Paddy Soil

The significance of paddy soils are characterized by their association with irrigated and rainfed lowland
rice-cropping systems. The intensification of cropping practices since the 1960s has resulted in increased
rice yield and production, but further intensification is necessary to ensure food security at the national
and household levels.

Figure 1. Aerobic and anaerobic soil compartment in a flooded paddy soil, and related sulfur and nitrogen dynamics
The first approach to enhance productivity at the farm level involves optimizing existing rice-based
cropping systems, which typically involve two to three annual rice crops and short fallow periods.
Despite changes such as prolonged soil submergence and a shift from organic to inorganic nutrient
sources, rice double-cropping in Asia has shown potential for high and sustainable yields. However, to
overcome nutrient deficiencies, it is crucial to supplement indigenous nutrient sources with external
fertilizer inputs. It also points out the prevalence of inefficient fertilizer use, nutrient imbalances, and
excessive pesticide application, which necessitates more precise management of crops, soil, and water
inputs.

The second option for farmers is crop diversification, which entails integrating economically viable
nonrice crops into the existing rice-based cropping system or cultivating rice under aerobic soil
conditions. It is important to consider that such diversification practices can temporarily or permanently
alter the typical characteristics of paddy soils. The key concern raised is whether the current high
productivity achieved in rice-cropping systems can be sustained when transitioning to diversified
systems.

This emphasizes the need for optimizing existing rice-based cropping systems and addressing challenges
related to nutrient management, pesticide use, and site- and season-specific crop, soil, and water
management. It also highlights the potential impacts of crop diversification on paddy soil characteristics
and the question of whether the current productivity levels can be maintained in diversified systems.

Irrigation systems

Paddy fields require water to be continuously present throughout the growth period. the benefits of
flooded soil, including increased nutrient availability, weed suppression, moisture stress alleviation, and
a favorable micro-climate. In regions with limited water availability, maintaining saturated soil in a
chemically reduced stage is desirable.

Several characteristics of flooded soil are mentioned as conducive to achieving high yields in paddy
crops. Firstly, the availability of nutrients such as phosphorus, iron, and manganese is greater in flooded
conditions, which can contribute to improved crop growth. Secondly, the presence of standing water
helps suppress weed competition, reducing the negative impact of weeds on paddy crop productivity.
Thirdly, the elimination of moisture stress as a limiting factor is facilitated by flooded conditions,
ensuring the crop's water requirements are met. Lastly, the micro-climate created by the flooded
environment is favorable for crop production, further supporting high yields.

a study conducted to evaluate the effects of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) on crop growth,
yield, and water use in two rice varieties, Tainan11 (TN11) and Tidung30 (TD30). The study investigated
different irrigation regimes, namely intermittent irrigation with three-day and seven-day intervals, and
continuous flooding.

The results indicate that intermittent irrigation with three-day and seven-day intervals led to significant
water savings of 55% and 74%, respectively, compared to continuous flooding. Additionally, the study
found that intermittent irrigation at a seven-day interval resulted in higher total water productivity, with
values of 0.35 kg·grain/m3 for TN117 and 0.46 kg·grain/m3 for TD307.

The average daily headed panicle, which refers to the number of panicles per day, showed a significant
reduction of 166% to 196% for TN113 and TN117 compared to TN11F (continuous flooding). Similar
reductions were observed for TD303 (150%) and TD307 (156%) compared to TD30F (continuous
flooding).

The grain yield of TD30 remained comparable across different irrigation regimes, while the grain yield of
TN117 decreased by 30.29% compared to TN11F (continuous flooding). The study also noted that plants
exposed to intermittent irrigation of three-day intervals exhibited greater plant height and leaf area.
Table 1. Effects of Irrigation regimes on yield and yield components

Agrochemicals

The use of agrochemicals in rice paddy fields plays a vital role in modern agricultural practices aimed at
maximizing crop productivity. Agrochemicals, which include fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, are
employed to address nutrient deficiencies, control pests and diseases, and manage weed growth. Their
application is essential in achieving high and sustainable yields in rice cultivation, especially in intensively
managed systems. However, the utilization of agrochemicals in paddy fields also poses challenges and
potential risks to the environment, human health, and ecosystem balance. Thus, it is crucial to strike a
balance between the benefits derived from agrochemical usage and the adoption of responsible and
sustainable management practices to minimize adverse impacts. This necessitates careful consideration
of factors such as dosage, timing, and application techniques to ensure effective and judicious use of
agrochemicals in rice paddy fields.

The results of a case study conducted by Gianessi (2014) presented the significant role of pesticides,
specifically fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides, in rice production in South and South East Asia.
Pesticide use is driven by the need to control diseases, weeds, and insect pests, which can cause
substantial yield losses in rice fields.

Fungicides are commonly used to combat diseases such as blast and sheath blight, which can lead to
significant reductions in rice yield. The effectiveness of fungicides has been demonstrated, with two-
spray programs resulting in reduced disease incidence and increased rice yields. However, the reliance
on fungicides for disease control indicates the challenges in developing rice varieties with high genetic
resistance to these diseases.

Weeds are another major challenge in rice production, with uncontrolled weed growth leading to
substantial yield losses. The traditional method of hand weeding is labor-intensive and increasingly costly
due to factors like rural-to-urban migration and rising labor prices. As a result, herbicides are being
adopted as an alternative for weed control. The use of herbicides has shown promising results in terms
of labor savings, increased yields, and higher profits.

Insect pests such as stem borers, leaf folders, and planthoppers pose significant threats to rice crops,
causing yield losses. Historically, the intensive use of insecticides has been favored to control these pests,
leading to higher rice yields. However, the development of resistance in pests and the negative impact
on non-target organisms have highlighted the importance of integrated pest management (IPM)
approaches.

This is evident that the increased use of agrochemicals, including fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides,
has played a significant role in increasing rice production in South and Southeast Asia. Continued
adoption of these agrochemicals, along with the development of new selective products, is expected to
further enhance rice production in the region.

Problem analysis

Soil degradation in rice paddy fields is a significant concern with far-reaching consequences for
agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability. Rice cultivation is a vital component of global
food security, providing a staple food source for a large portion of the world's population. However, the
intensive cultivation practices associated with rice farming can lead to soil degradation, which
encompasses various processes such as erosion, nutrient depletion, and salinization. These factors can
adversely impact soil health, reduce crop yields, and compromise the long-term sustainability of rice
production systems. Understanding the causes, effects, and potential solutions for soil degradation in
rice fields is crucial for implementing effective management strategies that can mitigate its impacts and
ensure the continued productivity of these vital agricultural ecosystems.

Among the various processes of soil degradation, soil erosion emerges as the most prevalent and
extensively studied issue. However, other crucial but relatively less researched forms of soil degradation
include nutrient and organic matter loss, salinization, acidification, pollution, compaction, and
subsidence. The reviewed studies reveal that extensively degraded upland soils in the Philippines
possess chemical and physical limitations that hinder crop growth, such as acidic or calcareous
conditions, low organic matter and nutrient content, shallow solum, presence of toxic substances, and
compaction. To support biodiesel production on unproductive lands, which is currently being promoted
by the Philippine government, it is imperative to gather more data on the physical and socio-economic
characteristics of degraded lands. This information will aid in formulating appropriate soil management
strategies to address the challenges posed by soil degradation and maximize the potential of these lands.
Reference:

Witt, C., & Haefele, S. (2005). PADDY SOILS. Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 141–150.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-348530-4/00286-1

Pascual, V., & Wang, Y. M. (2016, December 22). Impact of Water Management on Rice Varieties, Yield,
and Water Productivity under the System of Rice Intensification in Southern Taiwan. Water, 9(1), 3.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w9010003

Asio, V., Jahn, R., Perez, F., Navarrete, I., & Abit, S. (2009, October 8). A review of soil degradation in the
Philippines. Annals of Tropical Research, 69–94. https://doi.org/10.32945/atr3124.2009