Residual Pesticides

Introduction
Pesticides are poisonous chemical compounds, that are supposed to kill harmful pests. Basically
pesticides are the biological agents such as bacteria, disinfectants, viruses, antimicrobial or
chemicals that either kills the pests, discourage their growth or prevent them from functioning in
a normal way. Pesticides are commonly used to kill or control different types of pests that can
damage crops or livestock, which causes the reduce farm productivity. Pesticides are so
commonly use in agriculture that term pesticides is often treated as synonym with plant
protection product.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as:
“any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any
pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport,
or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or
substances that may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids, or other
pests in or on their bodies.”
This is not a recent invention. Pesticides are used by many ancient civilizations to protect their
crops from the pests. Medieval farmers used chemicals like arsenic whereas ancient Sumerians
use elemental sulfur to protect their crops from pests. Similarly Chinese also use arsenic and
mercury compound and Greeks and Roman used oil, ash, sulfur and other chemicals to protect
their crops, livestock from different types of pests.
Researchers focused on natural techniques that involve compounds made with roots of tropical
vegetables and chrysanthemums (are flowering plants of the genus Chrysanthemum in the family
Asteraceae) in nineteenth century. Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT) was discovered in
1939, which become extremely effective and rapidly used as insecticide in the whole world.
After 20 years because of biological effects and human safety DDT was banned in almost 86
countries.
Types of Pesticides
Pesticides can be classified on the basis of the pests they kill or on the basis of how
biodegradable there are. There are six types of pesticides classified on the basis of the pest they
kill.
1: Insecticides
These are the pesticides are specifically build to kill insects that can cause harm to crops or
livestock. Some common examples of insecticides are Aldrin, Chlordane, Chlordecone etc.
2: Herbicides
These are the pesticides that are specifically build to kill unwanted plants that can cause harm to
the crops. Some common examples of herbicides are Triazolopyrimidines, Benzoic acids,
Imidazolinones etc.
3: Rodenticides
These are the pesticides that are developed to kill rodents. Rodents include not only rats and
mice but also squirrels, woodchucks, chipmunks, porcupines, nutria, and beavers. Some common
examples are brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difethialone and difenacoum.
4: Bactericides
These are the substances that are developed to kill bacteria. Examples of bactericides includes
disinfectants, antiseptics and antibiotics.
5: Fungicides
These are specifically developed to kill fungi. Some examples of fungicides are Copper
compounds, Thiophthalimides etc.
6: Larvicides
A larvicide is a type of pesticides that are used to control mosquitoes indoors and outdoors
around your home. They work by killing mosquito larvae or any type of larvae before they can
grow into adults. Examples are temephos, methoprene, oils, and monomolecular films.
On the basis of biodegradable nature pesticides are classified into two groups
1: Biodegradable
Biodegradable pesticides are those which can be broken down by microbes and other living
organisms into harmless compounds with time. Soil fumigant methyl bromide, herbicide
dalapon, and fungicide chloroneb are examples of biodegradable pesticides.
2: Residual/Persistent Pesticides
Residual/Persistent pesticides are those which primarily consist of organochlorine pesticides.
They are considered persistent because they are stable in the environment and resist being broken
down.
In this review paper our main focus is on residual pesticides, how the effect our health and
environment and how can we emit or lower the amount of these pesticides. According to world
health organization (WHO), residual pesticides are defined as:
“Any substance or mixture of substances in food for man or animals resulting from the use of a
pesticide and includes any specified derivatives, such as degradation and conversion products,
metabolites, reaction products, and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological
significance”
These pesticides remain in environment for long time and can not be easily biodegradable. They
remain to be effective for days, weeks and months. These pesticides may remain in or on food
after they are applied to food crops. It is difficult to remove 100% of residual pesticides from the
food that’s why, In many countries regulatory bodies set maximum allowable levels of these
residue in foods. Regulations such as pre-harvest intervals also often prevent harvest of crop or
livestock products if recently treated, in order to allow residue concentrations to decrease over
time to safe levels before harvest.
Mechanism of action
Many pesticides are supposed to kill pests by disrupting their nervous system. Due to similarities
in brain biochemistry among many different types of organisms that’s why it is suggested that
these chemicals may have a negative impact on humans as. Pesticides can be classified according
to chemical structure There are the following main classes of pesticides given below:
Organophosphates, carbamates, organochlorines, triazines, and pyrethroids. They all have
different mode of action. Lets discuss their mode of action first in living organisms.
Organophosphate pesticides act on acetylcholinesterase which leads to development of
cholinergic toxicity because they decrease its enzymatic activity. The phosphate or carbamate
pesticides by inhibition of acetylcholinesterase disrupts the equilibrium between acetylcholine
synthesis release on one hand and its hydrolysis on the other which leads to its accumulation at
synaptic level with activation of cholinergic receptors. Organochlorine pesticides are highly
lipophilic. This property enhances their stability in living organisms as well as in environment.
They are largely stored in adipose tissue by a process called bioaccumulation. This property
leads to the development of high toxicities in mammals. Triazines in high concentrations have
been linked to increased cancer risk and incidence of birth defects. The pyrethroid pesticides act
on the sodium channels in the nerve membrane (neurotoxic). They have high selectivity for
insects and do not have carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects.
Exposer to Residual pesticides
Living organisms and humans are exposed to pesticides from more than one source. Via the
environment and food. These may have a combined (synergistic or antagonistic) action which
can cause higher or lower toxic effects. Persistent chemicals can be magnified through the food
chain and have been detected in products ranging from meat, poultry, and fish, vegetable oils,
nuts, and various fruits and vegetables. They are expose to the general population most
commonly through consumption of treated food sources because they can enter into our food.
That’s why it is always recommended to wash fruits or vegetables properly before eating them.
They can also be exposed to general population by being in close contact to areas treated with
pesticides such as farms or lawns. Many people can be also be expose to these pesticides because
of their occupation for example manufacturers of pesticides, distributers and farmers can directly
expose to these pesticides. There are also many epidemiological studies that shows positive
correlations between exposure to pesticides through occupational hazards like farming,
manufacturing etc, and occurrence of cancer. It means risk of cancer is significantly higher in
people that are exposed to these pesticides by occupational hazards than that ingested by the
general population through food. Although most of the general population may not exposed to
large portion of pesticides. Many of the pesticide residues that are attached tend to be lipophilic
and can bio accumulate in the body.
Adverse effects of residual pesticides
After a lot of studies, it is found that pesticides have been linked to cancer, Alzheimer's Disease,
ADHD, and even birth defects. Pesticides also have the potential to harm the nervous system,
reproductive system, and endocrine system. Pesticides can even be very harmful to fetuses
because the chemicals can pass from the mother during pregnancy. Although one piece of fruit
which carries pesticides would not kill you but if they can accumulate in your body. They can be
potentially cause harm to your health. That’s why it is very important to avoid them as much as
possible.
Detection of pesticides
There are different method to detect pesticides, In this paper we will discuss three common
method that are use to detect amount of pesticides in a sample.
1. o-Tolidine + Potassium Iodide (o-TKI)
The o-tolidine + potassium iodide (o-TKI) detection method is use for the determination of any
pesticide. The factory-made silica gel glass coated plates are use in this method. The plates are
freshly activated in oven at 105°C for 30 minutes and appropriate volume of all samples are
spotted according to the written plan starting from left corner of the plate using microliter
syringe (Hamilton) at 1.5 cm space for spots. The plates are develop in the developing tank
which already saturated with ethyl acetate (analytical grade) solvent. The time and temperature
are noted and plates are develop up to the mark 12.0 cm from the origin. After elution, the plates
are remove and dry in fume hood and place in another glass tank saturated with Cl vapors (8 g
KMnO4 + 10 mL Conc. HCI) for 45 seconds. To evaporate the excess chlorine, plates than
remove from the tank and put in the fume hood for some time, 45 min. Then plates are sprayed
with reagent solution using sprayer gun. After a few seconds, blue spots appeared on a white
background. The positions of the spots are mark and the distance of the spots and area of spots is
to be recorded. Then we the calculate the pesticides.
2. Photosynthesis Inhibition Method
This method is specifically used for determination of herbicide residue which inhibits the
photosynthesis function. Extraction of chlorophyll suspension is as follows: For detection of
herbicides in vegetable extract, the chlorophyll of rice, wheat, and spinach leaves can be use.
Sample of leaves is taken. For example if we want to check on wheat leaves. We’ll take fresh
wheat leaves 30 g cut and ground with pestle and mortar is homogenized completely and then
add 3 mL glycerin and 15 mL distilled water. The suspension is pour through thin cloth into a
flask to obtain chlorophyll from leaves. Cover flask with Aluminum foil and store extract in
refrigerator. Activate the ready-made silica gel 60 plates at 1050°C for 30 minutes. Then remove
plate from oven. Than fix it in spotting rack and spot with sample extracts (20 μL) and authentic
standards (isoproturon, metoxuron, atrazine approximately IOPI). After this activate plates in a
tank using ethyl acetate. Then dry plates using fume hood, spray with reagent solution, and put
under light (60 W bulb) for about five minutes for extreme visibility of spots. The spot than
disappear after 10 minutes. Measure spotted area quickly.

3. Fungi Spore (Aspergillus niger) Inhibition Method (FAN)

This method is selectively used to detect fungicides. This method is used for the determination of
those pesticides, which have the properties to inhibit the growth of Aspergillus niger. Activate
factory-made silica gel 60 plates at 1050°C for 30 minutes. Prepare working standard solutions
of different pesticides in acetone. Spot the plates according to the written plan with microliter
syringe (Hamilton). Develop the plates in pasteurated developing tank and eluted to the mark
(12 cm). Air dry the plates in fume hood and spray with fungi suspension solution thoroughly.
Keep the plates in the tank presaturated with vapors using deionized water. After 48 hours,
observe the plates. Find and mark spots. Measure the eluted distance of solvents, spots, and spot
diameter and calculate.
Detoxification of pesticides residue
Pesticides residue can be detoxify by using different types of techniques or methods. Method that
is commonly used to get rid of pesticide residue is washing fruit, vegetables or other eatable
products before eating them at home. By washing eatable products we can get rid of a lot of
pesticide residue which can accumulate in our body and can cause harm. There is also a process
called Bioremediation. It is basically a process in which microorganisms are used for the
removal of pollutants or other toxic agents from the contaminated site or industrial waste. As
discussed early, one of the major agricultural contaminant of soil and water bodies is synthetic
pesticides that are routinely used in agricultural practices to enhance the productivity. They can
have their health hazardous effect on humans ranging from throat and lung problem, irritation in
eyes and even death depending upon the exposure time and quantity. To lower the risk of
diseases we use organism which produce organophosphate hydrolase enzyme have the ability to
degrade the wide range of organophosphate compounds.
Another method that is use for removal of residual pesticides in vegetables by using ozone
microbubbles. In this method we will take organo-phosphorous pesticide fenitrothion (FT).
Firstly FT will be diluted 1000 fold in tap water. Than add vegetables or fruits in this solution
and place them is a cool dark room for 24 hours to allow FT to be absorbed in vegetables. After
this wash them with tap water for 1 minute and treat it with ozonated water. For treatment of
with ozonated water take 40 liters of tap water aerated in cylindrical container for 24 hours at 20
degree Celsius to dechlorinate water. After 24 hours chlorine will remove from water. With the
help of ozone generator, generate ozone milli bubbles in dechlorinated water. Add vegetables in
this solution for 5 to 10 minutes. A control treatment will be conducted where the vegetables will
immerse in dechlorinated water. The solution temperature will be maintain at 20 ◦C during all
treatments and the concentrations of dissolved ozone will be measured using an ozone analyzer
with a electrode. Then we’ll do analysis and write results.
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