000), Al-Qarawi et al.,

et al. (2015), Samad et al. (2016)

chow with cholesterol-supplemented with and without date pulp.

Mohamed & Al-Okbi, 2004) Das

Supplementation of date fruit to high cholesterol-fed hamsters sig-

Gilmore et al. (2011), Hamad

Famuyiwa et al. (1992), Ali

nificantly reduced total plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL

Dammak et al. (2007)

cholesterol level and raised the HDL level in plasma. While the feed-
Saleh et al., 2011)
Kehili et al. (2016)
ing dates alone did not affect any tissue or plasma lipid level. The
result suggested that date fruit supplementation potentially modu-

et al. (2009)
et al. (2015)
References

lated cholesterol metabolism and helped in the prevention of coro-

2003)
nary heart diseases due to the presence of less sugar and high fiber
contents.

Increase HDL, decrease LDL, maintain electrolyte

Protection from UV radiations, oxidative damage

homocysteine level by inhibiting NO and TNF-α

Improved glycemic and lipid control in diabetic

Significant reduction in C-reactive protein and

4.5 | Potential against diabetes mellitus

antioxidant enzyme in defense mechanism

gastrointestinal transit time, inhibition of

Tackle free radicals by acting as marker of

Activate immune system, enhance fecal

patient, improve glucose homeostasis The epidemic of diabetes mellitus is increasing day by day globally
and is known to be a major threat to human healthy life (Ezuruike &
Inhibit free radicals’ production

Prieto, 2014). Lifestyle and dietary modification as well as awareness

education along with medical therapy is an effective approach for the
maintenance of type II diabetes. As Insulin resistance is main pathol-
Result/Mechanism

ogy factor behind type II diabetes and maintenance of insulin balance

carcinogenesis

in blood is key consideration for treatment of diabetes (Wang, Wang,

production

& Chan, 2013). Type II diabetes is characterized by the impaired insu-

balance

lin action that causes the reduction in glucose uptake through muscle
cells, leading to the high production glucose through liver, both these
mechanisms altered the metabolism of lipids. Additionally, these alto-
Randomized and control trial

Randomized and control trial

Control and randomized trial

gether also affect the normal functioning of several other organs such
Randomized and controlled

Randomized and control

Randomized and control

as pancreas, kidney, endothelial cells, and brain vessels (Castro, Kolka,

Formalin induced- rats

Kim, & Bergman, 2014; Wilcox, 2005). Diabetic patients are also at high
intervention trial
Health benefits of date fruit along with related bioactives profile and activities

risk of other chronic diseases like cardiac diseases (Bahrani et al., 2012),
Study design

clinical trial

Alzheimer diseases Lin, (2008) and risk of developing various types of

cancers due to disturb metabolism, leading to the immunological dys-
trial

functioning (Zunino, 2009). Nature contains many plants-based medi-

cines that can be used as a dietary supplement for the maintenance of
blood glucose level and provide protection from the long-term compli-
Dates dietary fiber, mineral (Se, Mg, and Zn) and
Methanolic and aqueous extract of date flesh
Carotenoids, polyphenol (caffeic acid, ferulic

cation of type II diabetes (Chang et al., 2013; Gallagher, Flatt, Duffy, &
Polyphenols and flavonoids (iso-flavonoids,

Oil of date seed (linoleic acid, tocopherols,

Abdel-Wahab, 2003).
Date fruit possesses many such chemical constituents that have
Anthocyanin and anthocyanidins

promising therapeutic potential against several illnesses (Oni et al.,

2015). Various studies found that fruits and vegetable consumption
catechin, lignin, and sterols)
acid, gallic acid etc.), tannis

lessen the risk of diabetes through the dietary pattern examination

Phenolic and flavonoids
Bioactive compounds

and diabetes incidence (Hodge et al., 2007; Montonen et al., 2005).

Due to the presence of antioxidant and polyphenols, fruits and vege-
tables exhibit health protective effects (Anderson et al., 2004). It has
polyphenols
and seed

phenols)

been suggested that the presence of bioactive compounds such as

anthocyanin and anthocyanidins contribute to the insulin-like activity
of date fruit. The glycemic response; also known as glycemic index
(GI) of the date fruits has significant effect on the diabetic patient and
dates as having low to medium glycemic value can be used to cure
Anti-inflammatory

Cardio protective

this problem. Different varieties of date palm have different GI value

Skin Protection
Anti-oxidative
Health effect

Anti-diabetic

and it is influenced by various factors such as the type of component

Anti-cancer
TA B L E 7

sugar (glucose, fructose, sucrose), physical form of the carbohydrate,

nature of the food product, and modification of the food (Jenkins
et al., 2002).
YOUNAS et al. | 13 of 18

Dates have been used in the Middle East and Northern Africa for concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, it was discovered that
the treatment of diabetes due to its low to medium glycemic value the maximum inhibition of Aβ fibrillation was offered by var. Khalas
and anti-hyperlipidemic potential (Ali, Al-Kindi, & Al-Said, 2009; followed by vars. Fardh and Kasab, respectively, explains that dates
Bammou et al., 2016). Isoflavones and many other secondary me- could be a new potential therapeutic agent that can be helpful in
tabolites such as lignans present in dates modulate the insulin se- treating and preventing Alzheimer’s disease, but the exact under-
cretion through various mechanisms. In Mauritius, date leaves lying mechanism is still undefined and needs for further studies in
are considered to be effective for the reduction of hyperglycemia this concern.
when consumed a cup of these leaves for 1 week (Mootoosamy &
Mahomoodally, 2014).
Famuyiwa, Sulimani, Laajam, Al-Jasser, and Mekki (1992) exam- 4.7 | Potential against hidden hunger issue in the
ined the acute glycemic and insulin response of dates in both dia- least developing countries
betic and non-diabetic individuals and found that var. Sukkari dates
consumption significantly reduced the glucose level in the diabetic The hidden hunger, also known as micronutrient deficiency is a
patient. Moreover, dates also possess other health benefits due to matter of serious concern affecting around 2 billion peoples round
the presence of high concentration of fructose. Various studies re- the globe and mainly prevails in the least developing countries. The
vealed that the hepatic uptake of glucose increased by the hepatic proper utilization of dates as food with nutritional benefits can be the
glucokinase stimulation when fructose in the portal vein infused best alternative to cope with hidden hunger. Since, dates apart from
(Shiota et al., 2002; Watford, 2002). It has been documented that its pleasant taste, are very high-energy food containing all important
an inverse relation occurs among the fructose and glycemic value nutritious constituents. Dates provide about 280 kcal/100 g while
of date fruits (Ali et al., 2009). Fructose of date fruits attenuates eating five dates can provide about 115 calories with nearly all forms
the postprandial glycemia as its release into the bloodstream is in of nutrients. Practically few date fruits consumed per day per per-
small to moderate concentration in both hyperglycemic and healthy son are adequate to significantly improve the nutritional status and
individuals. increase food security. Every 100 grams of dates contains 3.6 mg of
Table 7 summarizes the health benefits of date fruit and their Iron that can reduce the problem of anemia among preschool-aged
bioactive components using numerous well- designed in vivo and in children and pregnant women in many least developing countries as
vitro studies. The health benefits of dates fruit are mainly due to the iron controls the synthesis of hemoglobin present in Red Blood Cells
presence of several essential micro and macronutrients and phyto- and is responsible for preventing anemia in Pregnancy. Dates are a
chemicals compounds (carotenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and good source of Vitamin-A, (149 IU/100 g) and an excellent source of
anthocyanidins) related to antioxidant activities. iron (up to 2.15 mg/100 g, which equals almost 100% of RDI, respec-
tively), depending on the fruit maturation stage.

4.6 | Potential against Alzheimer’s disease

4.8 | Miscellaneous health benefits
Alzheimer’s disease is known to be the most common neurodegen-
erative disorder that lead to dementia which is characterized by Dates have several other medicinal health benefits because of their
impaired mental abilities (Li, Chen, Lee, Yu, & Zhang, 2007). The dis- functional compounds. Dates are anti-ulcerative, nephroprotective,
ease normally caused by the massive neuronal loss due to the forma- hepatoprotective, spermatogenic, and antiviral (Maqsood, Adiamo,
tion of neurotic plaque and neurofibrillary tangles. These massive Ahmad, & Mudgil, 2019). In Turkey, a herbal coffee named as “Hurma
plaques cleaved the β-amyloid precursor protein mainly composed coffee” which is obtained from date seed is being consumed for the
of almost 40 amino acids (Zawia, Lahiri, & Cardozo-Pelaez, 2009). purpose of improving memory (Sekeroglu et al., 2012). Furthermore,
Thus, the formulation of peptides, known as amyloid-beta pro- coffee made from date seed powder is believed to relieve gout pain
tein (Aβ), accumulates to form amyloid plaques on the blood ves- when consumed twice a day. Dates are also recommended to preg-
sels and outside the neurons of the brain leading to neural death. nant women to strengthen the uterine wall as the consumption of
Several reports suggest that the balanced diet can influence the risk dates before and after delivery can act as a relief tonic. Due to the
of onset of Alzheimer’s disease. Mediterranean diet (consisting of presence of certain bioactive substances, dates also help in the pre-
fruits and vegetables) plays a beneficial role in reducing the progres- vention of post-delivering bleeding. Virgin Mary was also recom-
sion of dementia. In addition, the antioxidant content of fruit and mended to eat dates to relieve her labor pains as reported in the
vegetables may also have a disease-modifying effect. Natural prod- Holy Quran. (Al-Qur’an, 19:23–26). Products made of date fruits
ucts that inhibit the in vitro fibrillation of Aβ may improve memory such as syrups, decoctions or infusions are also used for the treat-
functions in older adults with increased risk of dementia. An exper- ment of sore throat, cold, and fever. Date seed power is also used for
iment was conducted on Omani dates (such as vars. Fardh, Kasab, the treatment of skin allergy and other related disorders. However,
and Khalas) against Aβ fibrillation in vitro. The results showed that these potential medicinal effects need to be further verified by rel-
date extracts had significantly inhibited the fibrillation of Aβ in a evant clinical data.
14 of 18 | YOUNAS et al.

5 | CO N C LU S I O N S A N D FU T U R E Ahmed, S., Alam Khan, R., & Jamil, S. (2016). Anti hyperlipidemic and hepa-
toprotective effects of native date fruit variety “Aseel” (Phoenix dac-
PROS PEC T S
tylifera). Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 29(6), 945–1950.
Al Harthi, S., Mavazhe, A., Al Mahroqi, H., & Khan, S. (2015). Quantification
Dates are a good source of nutrients and antioxidants such as phe- of phenolic compounds, evaluation of physicochemical properties
nolics and carotenoids, essential fatty acids, and minerals that ex- and antioxidant activity of four date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) varieties
of Oman. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 10(3), 346–
hibit an important role in the maintenance of human health hence
352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtumed.2014.12.006
can be used functional foods and nutraceuticals. But there is a Al-Bowait, M., & Al-Sultan, S. (2006). Aspects of the serum biochemis-
strong need to explore the nutra-pharmaceutical and health benefits try, carcass quality and organoleptic characteristics of broilers fed
of dates on the basis of their functional components and elucidate alkali-treated date pits. International Journal of Poultry Science, 5(3),
the mechanisms of action of such bioactives. Development of inno- 284–288. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2006.284.288
Al-Dabeeb, S. (2005). Effect of feeding low quality date palm on
vative processed functional food and nutraceutical products based
growth performance and apparent digestion coefficients in fatten-
on therapeutic attributes of date seed, should also be promoted by ing Najdi sheep. Small Ruminant Research, 57(1), 37–42. https://doi.
the food industries. Date processing food industries should use ap- org/10.1016/j.small​rumres.2004.05.002
propriate means to preserve the date seed to overcome the loss of Aldhaheri, A., Alhadrami, G., Aboalnaga, N., Wasfi, I., & Elridi, M. (2004).
Chemical composition of date pits and reproductive hormonal sta-
nutritionally and functionally important ingredients.
tus of rats fed date pits. Food Chemistry, 86(1), 93–97. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodc​hem.2003.08.022
Al-Farsi, M., Alasalvar, C., Al-Abid, M., Al-Shoaily, K., Al-Amry, M., & Al-
6 | E TH I C S Rawahy, F. (2007). Compositional and functional characteristics of
dates, syrups, and their by-products. Food Chemistry, 104(3), 943–
947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodc​hem.2006.12.051
This is a review article and there are no human subjects and animal Al-Farsi, M., Alasalvar, C., Morris, A., Baron, M., & Shahidi, F. (2005).
experiments. Comparison of antioxidant activity, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and
phenolics of three native fresh and sun-dried date (Phoenix dac-
tylifera L.) varieties grown in Oman. Journal of Agricultural and Food
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
Chemistry, 53(19), 7592–7599.
The authors are grateful to all the researchers whom we cited in Al-Farsi, M. A., & Lee, C. Y. (2008a). Nutritional and functional proper-
this review for their significant and valuable research. We are also ties of dates: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition,
thankful to the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan for 48(10), 877–887. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408​39070​1724264
Al-Farsi, M. A., & Lee, C. Y. (2008b). Optimization of phenolics and di-
their support.
etary fibre extraction from date seeds. Food Chemistry, 108(3), 977–
985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodc​hem.2007.12.009
C O N FL I C T O F I N T E R E S T Al-Farsi, M. A., & Lee, C. Y. (2011). Usage of date (Phoenix dactylifera L.)
The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest. seeds in human health and animal feed. In V. R. Preedy, R. R. Watson,
& V. B. Patel (Eds.), Nuts and seeds in health and disease prevention
(pp. 447–452). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
ORCID
37568​8-6.10053​-2
Mushtaque Ahmed Jatoi https://orcid. Al-Hooti, S., Sidhu, J., & Qabazard, H. (1997). Physicochemical char-
org/0000-0003-4843-3086 acteristics of five date fruit cultivars grown in the United Arab
Nazamid Saari https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4185-9415 Emirates. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 50(2), 101–113. https://
doi.org/10.1007/BF024​36030
Rana Muhammad Aadil https://orcid.
Ali, A., Al-Kindi, Y. S., & Al-Said, F. (2009). Chemical composition and
org/0000-0002-0185-0096 glycemic index of three varieties of Omani dates. International
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