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Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its
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Review Article Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management (JOSEM), Vol. 1, No. 2 (2022), 257 – 264
p-ISSN 2822-1729, e-ISSN 2822-1737 Available online at https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/josem

Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global

Cultivation and its Benefits

H. Mary Henrietta1*, K. Kalaiyarasi2, A. Stanley Raj3

1
Department of Mathematics, Saveetha Engineering College (Autonomous), Chennai, India
2
UG Scholar, Department of Agriculture, Saveetha Engineering College (Autonomous), Chennai, India
3
Department of Physics, Loyola College (Autonomous), Chennai, India

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is one of the most extensively and widely used palm trees. The coconut palm
is regarded as the "tree of life," or "Kalpavriksha." Humans have been cultivating a wide range of coconut trees around the
world. This study is based on analysis of secondary data on cultivation of coconut trees and its benefits. Due to increased
insect infestations and a changing habitat, the lifespan of coconut trees have been affected. Coconut product market has
become the fastest expanding business due to the anti-viral compounds found in it. The coconut is used to produce oils, even
the shells used for craft materials. People have been using coconut trees to make brooms and woods are being used to make
furniture, construction materials for dwellings, and hardwood floors. It shows the livelihood of people around the world have
been changed due to the cultivation of coconut trees. Indonesia, India and Philippines are top three countries to be
economically benefitted from the plantation of coconut trees. As there is high demand of coconut based products worldwide,
farmers need to be made aware about this economic value for increment in production.
Keywords: Agriculture, Coconut, Cocos nucifera, Palm, Product

Conflicts of interest: None

Supporting agencies: None

Received 13.02.2022; Revised 05.04.2022; Accepted 17.04.2022

Cite This Article: Henrietta1, H.M., Kalaiyarasi, K., & Raj, A.S. (2022). Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera)
Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its Benefits. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management,
1(2), 257-264.

patients. Coconut milk is a hair conditioner as well as a

1. Introduction component of a DIY face mask. To celebrate the
production, September 2nd has been declared as the
Coconuts are diversified based on its shapes and sizes. World Coconut Day by the members of the International
The most essential thing of coconut fruit is its antiviral Coconut Community (ICC), of which India is also the
capabilities. It comprises of three major sections that are founder member (Jayasekhar, Chandran, Thamban and
utilized extensively, namely, endosperm (kernel meat), Muralidharan, 2019).
endocarp (shell), and mesocarp (coir) (Varghese and According to Mandal (2011), coconut is considered as
Jacob, 2017). Both the flesh and dried form of kernel meat the most beneficial plant groups known to humans.
can be used. The shell is utilized to design handcrafts, and Among the beneficial palms, three species are
coir is used to create mat rope. According to a study commercially valued, the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera),
conducted by Dayrit (2020), the coconut product market is oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), and coconut palm (Cocos
the fastest expanding business due to the anti-viral nucifera). Palm trees have offered food, water, fuel, and
compounds found in it, which demonstrate efficacy in the shelter to people in tropical and subtropical climates for
treatment of COVID-19. It also includes minerals generations. As a result, the coconut palm is known as
including Salt, Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, "Kalpavriksha," or "Life Tree" (Chalbhagath & John,
and Selenium, as well as Vitamin C, E, B1, B3, B5, and 2014). Oil palm and coconut palm fruits provide valuable
B6 (Ijinu, Anish, Shiju, George, & Pushpangadan, 2011). oil, which is used in margarine, cooking oil, soap,
Coconut oil benefits cardiovascular health, blood sugar cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and fuel. Additionally, the
management, and cognitive performance in Alzheimer's white meat section of the coconut, copra is frequently
Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management (JOSEM) 257
 Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its Benefits

utilized in the confectionery and pastry industries, 2020). An extra 25 palms can be planted if the triangle
particularly in Sri Lanka (De Silva, 1979). Eastern technique is used. The depth of planting trenches will be
Indonesian countries refer copra as "green gold" (Evita, determined by the soil type.
2020). Loomba (2013) has mentioned coconut having the
medicinal properties and herbal remedies. Coconut husks 3.3. Fertilizers
are used for coconut matting and provide a considerable
source of fuel. This study was conducted to explore the Fertilizers with 500 grams of nitrogen, 320 grams of
numerous aspects of coconut and its beneficial effects P2O5, and 1200 grams of potassium per palm per year are
globally. The beneficial of nutritious intake and anti-viral normally suggested for mature plantations (Thomas &
agents against COVID-19 (Henrietta, 2021) has also been Shantaram, 1984). Biofertilizers like Azospirillum species
discussed. and phosphate soluble bacteria produced in carriers like
talc or vermicompost should be applied at a rate of 100g
per palm. Rhinoceros beetle is the most well-known pest
2. Materials and methods in the coconut industry (Bedford, 2014). Prophylactic
treatment of the top three-leaf axils with either botanical
The literatures for the review were collected from cake [Neem cake, Marotti cake, or pungam cake(250g)]
Google Scholar. Most of the studies carried in last five admixed with an equal amount of sand or placing of 12g
years have been included in the study. The literatures were naphthalene balls coated with sand can be used to manage
searched by using Phrases (keywords) like “Coconut this pest.
Tree”, “Benefits of Coconut”, “Products from Coconut”, The palm continues to yield for over 80 years
“Planting Coconut Trees” and “Coconut in India”. (Narayana & Nair, 1989). Coconut can also support a
wide range of intercrops and businesses. Nihad (2020)
discussed that floriculture is a form of agriculture in which
3. Results and discussion flowering plants are placed in between the spacing of
coconut trees, since the gap between the trees is broader,
3.1. Coconut plantations providing farmers with a higher yield in addition to
coconut production to sustain their livelihood (Chikaire,
The coconut palm is a popular tree crop that produces a Ajaero & Atoma, 2022). The dual purpose of hydroponics
variety of items for both home and commercial usage. was analyzed (Henrietta, 2021).
According to Then kek hoe (2018), the coconuts are
cultivated in 93 nations with major portion occupied by 3.4. Dwarf coconuts plantations
Indonesia, Philippines, and India. According to Coconut
Development Boards (CDB) figures for 2018-2019, India In recent years, the proliferation of dwarf coconut
produced 21,384 million nuts from a 2.1 million area, with variants has grown. Copra produced by hybrid coconuts is
a yield of 9,815 nuts per hectare (Novarianto, 2021). of a higher grade. These dwarf coconut variants have
become popular due to a scarcity of coconut climbers.
3.2. Site selection Tebing Tinggi Dwarf (TTD), Bali Yellow Dwarf (BYD),
Nias Yellow Dwarf (NYD), Jombang Green Dwarf (JGD),
For coconut plantation, a site should have well-drained Nias Green Dwarf (NGD), Waingapu Red Dwarf (WRD),
soil, sandy loam, or loamy texture to make it easier to Raja Brown Dwarf (RBD), Sagerat Orange Dwarf (SOD),
remove seedlings from the nursery at planting time. The Salak Green Dwarf (SGD), and Hybrid Coconut (KHINA
recommended pH range for a nursery is between 5.5 and 1) are the noteworthy dwarf coconut kinds (Sopade,
7.0, whereas seedlings tolerate a pH range of 4.5 to 8.5. Samosir, Rival, & Adkins, 2010; Novarianto, Mashud,
Thamban (2020) proposed that the seed nuts should be Samosir, & Adkins, 2014; Welewanni & Bandupriya,
planted in long, thin beds with a 40cm*30cm spacing 2017; Novarianto, Tulalo, & Mawardi, 2021). In Brazil,
either vertically or horizontally in 20-25cm deep trenches. dwarf variants are commonly employed for economic
Irrigation systems like sprinklers, microjet sprinklers, and purposes. When compared to the red type, the green
hoses are ideal for coconut nurseries. The polybag nursery variety is the most marketable owing to its flavor (Joao,
technique also helps to grow more strong seedlings with 2017), Marcelo Coconut is derived from these dwarf
the improved establishment. variants, which are commercially farmed. Dissanayaka
(2012) proposed that these types of varieties generate huge,
Only 9-12 month-old seedlings should be chosen for high-quality nuts in three years after planting.
early germination, rapid development, and seedling vigor.
Novarianto (2021) suggested that before planting is done 3.5. Coconut components
it is essential to use the best planting materials to provide
increased production per unit area per unit time. In the Coconut water, the white fleshy section (known as
square system, a spacing of 7.5m*7.5m to 8.0m*8.0m is copra when dried), shells, husks, leaves, and flowers are
commonly suggested (Subramanian, Maheswarappa, the most important parts of the coconut. Until the coconut
Zachariah, Surekha, Selvamani, & Bhat, 2016). There will is opened, the delicate coconut water is utilized as a
be 177 and 156 palms per hectare respectively (Rani, beverage. Coconut water is also used to make the

Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management (JOSEM) 258

 Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its Benefits

gelatinous delicacy ''Nata de Coco," which has gained acid, which has been shown to have antiviral and
popularity in Japan (Gayathry, 2015). The white fleshy antibacterial properties. Due to the presence of natural
section of an immature coconut has a flavor and antioxidants in coconut oil, high-grade VCO has a long
consistency similar to custard, and it may be eaten or shelf life. Navin (2019) discussed that coconut oil is a
scraped and pressed through cloth to produce a 'cream' or tropical climate product which is in high demand in the
'milk' that can be used on a variety of meals. In China and cosmetics sector and in worldwide cuisine.
Vietnam, half-dried coconut shells are utilized as the
bodies of musical instruments. Ringworm is treated using Desiccated coconut
a mixture of ash from the mature shell of the fruit and lime.
Pieces of coconut shell cut into coin-like spheres were Desiccated coconut meat is grated and shredded
used as money in the South Pacific. Coconut shells are dehydrated coconut (DC) meat (Jayasekara & Gunathilake,
now utilized as craft materials as well. The fibrous coating 2007). It is widely utilized in India, mostly in the
on the thick mesocarp (middle layer) of the coconut fruit confectionery and other food sectors. It's also used as a
is referred to as coconut husks. The coconut husk is made replacement for shredded coconut in a variety of dishes.
up of 75% fibre and 25% fine particles. It's also known as
'coir pith.' Coco husk chips, coco peat, coir fibre, and coco Coconut milk
crush are all made from the husks.
Coco peat has long been utilized as a fertilizer in Coconut milk is an emulsion of two liquids made from
indigenous peoples' gardens (Lu, Wang, Liu, He, Wu, Li, the flesh of the coconut. The coconut cream and coconut
& Tang, 2020). Coco peat is also utilized economically to water are sterilized coconut flesh that is grind into paste
conserve wetlands as a renewable resource. Coir pith may using a hammer mill, then passed through a screw press
be used to make good manure by putting it in the cow and vibrating screens to make coconut milk on an
shed and then removing it every day and dumping it in the industrial scale (Sudheer, 2018). To dilute coconut milk, it
compost pit. It is also utilized in horticulture and has taken is cleansed and blended with coconut water and pure
the place of peat moss. Coconut leaves are used for water. After that, 10-12% sugar is added and a 2%
thatching. These leaves are used to construct fences and stabilizer, emulsifier, and taste, then the blend is sterilized
roofs for tiny homes. In the Philippines, rice is wrapped in and packed in bottles and sent for sales.
coconut palm leaves for cooking and storage, a process
known as Puso. Coconut blossoms may be eaten. In Coconut skimmed milk
ancient times, they were combined with curd and
consumed by diabetics, as well as used for a variety of After the cream has been separated in a cream separator,
medical purposes. In Kiribati, an island country in the coconut skims milk is a solution of the soluble
central tropical Pacific Ocean, cutting a coconut blossom components of coconut. Skimmed milk is a great source
cluster yields a delicious juice that is consumed for of protein that is used to make a variety of beneficial
breakfast and supper when it is fresh and not fermented. foods (Naik, Raghavendra, & Raghavarao, 2012). With
Subash (2014) indicated that through ancient times, the addition of sodium hydroxide, freshly obtained
coconut blossoms have been widely employed in medicine. coconut milk from the kernel is filtered through a 120-
mesh vibrating screen and the pH of the filtered milk is
3.6. Coconut products increased from 6.3 to 7.0. The milk is then pasteurized for
one hour at 60 degrees Celsius before being centrifuged in
Coconut goods are divided into kernels, inflorescence, a cream separator to extract the aqueous phase, which
shell, water, and handy food items by the Coconut contains the protein-rich skim milk. The skimmed milk is
Development Board. Virgin coconut oil, desiccated also used to make items like spray-dried powder, coconut
coconut, coconut milk, coconut skimmed milk, spray- honey, coconut jam, and sweetened skim milk
dried coconut milk powder, coconut cream, coconut chips, (Muralidharan, 2011).
coconut oil, and copra are examples of kernel-based
coconut goods (Appaiah, Sunil, Kumar, & Krishna, 2015). Spray dried coconut milk powder
Virgin coconut oil The manufacturing of whole coconut milk powder
entails several activities, including size reduction, milk
The white fleshy section of the coconut is broken down extraction, emulsion stabilization, homogenization, and
and pressed in a screw press to extract coconut milk, spray drying (Seow & Gwee, 1997). Spray drying is a
which is then filtered, and the cream is separated using technique that has been developed to help stabilize
centrifugation. A method known as phase inversion is coconut milk. The white endosperm is removed from the
used to extract the Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) from the shell and driven out via a rotary wedge cutter with a filter
cream. The resulting oil is crystal clear, nutrient-dense, plate (3 mm hole). In a screw press, the wet coconut
and has a longer shelf life. Wet processing without heat grating is then pressed to obtain coconut milk. For over 30
treatment is used to extract virgin coconut oil from fresh, minutes, the coconut milk is homogenized in two stages of
mature coconuts. Virgin coconut oil is colorless and high and low pressure. The milk is then manufactured by
smells strongly of coconut. This oil contains lauric fatty adding various additives and chemicals. The coconut milk

Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management (JOSEM) 259

 Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its Benefits

is then homogenized again after being pasteurized at 60- gold). The need for cooking oil in European nations
70 degrees Celsius for 5 minutes. Finally, the milk is increased in the 1880s, prompting the discovery of copra
spray-dried at a feed flow rate of 120 ml/minute at a oil as a new cooking tool. Copra is also a component in
temperature of 100-150 degrees Celsius and packaging is the making of butter. The Copra is also utilized in the
done. production of soap (Evita, 2020).

Coconut cream 3.7. Coconut water-based products

Coconut milk is made from partly defatted coconut It is observed that numerous products result from
cream. Coconut cream/milk is used as a component of coconut water; tender coconut water, Vinegar, Coconut
processed foods and as an ingredient in domestic cooking. squash, and Nata-de-coco.
Coconut milk is also known as coconut cream, which is
used as a mixer in alcoholic beverages. According to Tender coconut water
Novarianto (2021), in ice cream industry, coconut milk is
utilized as a dairy milk alternative. Because dairy milk has Coconut water is the liquid endosperm of a delicate
a larger fat content than coconut milk which reduce the fat coconut nine months after pollination when the solid
content of coconut milk and can be utilized to make a endosperm, or white flesh, appears. The most healthy and
variety of goods. healthful beverage is tender coconut water. Tender
coconuts are excellent for preserving coconut water.
Coconut chips However, according to Sudheer (2018), the nuts cannot be
kept at room temperature for more than six days.
Coconut chips are a snack item that is ready to consume
(Manikantan, 2015). Coconut chips are dehydrated mature Vinegar
coconut kernel slices that have been dipped in an osmotic
medium such as sugar syrup. Coconut chips do not alter Coconut vinegar is a natural product made from the
nutritionally or chemically after six months. To reduce fermentation of coconuts, with no additional preservatives
chip breakage during shipping, nitrogen flushing is done or additives (Othaman, Sharifudin, Mansor, Kahar &
in pouches (Sudheer, 2018). Long, 2014). Coconut water or fermented coconut sap is
used to make this vinegar. It's made with Saccharomyces
Coconut oil cerevisiae (yeast) and Acetobacter aceti (bacteria) to help
with ethanol and acetic acid fermentation. (Sudheer, 2018)
Coconut oil is an edible oil that has been eaten for discussed that coconut vinegar is made by the alcoholic
thousands of years in tropical areas (Boateng, Ansong, fermentation of coconut water with the addition of 10-12%
Owusu, & Steiner-Asiedu, 2016). Crushing of dried sugar and it entails fermenting sugar into ethanol and then
coconuts (copra) for oil recovery is done with rotary and oxidizing the ethanol to make vinegar.
expeller machines (Figure 1) used in the outskirts of
Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. The oil content from copra is 60- Coconut squash
65%. There are two major ways of extracting coconut oil;
dry and moist (Marina, Man & Amin, 2009). The coconut Coconut squash is a healthful soft drink made with
is dried in the dry extraction method, but the wet coconut water, sugar, and natural preservatives like lemon
extraction method does not include any drying. The goal and ginger (Chinnamma, Bhasker, Binitha Hari,
of dry extraction is to remove moisture from coconut fruit Sreekumar, & Madhav, 2019). It has a high vitamin and
while minimizing microbial contamination. Heating, mineral content while being low in calories. This product
fermentation, cream centrifuge, pH adjustment, and has a three-month life at room temperature. It's a relatively
chilling are all used in the wet extraction process. Large new product that's gaining traction in Asia and the Pacific.
enterprises frequently carry out oil extraction by
employing dry extraction with copra processing. As a Nata de coco
result, dry extraction requires more oil refinement. A
centrifuge may be used to do mechanical extraction. Apart Acetobacter aceti subspecies xylinium, a cellulose-
from this, enzyme extraction and solvent extraction are the forming bacterium, produces nata-de-coco, a gelatinous
two more ways of extracting oil (Subroto, 2020). substance made from matured coconut water. The culture
solution is made by combining coconut water, sugar, and
Copra acetic acid in a predetermined proportion, then inoculating
it with Acetobacter, Xylinium via a culture liquid. It is
There are two types of copra produced in India: milling placed in glass jars with thin linen covering and left
and edible copra (Ramakumar, 2001). The edible coconut undisturbed for 2-3 weeks. During this time, a white jelly-
is consumed as dry fruit, while the ground copra is used to like substance develops on top of the culture medium and
extract oil. When compared to other oilseeds, copra has floats. It is picked, chopped into pieces, cleaned in pure
the greatest amount of oil. Eastern Indonesia's economy water to eliminate all acids, and then soaked in flavored
has been reliant on copra for over eight decades (green

Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management (JOSEM) 260

 Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its Benefits

sugar syrup for 12 hours before being packaged in glass gratings are roasted, then fat is added at a rate of 3% and
bottles (Muralidharan, 2011). sugar at a rate of 10%.

3.8. Coconut based products 3.9. Components of a coconut shell-based

There are two major categories of foods that are
product
extracted from coconut, coconut inflorescence-based Coconut shell powder, coconut shell charcoal, and
foods, and coconut convenience foods. activated carbon are the shell-based products from
coconuts.
Coconut inflorescence-based foods
It is seen that neera, coconut jaggery, and coconut
Powder of coconut shells
flower syrup are all coconut inflorescence-based foods. Coconut shell powder is widely used in the plywood
Neera: Neera is a fresh form of vascular sap taken from and laminated board industries, as well as a phenolic
immature unopened coconut inflorescence (Chinnamma, extruder and a filler in synthetic resin glues, mosquito
Bhasker, Binitha Hari, Sreekumar, & Madhav, 2019). To coils, and incense sticks. It's also a good alternative for
preserve the product, it is tapped from coconut bark powder, furfural, and peanut shell powder because of
inflorescence, filtered, pasteurized, and bio preservatives its consistency in quality and chemical composition, as
are added. Neera can be stored in cans for up to two well as its superior characteristics. Sri Lanka, Philippines,
months at room temperature. Tetra packs or glass bottles and Indonesia are the main exporting countries of coconut
are also available. shell powder (Muralidharan, 2011).
Jaggery: Jaggery is also known as palm sugar. Toddy is
the sap from the young inflorescence. Palm sugar or
coconut jaggery is made from unfermented toddy that has
Coconut shell charcoal
been carefully boiled. By adding a few drops of coconut Coconut shell charcoal is made by burning fully grown
oil or little coconut gratings, scummy contaminants are nut shells in a little amount of air, just enough to
eliminated and foaming is avoided. Before boiling, the carbonize. Shell is carbonized in mud pits, brick kilns, and
juice is filtered through sand filters to eliminate metallic kilns to produce shell charcoal. Fully dried, clean
contaminants, and a tiny amount of alum is added to adult shells are utilized to make top-grade charcoal. It is
induce lime and magnesium precipitation, which provides utilized as a raw material for the production of activated
the jaggery a better color and make it tougher for a longer carbon because of its inherent value.
period of time (Muralidharan, 2011).
Coconut Flower Syrup: This is a mineral-rich substance
Activated carbon
that is comparable to jaggery. It has a high potassium
concentration and a low sodium content. It's made from To make activated carbon, the coconut shell is first
fresh neera that's been condensed into syrup. The syrup transformed to shell charcoal through a carbonization
contains 50% sucrose and is beneficial to diabetic process that takes place in mud pits, brick kilns, and metal
individuals. portable kilns. The coconut shell charcoal is activated in a
rotating kiln by reacting with steam at 900-1100 degrees
Coconut convenience foods Celsius in a controlled environment. Three tons of coconut
shell charcoal may provide up to 1 ton of activated carbon
Coconut cookies, coconut candy, coconut chocolate, on average (Dhamodaran & Babu, 2011).
and coconut burfi are examples of coconut convenience
foods. Coconut biscuits are made using coconut powder
and Maida and may be made in a variety of flavors by
adding butter, ginger, chocolate, and other ingredients. It
has a three-month life at room temperature and is both
tasty and healthful, with less calories. Coconut candy is
made by combining shredded coconut with coconut milk.
It is mostly produced in Asian and Pacific nations and has
a high fibre content. The coconut chocolate has chocolate-
coated confectionary treat made from coconut gratings,
sugar, and milk butter. Cashew, almond, and other dry
fruits can be added to make it even more delectable.
Under refrigerated circumstances, this product has a three-
month life (Shameena, 2020). North America, Europe,
Australia, the Middle East, and China all have a high
demand for it. Similarly, the coconut burfi is made by
toasting coconut gratings and the product's preparation Figure 1: Expeller machines used to retrieve coconut oil
technique is standardized (Thamban, 2020). The coconut from copra.
Journal of Sustainability and Environmental Management (JOSEM) 261
 Coconut Tree (Cocos nucifera) Products: A Review of Global Cultivation and its Benefits

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Chikaire, J.U., Ajaero, J.O., & Atoma, C. N. (2022).
Socio-economic Effects of Covid-19 pandemic on
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Sreekumar, D., & Madhav, H. (2019). Coconut
production in the year 2021 neera—a vital health beverage from coconut palms:
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18
Beverages, 5(1), 22.
17 Dhamodaran, T. K., & Babu, S. (2011). Potential of
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