Indian Geography

Physical Geography

A. Locational Settings

1. Extent

Latitude: 8°4’N -37°6’N 3214 km

Longitude- 68°7’E -97°25’E 2933 km
India’s territorial limit further extends towards the sea up to 12
nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast.

2. Area:

Russia 17.09 M sq. km

USA 9.62 M sq. km
China 9.59 M sq. km
Brazil 8.51 M sq. km
Australia 7.69 M sq. km
India 3.28 M sq. km
(3,287,263)=2.4% of world

3. Boundary

Land Frontier 15200 km

Total coastline
7516.6 km= largest coastline on Indian ocean
(incl. islands) (6100 km in mainland)
Neighbours Pakistan JK, PB, RJ, GJ
Afghanistan Ladakh
China Ladakh, HP, UK, SK, ArunP
Nepal UK, UP, BR, WB, SK
Bhutan WB, AS, SK, ArunP
Myanmar ArunP, MZ, Manipur, NG
IND has max Bangladesh WB,AS,MG,TR,MZ
border-
Sri Lanka -(connected by Gulf of Mannar
and Palk Strait)
Maldives -
BANGLADESH>CHN> PAK>NEPAL>MYANMAR> BHUTAN>AFGH
4. Time:
From GJ to ArunP- time lag of 2HR; thus time along std meridian
(82°30’E) thorugh Mirzapur (UP)- also for Sri Lanka and Nepal.

5. Locational Advantage:
a. Long coastline
b. Located on major sea routes
c. Large landmass
d. Isolated- Himalayas, Indian Ocean, BoB, Arabian Sea
e. Advantaged by Suez Canal

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 B. Physical/ Structural Features

1. Geological Formation

a. Standard(& Indian) Geological scale: to be done in World

Geography
b. Pangaea1=Angara(N)+Gondwana Land(S)
Gondwana= Peninsular India, Aus, S.Africa, S. Am., Antarctica
↓
Convectional current split the crust into number of pieces
↓
Drifting of Indo-Persian Plate separated from Gondwana Land
towards North
↓
Collision of plate with much larger Eurasian Plate
↓
Sedimentary Rocks which were accumulated in geosyncline known
as TETHSYL2 were folded to form Mts. Of W. Asia and Himalayas
c. Peninsular India- composed of Igneous and Metamorphic rocks.

2. Major Physiological/Geological Divisions:

a. Geological Divisions3:
i. The Peninsular Block
The northern boundary of the Peninsular Block may be
taken as an irregular line running from Kachchh along the
western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and then
roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the Ganga as far as the
Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta. Apart from these, the
Karbi Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau in the northeast
and Rajasthan in the west are also extensions of this block.
The northeastern parts are separated by the Malda fault in
West Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. In Rajasthan,
the desert and other desert–like features overlay this block.
The Peninsula is formed essentially by a great complex of
very ancient gneisses and granites, which constitutes a
major part of it. Since the Cambrian period, the Peninsula
has been standing like a rigid block with the exception of
some of its western coast which is submerged beneath the
sea and some other parts changed due to tectonic activity
without affecting the original basement. As a part of the
Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjected to various
vertical movements and block faulting. The rift valleys of the
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura block
mountains are some examples of it. The Peninsula mostly

1
Pangaea (300mya): Super continent during late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras.
2
Tethys Sea (200mya): A sea between the continents of Laurasia and Gondwana
3
In NCERT11 (in addn to physiological divns), that’s why in notes; else useless

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 consists of relict and residual mountains like the Aravali
hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills,
the Palkonda range and the Mahendragiri hills, etc. The river
valleys here are shallow with low gradients.
ii. Himalayas and Other Peninsular Mountains
The Himalayas along with other Peninsular mountains are
young, weak and flexible in their geological structure unlike
the rigid and stable Peninsular Block. Consequently, they are
still subjected to the interplay of exogenic and endogenic
forces, resulting in the development of faults, folds and
thrust plains. These mountains are tectonic in origin,
dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are in their youthful
stage. Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped valleys,
rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative of this stage.
iii. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains
Originally, it was a geo-synclinal depression which attained
its maximum development during the third phase of the
Himalayan mountain formation approximately about 64
million years ago. Since then, it has been gradually filled by
the sediments brought by the Himalayan and Peninsular
rivers. Average depth of alluvial deposits in these plains
ranges from 1,000-2,000 m.

b. Physiological Divisions
Based on these macro variations, India can be divided into the
following physiographic divisions:
(1) The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
(2) The Northern Plain
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands.

i. The Northern and North Eastern Mountains

 SRIRAM2: 1-3
 Classification1:
- Shiwaliks
o Outermost, youngest and lowest range.
o The word shiwalik has its origin in the
geological formation found in and around a
place called Sivawala near Dehra Dun which
was once a headquarter of the Imperial
Survey and which subsequently established
its permanent headquarters at Dehra Dun
o Evolved in the last stage of Himalayan
orogeny
o JK to ArunP
o Elevation: 600m – 1500 m

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Syntaxial Bends in Himalayas:
a. Nanga Parbat (W); o System of continuous ranges and run for
b. Namcha Barwa (E) 2400 km like Greater Himalayas
o Only huge break in continuity: Valley of R.
Tista.
o Sep. from Lesser Himalayas by Main
Boundary Fault. or main boundary thrust
o Char: Fault scraps, anticlinical crests,
synclinical hills
o Different names:
ArunP: Daffla, Abhor, Miri, Mishmi, Pitkai
hills
JK: Jammu hills
N WB: Darjeeling hills
Nepal: Dhang and Dundwa range; Churia and
Muria Ghats
o Duars: Gaps/valleys across Darjeeling hills;
resemble Terai region of UK; fertile and
densely populated

- Middle/ Lesser Himalayas:

o Aka Himachals
o Avg. elevation: 3000m
o Avg. width: 60-80 km
o Has most of the hill stations: Dalhousie,
Manali, Shimla, Nainital, Mussoorie,
Darjeeling, etc
o Well developed in W Himalayas and are a
system of discontinuous but parellal ranges.
At the junction of Lesser Himalayas and the
Greater Himalayas, valleys filled with lakes
deposited sediments or Doons occur, e.g.,
Dehradun, Patli, Chaukhamba in UK,
Udhampur in JK.
o Prominent ranges:
 Pir Panjal Ranges: COPY FROM
SRIRAM1 PP3-5 HERE
- Greater Himalayas
- Trans Himalayas
 Classification 2:
- Kashmir or NW Himalayas: It comprise a series of
ranges such as the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and
Pir Panjal. The northeastern part of the Kashmir
Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies between the
Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges.
Between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal
range, lies the world famous valley of Kashmir and
the famous Dal Lake. Important glaciers of South
Asia such as the Baltoro and Siachen are also
found in this region. The Kashmir Himalayas are

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Great Himalayas are ranges composed of unconsolidated sediments
 also famous for Karewa formations, which are
in news useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety of
saffron. Some of the important passes of the region
are Zoji La on the Great Himalayas, Banihal on the
Pir Panjal, Photu La on the Zaskar and Khardung
La on the Ladakh range. Some of the important
fresh lakes such as Dal and Wular and salt water
lakes such as Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri are also
in this region. This region is drained by the river
Indus, and its tributaries such as the Jhelum and
the Chenab. The Kashmir and northwestern
Himalayas are well-known for their scenic beauty
and picturesque landscape. The landscape of
Himalayas is a major source of attraction for
adventure tourists. Srinagar, capital city of the
union territory of Jammu and Kashmir is located on
the banks of Jhelum river. Dal Lake in Srinagar
presents an interesting physical feature. Jhelum in
the valley of Kashmir is still in its youth stage and
yet forms meanders – a typical feature associated
with the mature stage in the evolution of fluvial
land form The southernmost part of this region
consists of longitudinal valleys known as ‘duns’.
Jammu dun and Pathankot dun are important
examples.
. In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelum river
are caused by the local base level provided by the
erstwhile larger lake of which the present Dal Lake
is a small part.
. Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and
other materials embedded with moraines

- Himachal and UK Himalayas/ Kumaon: This part

lies approximately between the Ravi in the west and
the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east. It is
drained by two major river systems of India, i.e. the
Indus and the Ganga. Tributaries of the Indus
include the river Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj, and
the tributaries of Ganga flowing through this region
include the Yamuna and the Ghaghara. The
northernmost part of the Himachal Himalayas is an
extension of the Ladakh cold desert, which lies in
the Spiti subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti. All
the three ranges of Himalayas are prominent in this
section also. These are the Great Himalayan range,
the Lesser Himalayas (which is locally known as
Dhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in
Uttarakhand) and the Shiwalik range from the
North to the South. In this section of Lesser

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 Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 m
specially attracted to the British colonial
administration, and subsequently, some of the
important hill stations such as Dharamshala,
Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani and the cantonment
towns and health resorts such as Shimla,
Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne and
Ranikhet, etc. were developed in this region. The
two distinguishing features of this region from the
point of view of physiography are the ‘Shiwalik’ and
‘Dun formations’. Some important duns located in
this region are the Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh
dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and the Kota dun, etc.
Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns with an
approximate length of 35-45 km and a width of 22-
25 km. In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys
are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia’s. These are
nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the
summer glasslands in the higher reaches) during
summer months and return to the valleys during
winters. The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also
situated in this region. The places of pilgrimage
such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath,
Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib are also situated in
this part. The region is also known to have five
famous Prayags (river confluences) panch prayag

- Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas: They are flanked

by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan
Himalayas in the east. It is relatively small but is a
most significant part of the Himalayas. Known for
its fast-flowing rivers such as Tista, it is a region of
high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga
(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys. The higher reaches
of this region are inhabited by Lepcha tribes while
the southern part, particularly the Darjiling
Himalayas, has a mixed population of Nepalis,
Bengalis and tribals from Central India. The British,
taking advantage of the physical conditions such as
moderate slope, thick soil cover with high organic
content, well distributed rainfall throughout the
year and mild winters, introduced tea plantations in
this region. As compared to the other sections of
the Himalayas, these along with the Arunachal
Himalayas are conspicuous by the absence of the
Shiwalik formations. In place of the Shiwaliks here,
the ‘duar formations’ are important, which have
also been used for the development of tea gardens.
Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas are also known

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 for their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
particularly various types of orchids.

- Arunachal Himalayas: These extend from the east of

the Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the
east. The general direction of the mountain range is
from southwest to northeast. Some of the important
mountain peaks of the region are Kangtu and
Namcha Barwa. These ranges are dissected by fast-
flowing rivers from the north to the south, forming
deep gorges. Bhramaputra flows through a deep
gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa. Some of the
important rivers are the Kameng, the Subansiri, the
Dihang, the Dibang and the Lohit. These are
perennial with the high rate of fall, thus, having the
highest hydro-electric power potential in the
country. An important aspect of the Arunachal
Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal
community inhabiting in these areas. Some of the
prominent ones from west to east are the Monpa,
Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and the Nagas. Most of these
communities practise Jhumming. It is also known
as shifting or slash and burn cultivation. This
region is rich in biodiversity which has been
preserved by the indigenous communities. Due to
rugged topography, the inter-valley transportation
linkages are nominal. Hence, most of the
interactions are carried through the duar region
along the Arunachal-Assam border.

- E Hills and Mountains: These are part of the

Himalayan mountain system having their general
alignment from the north to the south direction.
They are known by different local names. In the
north, they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga hills,
the Manipur hills and in the south as Mizo or
Lushai hills. These are low hills, inhabited by
numerous tribal groups practising Jhum
DO NOT CONFUSE cultivation. Most of these ranges are separated from
BETWEEN LOKTAK each other by numerous small rivers. The Barak is
AND LONAR LAKE an important river in Manipur and Mizoram. The
physiography of Manipur is unique by the presence
of a large lake known as ‘Loktak’ lake at the centre,
surrounded by mountains from all sides. Mizoram
which is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is
made up of soft unconsolidated deposits. Most of
the rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of the
Brahmaputra. While two rivers of Mizoram and
Manipur are the tributaries of the Barak river,

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which in turn is the tributary of Meghna; the rivers
in the eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries of
Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the
Irrawady of Myanmar.

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ii. The Northern Plain
The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits
brought by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. These plains extend approximately 3,200 km
from the east to the west. The average width of these plains
varies between 150-300 km. The maximum depth of
alluvium deposits varies between 1,000-2,000 m.. Two
classificatory schemes:
 Classification 1 (From N to S):
o Bhabar Region:
 Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between
8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills
at the break-up of the slope. Thus, the
streams and rivers coming from the
mountains deposit heavy materials of
rocks and boulders, and at times,
disappear in this zone.
 Piedmont plain composed of unsorted
Himalayan debris
 Between Indus and Tista River

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11 | P a g e
  Contains extremely pervious pebbles and
stones. Small rivers and streans disappear
underground on reaching this region.
o Tarai Region
 South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with
an approximate width of 10-20 km where
most of the streams and rivers re-emerge
without having any properly demarcated
channel, thereby, creating marshy and
swampy conditions known as the Tarai- a
flood prone region.
 This has a luxurious growth of natural
vegetation and houses a varied wildlife.
 Famous for rice cultivation e.g., Sitapur,
Rampur, Lakhimpur, Pilibhit, Bareilly.
o Alluvial Plains
Have characteristic features of mature stage of
fluvial erosional and depositional landforms
such as sand bars, meanders, oxbow lakes and
braided channels.
× Bhangar (old alluvial):
 Higher part- flood can’t reach
 Pebbles and coarser sendiments
 Less fertile
 Bhur: High lands created by stones
and sand. e.g. in Upper Ganga-
Yamuna Doab
× Khadar (new alluvial):
 Floods bring new alluvium annually
 Aka Flood plains/ Katchhar region
 Along river banks
 Fine articles or clays: fertile.

 Classification 2:
o HR Plains:
 640 km in NE-SW direction, 300 km in E-
W direction
 E boundary: Aravalli till Delhi.
S boundary: RJ plains
W boundary: Indus Plains (Pakistan)
 Ht.= 300 m to 200 m
 No perennial rivers except, Ravi, Beas,
Sutlej, Yamuna. Though Ghaggar is
perennial in upper course, it becomes dry
after flowing for a short distance from hills
 Alluvial soil
 Realatively higher upland plains: Upper
Bari doab, Bist Doab, Malwa Plains
 BETS: Khadar plains in PJ

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  DHAYA: Gullied bluffs which flank the
Khadar Plains
 CHOS: narrow streams with large number
of gullies.
o Rajasthan Plains: Refer the Desert section
o Ganga Plains
× Upper Ganga Plains
 Lie between Yamuna and Allahabad
 Avg.depth= 1400 m (dec. towards S)
 N: two narrow bands making the
Terai-Bhabbar Sub-Montaine belt
 Three micro physiographic regions :
. Bhabar- Terai Sub-Montane belt
. Ganga- Ghaghar doab
Ganga- Yamuna Doab
 E of G-Y Doab lie the low-lying
Rohilkhand Plains which merge into
Avadh Plains in the East.
 Drainage: Yamuna, Ramganga,
Ghaghar, Chambal
× Middle Ganga Plains: Avadh Plains and
BR; CAURS- long line of marshes along the
Northern Bihar
× Lower Ganga Plains/ Bengal Plains: made
of Ganga delta, incl. Sunderbans delta;
Form Ganga-Brahmaputra doab in N and
piedmont plain between Hoogly and ChhN
P. in S.
o Brahmaputra-Assam Plains: The Brahmaputra
plains are known for their riverine islands and
sand bars. Most of these areas are subjected to
periodic floods and shifting river courses forming
braided streams. The mouths of these mighty
rivers also form some of the largest deltas of the
world, for example, the famous Sunderbans
delta. Otherwise, this is a featureless plain with
a general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean
sea level. The states of Haryana and Delhi form a
water divide between the Indus and the Ganga
river systems. As opposed to this, the
Brahmaputra river flows from the northeast to
the southwest direction before it takes an almost
90° southward turn at Dhubri before it enters
into Bangladesh. These river valley plains have a
fertile alluvial soil cover which supports a variety
of crops like wheat, rice, sugarcane and jute,
and hence, supports a large population.

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 iii. The Peninsular Plateau

- Tableland composed of old crystalline, igneous and

metamorphic rocks, formed due to breaking and drifting
of Gondwana Land after the carboniferous period.
- During Archaen period, the Indian Peninsula never
subsided under the sea permanently. It was more rigid,
stable and had remained almost unaffected from the
mountain building forces. However, it experienced block
faulting and displacement during the subsequent periods
as evidenced by the Dharwar and Gondwana formations
and the fault valleys of the Narmada, Tapti and Son
rivers.
- Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains up
to an elevation of 600-900 m is the irregular triangle
known as the Peninsular plateau.
- This is one of the oldest and the most stable landmass of
India. The general elevation of the plateau is from the
west to the east, which is also proved by the pattern of
the flow of rivers.
- Some of the important physiographic features of this
region are tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare
rocky structures, series of hummocky hills and wall-like
quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
- The western and northwestern part of the plateau has an
emphatic presence of black soil.
- This Peninsular plateau has undergone recurrent phases
of upliftment and submergence accompanied by crustal
faulting and fractures. (The Bhima fault needs special
mention, because of its recurrent seismic activities).
These spatial variations have brought in elements of
diversity in the relief of the Peninsular plateau. The
northwestern part of the plateau has a complex relief of
ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, Bhind and
Morena are some of the well-known examples.
- 1400 km (E-W), 1600 km (N-S)4
- Three parts5 : (i) The Deccan Plateau (ii) The Central
Highlands (iii) The Northeastern Plateau.
[(i)&(ii) separated by Narmada-Tapti]

 The Central Highlands

- General Elevation=700to1000m above sea level

- Slopes towards N & NE

4
Note: Area north of ToC = 2x Area South of ToC
55
This is as per NCERT12 but Deccan plateau is a part of Southrn plateau, which has other parts- W&E Ghats,
etc, therefore in the notes that follow, I have tweaked the parts’ terminology a bit

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- Most tributaries of Yamuna originate in Vindhyas &
Kaimur ranges
- Banas is the only significant tributary of the river
Chambal that originates from the Aravalli in the west.
- Ranges and Hills

o Aravalli
 Oldest fold mountains, pre-cambrian period
 Are under eroion process & are called Relict
Mt
 Aka ‘museum of minerals’: majority of
minerals found
 Between Palanpur (Ahmedabad) and Delhi
 General elevation= 400-600 m (lower in Delhi
and Ajmer)
 Extend for 800 km in NNE-SSW direction
 Remnants of Folded Tectonic Mountains
 Unbroken between Mewar and Merwara hills
 Mt. Abu Block(1158 m) is the highest section
of the Aravalli and include Gurushikar Peak
(1722 m), the highest point in Aravalli
 Mt. Abu is separated from rest of A by R.
Banas
 Borhat Plateau: another high block
 Delhi Ridge= northernmost range, forms
Indo-Gangetic Divide
 Mahi and Luni origin in A and cross them.

o Vindhyas:
 Form an escarpment forming the northen
edge of Narmada-Tapti Trough.
 Block mountains
 Parellal to Narmada valley; 1200 km; GJ to
Sasaram
 Elevation: 300-650 m
 In E part, they form excellent scraps in the
form of BHARNER and KAIMUR (act as
watershed betweenGanga system in North
and river systems in South) hills

o Rajmahal Hills
 Relict/ residual mountains
 In JH,WB region
 They define the eastern boundary of the
Chotanagpur Plateau
 B/w RM hills and Garo hills: Rajmahal-Garo
Gap- via which Ganga drains into BoB.
 Highest peak: Parasnath (JH)- has a famous
Jaina temple.

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 o Satpura-Maikala Hills Region
 Satpura-Maikala form the northern boundary
of the Deccan plateau
 Satpura Hills
 (lit.) seven hills; MH,MP
 Highest E-W tectonic mts.in Peninsula
 Highest: Dhoopgrah (1350 m) near
Pachamarhi (MP)- called Sunset point.
 Tapti takes birth in Betal plateau here.
 Block mountains
 Rift valleys of Narmada and Tapi
 To the south and parellal to Vindhyas
 Maikala
 Part of Satpura system- eastern extn
 Include Pachmari ranges
 Contains Amarkantak Plateau (1127 m)

o Gir Mountains(in Central?):in Kathiawar; Gir Lions

- Plateaux:

o Malwa Plateau
 MP, S-RJ, MH(Dhulia & Jalgaon distt.)
 Diverse rocks, incl. volcanic balasts of Deccan
plateau and the oldest Archean or Dharwar
rocks of the Peninsualr crust.
 Includes the Vindhyas
 Has basin of river systems that drain into
both BoB, Arabian Sea: Betwa, Mahi,
Chambal, etc
 Course of Chambal shows BADLAND
topography of gullies and ravines.
 Narmada Gorge: around 500 m above sea
level; covered by thick forests

o Bundelkhand
 B/w Vindhya and Malwa, S of Yamuna
 Avg. ht.= 300-600 m
 Rocks: Dharwar igneous and gneissic
(metamorphic) rocks of the Archean era.
 Has a series of mesas and buttes
 Contains drainage basins of Yamuna, Betwa,
Ken
 Bkh= Bkh Plains+Bkh-Vindhyan highlands
= 5 U.P. (Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur,
Hamirpur, Banda)+ 4 M.P. (Chhatarpur,
Panna, Tikamgarh, Datia)

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 o ChhotaNagpur=
 2nd largest plateau in India
 Continental plateau
 NE projection of Indian peninsula
 Very old igneous and metamorphic rocks of
Dharwar age
 Avg. elevation= 700 m
 Patlands(esp. in Ranchi P) : series of plateaus
occurring at at different hts.- highest
elevation of ChhN@1100 m- descends in all
directions
 R. Damodar:drains centrally across ChhN:
ChhN= Hazaribagh P.(N of Damodar)+RanchiP
 Has Rajmahal Hills
 RICHEST MINERALISED REGION
 40% of India’s metallic deposits
 Incl. drainage of N Koel, S Koel, Damodar,
Suvarnarekha.
 BoB and AS branches of SW monsoon
converge over ChhN P.

- Baghelkhand Region
 E of Maikala hills, Son in North, Mahanadi in South
 CHH,UP,JH
 Has drainage basins of Son and Rihad
 Includes Narmada-Son trough and the Maikala,
Rewa and Panna plateaus
 It is a water divide between R. Son and R.
Mahanadi

 The Northeastern Plateau

In fact it is an extension of the main Peninsular plateau. It
is believed that due to the force exerted by the
northeastward movement of the Indian plate at the time of
the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between
the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau. Later, this
depression got filled up by the deposition activity of the
numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong
plateau stand detached from the main Peninsular Block.
The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three: (i)
The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (iii) The Jaintia Hills,
named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region. An
extension of this is also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of
Assam. Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the
Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like
coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. This
area receives maximum rainfall from the south west
monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau has a highly

17 | P a g e
 eroded surface. Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface
devoid of any permanent vegetation cover.6
Meghalay or Shillong Plateau:
- Sep. from Peninsular Plateau by Rajmahal-Garo Gap
- Igneous and metamorphic rocks of Dharwar age.

 Southern Plateau

- Deccan Plateau

o General Information
 Largest Plateau in India
 Largest physiographic unit of Peninsular
India
 Triangular
 N: Mahadev, Maikala Hills; W Ghats, E Ghats
 Avg. elevation:= 600 m but in S it’s 1000 m.
 Made of volcanic rocks called bsalts which
gave birth to the black regur soil.
 Deccan Trap:
 Made of 100s of horizontal layers of
solidified lava flows giving it the Trap
structure i.e. a surface made up of a series
of steps
 The lavas were poured out from linear
fissures and hence deposited as layers

PLATEAUS:
o Maharashtra Plateau: Has Ajanta and Satmala;
South of R. Tapti
o Khandesh:
 Incl. valley of Tapti and its tributary Purna
 Bounded by Satpura in N and Ajanta hills in
S
o Karnataka/ Mysore Plateau
 Avg. elevation- 600-900 m
 V. old Dharwar igneous rocks and
metamorphic rocks
 Two parts:
 N: Malnad- a hilly forested region with
Bababudan hills in Chickmagalur hills
 S: Maidan- a rolling plain of low height.
o Telangana Plateau
 V. old Dharwar rocks
 It is a low lying surface, often described as a
peneplain
 Avg. elevation= 500-600 m

6
Till here, copy-paste from NCERT12; Meghalay Shillong Plateau from SriRam’s

18 | P a g e
  Drainage: Godavari, Krishna, Pennar
o Chhattisgarh Plateau
 A low-lying rolling plain
 Between Maikala hills and Orissa hills
 Avg. elevation- 300 m
 Drainage: Mahanadi, tributary of Godavari,
Waiganga
o Kathiawar
 Series of volcanic hills like Gir, Junagarh,
Pavagarh hills
 Bounded by Little Rann in E and L. Nal
Sarovar in NE and Gir ranges in the S.
 In the centre : Mandav hills with Mt. Girnar.

- Western Ghats
o Western Ghats are locally known by different names
such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and
Cardamom hills in Kerala.
o comparatively higher in elevation and more
continuous than the Eastern Ghats
o average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height
increasing from north to south.
o ‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of
Peninsular plateau is located on the Anaimalai hills
of the Western Ghats followed by Dodabetta (2,637
m) on the Nilgiri hills.
o Most of the Peninsular rivers have their origin in
the Western Ghats.
o It is not a real hill range, it is a rift side in the
peninsular plateau.
o More continuous than E Ghats
o R. Tapi to Cape of Kanyakumari- 1600 km
o Two parts7:

 Sahyadris

 Upper: 21°N-16°N(R. Tapi to N. Goa)

 Form excellent scarps, esp. in N KR
 Highest P. of Sahyadris: Mahabaleshwar P
(1438 m); highest peak: Vavulmara
 Avg. elevation= 1200 m
 Prominent passes:
Bhorghat pass Bomaby-Pune link
Thalgat Pass Bombay-Nasik
 Prominent peaks: Salher, Kalsubai,
Mahabaleshwar, Harishchandragarh Peak

7
As per SriRam’s IAS

19 | P a g e
  Middle: 16°N to Nilgiris:
 Here, W Ghats are not plateau edges of
Deccan Plateau
 Avg. ht. = 1200 m
 Dharwar igneous and metamorphic rocks
 Peaks: Vavul, Mala, Kudremukh,
Pushpagiri
 Nilgiris: Block mts.; aka Blue mountains;
has Ooty (Udhagamandalam); join Sah.
near Gudalur; mark junction between E
and W Ghats; tallest: Doddabeta (2637 m)
 Jog or Gersoppa Falls (250 m) developed by
Shravati in W Ghats

 Southern W Ghats:
 They are sep. from main Sah. by Palaghat
Pass which sep.s Nilgiris from Anamalai
hills and N w Ghats from S w Ghats.
 Anamalai Hills:
. fan out from Anaimudi peak (2695
m)(highest peak in S. India)
. avg. elevation= 1800-2000 m
. Kodaikanal Resort in Palani hills
 Cardamom Hills
. S-most hill range
S of Shencottah Pass ( which sep.
Anamalai from Cardamom hills)
. divide Malabar coast from TN coast.

- Eastern Ghats

o Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous and

low hills are highly eroded by the rivers such as the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri,
etc. Some of the important ranges include the
Javadi hills, the Palconda range, the Nallamala
hills, the Mahendragiri hills, etc. The Eastern and
the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri
hills.
o These are a chain of discontinuous hills
o Stetch between Mahanadi (OD) and R. Vaigai (TN)
o Made of old Archaen rocks and Cuddapah System
o 800 km
o 200 km wide in OD and 100 m S-ward
o Between Krishna and Pennar, E Ghats are made of
Nallamala, Palkonda and Velikonda hills
o Take form of true mountains between Godavari and
Mahanadi

20 | P a g e
 o Garjhat hills are NE hills of OD
o Nallamalai hills: AndhraP
o Palkonda Hills: S-most part
o In TN: Javadi, Sheravoy, Palani Hills
o E Ghats and W Ghats join in Nilgiris via Palani Hills

- Gondwana Troughs: These are rift valleys within which

Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari flow. The rift valley formed
in the Paleozoic era and contain thick deposits of coal of
the Gondwana formations

- Narmada-Tapti Troughs: These are rift valleys within

which Narmada and Tapti flow W. The Satpura uplands
lie between them.

iv. The Indian Desert/ The Rajasthan Plains

- Lies towards the western margins of Aravalli Hills

- during the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea.
This can be corroborated by the evidence available at
wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around
Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the
woodfossils is estimated to be 180 million years). Though
the underlying rock structure of the desert is an extension
of the Peninsular plateau, yet, due to extreme arid
conditions, its surface features have been carved by
physical weathering and wind actions. Some of the well
pronounced desert land features present here are
mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly in its
southern part).
- Low rainfall:<150mm annual as Aravalli runs parellal to
SW monsoon winds; it is the rain shadow area of BoB
current
- It is a land of undulating topography dotted with
longitudinal dunes and barchans
- Arid climate with low vegetation cover
- Include Marusthali and the adjoining Bagar (steppe land)
- Account for 1/3rd of the Great Plains
- Elevation: 300m (in NE) to 150m (in S).
- Except for SE portion, inland drainage with a series of salt
lakes: Sambhar(biggest, 300sq.km. during rainy season),
Dagana, Didwana, Kuchaman, Pachpadra.
- The shifting sand dunes are called Dhrian while the playa
lakes are called Ranns.
- M.Imp. river= Luni: arises in Aravalli and flows SW &
reaches Rann of Kutch only during rainy season.
- The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is
the main source of obtaining salt

21 | P a g e
 - Only partly aggradational. Believed to have resulted due
to uplift of shelf sands due to regression of sea flowed by
long spells of dry and wet conditions.
- The desert region can be divided into two parts8:
 The great desert:
o From edge of Rann of Kutch beyond R. Luni
northward
o Whole of Raj-Sindh frontier runs through this
 Little desert: from Luni b/w Jisalmer and Jodhpur
up to NW.
B/w these two lies a zone of absolutely sterile country,
consisting of rocky alnd, cut up by limestone ridges.
- Chief characterstics of India’s Desert regions9: 3 kinds of
deserts in India:

o Hot tropical Thar desert:

 a typical hot tropical desert within the sub-tropical
high pressure belt with vast areas of sand dunes
 includes rich reserves of oil-gas, phosphates,
gypsum, etc.
 occasionally drained by R. Luni
 home to 1200 species of animals.
 Soil: red desert soil with rich conc. of water soluble
salts.

o Salt desert of GJ
 include the great Rann of Kutch which is a marshy
region with Mangrove forests.
 Soil is rich in salt deposits.
 Rare species: Asiatic wild ass
 Nesting ground for Flamingoes

o Cold desert of Ladakh and adj. portions of HP:

 intermontane high altitude desert with grey desert
soils.
 Rugged topography
 Large saline water bodies which are important
wetlands Illa Tso Moriri and Pongong Tso.

v. The Coastal Plains

Formed by erosional and depositional activities of the Sea

waves and from the sediments brought by the peninsular
rivers.
 Western Coastal Plains
- 1400 km- 8°-20°N

8
India Year Book, Ch1, p2
9
Taken as it is from SriRam booklet 2, No.58, p.52

22 | P a g e
 - 10-15 km wide (narrower than Eastern CP)
- 4 parts:
Kathiawar coast built up by alluvium brought by
(GJ) Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, Tapti-
all of which form large estuaries

Konkan coast (MH) 500 km;

b/w Daman & Goa
submerged coast
faulted coast

Cannara Submerged coast

coast/Plains (KN) v. Narrow
max. width at Netravati (Manglore)

Malabar coast (KR)- From Cannanore to Kanyakumari

550 km
Emerged coast
submerged coast: due to rise of Belted coast
sea level/ tectonic fall of land Longest river= Periyar
contains lakes, lagoons,
emerged coast: due to fall in sea backwaters (locally, Kayals)-
level/ tectonic uplift of land largest such lake= Vembanand
Lake
Teris- series of sand dunes here-
cause Kayals
- Because of this submergence it is a narrow belt and
provides natural conditions for the development of
ports and harbours. Imp. Ports-Kandla, Mumbai,
New Jawahar Port Mumbai, Marmagao, Manglore,
Cochin
- Every year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali
(boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.
- The Sahyadris form steep west facing scarps along
the Konkan coast
 Eastern Coastal Plains
- 50-60 km
- 8°-2°N
- Mainly emergent/emerged type i.e. its outline is
regular and is characterised by offshore bars, sea
beaches, sand ridges and lagoons
- L. Chilka(Utkal Plains), L. Kolleru (Andhra
Plains)(2nd largest freshwater lake in India), L.
Pulicat(Madras Coastal Plains)
- 2 parts:
 Coromandel Coast (TN)
 Northern Circars (WB, OD)
- Most of the East flowing rivers follow zig-zag path &
are broader w.r.t west flowing rivers

23 | P a g e
 => E flowing form deltas e.g. Sunderban delta
(Ganga -Brah); Mahanadi delta (Utkal Plain- has
L.Chilka- largest saline lake in Asia); Godavari delta
W flowing form estuaries e.g. Narmada, Tapti
 Difference:
Western Ghats Eastern Coast
Dissected Outline Smooth outline
Occurrence of estuaries Occurrence of deltas
More rainfall Less rainfall
Narrower Broader
Small rivers Long rivers

vi. The Islands

 Andaman and Nicobar

The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 572
islands/islets. These are situated roughly between
6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E. The two principal groups of
islets include the Ritchie’s archipelago and the
Labrynth island. The entire group of island is divided
into two broad categories – the Andaman in the north
and the Nicobar in the south.
- Continuation of Arakanyoma mountain ranges of
Myanmar
- Andaman(N)=203 islands; Nicobar(S)=7big+ 12
DUNACN- BETWEEN S AND LITTLE ANDAMAN small
COCO- COCO ISLAND MYANMAR AND NORTH ANDAMAN
ST. GEORGE’S CHANNEL- ???
- Ten degree channel separate Andaman from
10 DEG CHANNEL- ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR Nicobar
GREAT CHANNEL- NICOBAR AND SUMATRA
- Duncan Passage separates Little Andaman from S.
8 DEGREE CHANNEL- LAKSHADWEEP AND MALDIVES
Andaman
- Area-wise: Largest= Middle Andaman
- Important mountains:
Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738 m),
Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m)
Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m)
Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m).
- S-most point in India: INDIRA POINT (Pygmallion
Point) in Greater Nicobar: 61⁄2°N
- Only Active Volcano in India: Barren Island
(Andaman)
- 86% covered by dense evergreen and mangrove
forests. Receive convectional rainfall and have an
equatorial type of vegetation.
- Read: Narcondom Island (volcano-sleeping)

 Lakshadweep
- Coral Island, 32 sq. km.(?)
- (lit.) ‘one lakh islands’- but only 25(?) small islands

24 | P a g e
 - Near Malabar coast (KL)
- Most islands are horse-shoe shaped and made of
Atolls (coral deposits)
- Laksh.= Amindivi (above 11°N)
+Cannanore(below11)
- Largest island: Andrott
- Southern most island: Minicoy (2nd largest in Laksh)
- Nine degrees Channel: sep. Minicoy from rest of
Lak.
- Eight degrees channel: sep Laksh. from Maldives
- Presently, highly affected by Coral bleaching due to
global warming

 Other islands
- Newmoore Island: BoB, on mouth of Ganga
- Pumban Island: in Gulf of Mannar, b/w IND & SL;
extension of peninsular landmass in Ramnad (TN)

25 | P a g e
C. DRAINAGE

1. RIVERS
A. Himalayan Rivers
These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the
erosional activity carried on simultaneously with the uplift of the
Himalayas. Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped
valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous course. While
entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys,
ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the
river mouth. In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is
highly tortous, but over the plains they display a strong
meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
EVOLUTION OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
There are difference of opinion about the evolution of the
Himalayan rivers. However, geologists believe that a mighty river
called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire longitudinal
extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to Sind,
and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab
during the Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago The
remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and
alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and
conglomerates support this viewpoint. It is opined that in due
course of time Indo– Brahma river was dismembered into three
main drainage systems: (i) the Indus and its five tributaries in the
western part; (ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the
central part; and (iii) the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and
its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part. The dismemberment
was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western
Himalayas, including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge),
which acted as the water divide between the Indus and Ganga
drainage systems. Likewise, the downthrusting of the Malda gap
area between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau during
the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
i. Indus System
a. Indus
- It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the
Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the
Kailash Mountain range.
- In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban’ or Lion’s
mouth
- R bank trib.: Zaskar (near Leh), Shyok (near
Skardu), Astor, Kurram, Gilgit;
L bank trib.:the 5 tributaries below- Panchad (near
Mithankot)
- cuts a gorge at Bunji, north of Nanga Parbat
- mountain tributaries: Gilgit, Gortang, Dras, Shigar
and Hunza

26 | P a g e
 - flows through Potwar P. of Pak and crosses the Salt
Range
- Total length: 2880 km ( 709km in India)
b. Jhelum/ Vitasta
- Arises near Verinag stream at foothills of Pir Panjal
ranges in SE Kashmir Valley
- Bends sharply @ Muzzafarabad , before
Kishanganga joins it.
- Main trib.: Lidar and Sind
- Forms India-Pak boundary for 160 km and emerges
in Potwar P. near Mirpur.
- Enter Pak.i plains near Jhelum city
- Total length: 724 km
- Third longest tributary of Indus
- Joins Chenab at Trimmu (Pak)
- Controversial Tulbul Project located here
c. Chenab/ Aksini
- Arises near Bara-Lacha La pass/ Chandra Bhaga
stream in Kulu hills of HP in Lahul-Spiti region.
Enters JK as Chenab
- It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the
Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in
Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as
Chandrabhaga.
- Cut a gorge at Kishtawar
- Emerges in plains at Akhnoor (JK)
- Largest tributary of Indus
- Total length: 1180 km
- It is the river of Chamba Valley in HP.
- Cuts a gorge close to Kishtawar
- Joins Sutlej after receiving waters from waters of
Ravi and Jhelum
- Contoversial Baglihar Project is located across this
river in Doda distt., JK
- Hydropower projects: Salal, Dulhasti, Ranvir Sagar
d. Ravi/ Parushni
- Arises in Kulu hills of HP close to Rohtang Pass
- Drains between Pir Panjal and Dhaulandhar ranges
- Cut a gorge across Dhauladhar ranges
- Enters Pak. And joins Chenab close to Rangpur
- 2nd longest trib. of Indus
- Ranjit Sagar/ Thein Dam
e. Beas/ Vipasha
- Shortest trib. Of Indus
- Arises in Kulu hills in HP, close to Rohtag Pass
- Cuts a gorge across Dhauladhar ranges
- Joins Sutlej in Harike. Indira Gandhi Canal takes
off from Harike barrage, which is the longest
irrigation canal of India. It runs till Jaisalmer

27 | P a g e
 - Pong reservoir (HP)
- Total length: 460 km
f. Sutlej/ Satudri
- Born in Rakash Tal, close to L. Mansarovar near
Darma Pass in Tibet
- Aka Langchen Khambab in Tibet
- Cuts a 900 m deep, large canyon in Nari Khorsan,
Tibet
- R. Spiti joins Sutlej near Shipki Pass
- Cuts another gorge in Naina Devi, India- Bhakra
dam
- Enters plains in Roopnagar, PJ
- Forms India-Pak boundary between Firozpur and
Fazilka
- Joins Indus near Mithankot
- Total length: 1450 km- 1050 km in India
- Bhakra- Nangal/ Govind Sagar Dam
- Nathpa- Jhakri (HP)- located on this river also,
produces more power.
ii. Ganga System
Ganga basin covers 26.3% of India’s area and covers 10 states.
UK and UP account for 34.2% of the basin area followed by MP,
CH, BR, JH, RJ, HP, DL.
The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the
point of view of its basin and cultural significance. It rises in the
Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi
district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. It
cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow
gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda;
hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its
source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The
Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which
meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of
Alaknanda such as the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag while
Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga
enters the plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first to the
south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into two
distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Padma. The river
has a length of 2,525 km.
a. Ganga
- Originates in Bhagirathi in Gangotri glacier in Uttar
Kashi distt. of UK
- Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda ( at Devaprayag
- Ganga enters plains near Haridwar
- Total length: 2525 km (longest in India)
- Tehri Dam(UK) on Bhagirathi- India’s highest dam
(265 m)
b. Left Bank Tributaries
- Ramganga

28 | P a g e
  Arises in Nainital Hills of Garhwal
 Joins Ganga at Kannauj, Farukhabad, UP
 Length: 596 km
- Gomti: 3rd longest tributary
- Kali/Sarda:
 Arises in Trans-Himalayas of Nepal-Kumaon
boundary
 Called Sarda after it enters plains near
Tanakpur
- Gandhak:
 Originates along Nepal-Tibet border
 Enters plains near Tribeni
 Joins Ganga near Hajipur
 Length: 425 km in India
- Burhi Gandhak
 Arises in Sumesar hills along India-Nepal
border.
 Joins Ganga apposite Monghyr
 Length: 610 km
- Kosi:
 It is due to seven headstreams (unite in
Triveni) ∴ aka Saptkosi
 Imp. Trib.: Tumar, Arun, Sun Kosi
 Joins Ganga near Kursela, Bhagalpur
 Length: 730 km
 Aka Sorrow of Bihar : Kosi frequently
changes its course and brings huge quantity
of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains. The course gets
blocked, and consequently, the river changes
its course.
- Mahananda:
 Originates from Nepal-Sikkim border
 Joins Ganga in Bangladesh
- Ghaghara:
 Second longest trib. of Ganga
 Arises in Gurla Mandhata Peak of Ladhak,
south of Mansarovar
 Joins Ganga near Chhapra, BR
 Total length: 1080 km
 Main tributaries: Sarda, Sarju and Rapti
 45% catchment are in India
c. Right Bank Tributaries
Yamuna, Tamsa(aka Tons), Sone, Punpun, Falgu, Kiul, Kara
mnasa, Chandan, Ajoy, Damodar, Rupnarayan
- Son/Sone:
 Born in Amarkantak Pl.
 Flows parellal to Kaimur range
 Joins Ganga at Danaput in Patna distt.
29 | P a g e
  Only peninsular River that directly joins
Ganga (?)
 Main trib.: Rihand
 Length: 784 km
 Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar/ Rihand Dam
- Yamuna
 Originates in Yamunotri glacier on
Bandarpunch Peak in Garhwal
 Cut across Nag Tibba and Mussoorie
ranges
 Enters plains near Tajewara
 Main tributary: R. Tons: also arises from
Bandarpunch Peak
 Total length: 1370 km
 Longest and largest tributaru of Ganga
 Between Agra and Allahabad, joined by:
o Chambal
 Arises in SW of Mhow in Janapao hills of
Vindhyan ranges
 Drains Malwa P.
 Joins Yamuna in Etawah
 Total length: 1050 km
 Important tributary= Banas- originates in
Aravalli and joins Chambal near Sawai
Madhopur, RJ
o Sind
 Originates in Vidisha P. of MP.
 Total length: 415 km
o Betwa
 Arises in Vindhyan ranges of Bhopal
 Joins Yamuna near Hamirpur
 Total length: 590 km
o Ken
 Arises in Barner Ranges of MP
 Joins Yamuna near Chila
- Damodar:
 Arises in ChhN hills near Palamu
 Length: 541 km
 Joins Ganga south of Kolkata
iii. Brahmaputra System
- origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash
range near the Mansarovar lake.
- From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally for a
distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat region
of southern Tibet, where it is known as the
Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier.’ The Rango
Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this
river in Tibet. It emerges as a turbulent and
dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the

30 | P a g e
 Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m).
The river emerges from the foothills under the name
of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of Sadiya
town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it
receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang
or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the
Brahmaputra.
- The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near
Dhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh, the
Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river
is known as the Jamuna. It finally merges with the
river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
- The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel
shifting and bank erosion. This is due to the fact
that most of its tributaries are large, and bring large
quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its
catchment area.
- Total length: 2900 km
- Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin in China
- Right bank trib.(join from N): Subansiri, Kameng, N.
Dhansiri, Teesta, Manas;
Left Bank Trib.( join from S): Dibru, Buri Dihing, S
Dhansari, Kalang
- The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is an
antecedent river.
- Brahmaputra= Largest by volm.; Ganga= Longest
- Brahmapuutra form the largest no. of freshwater
riverine islands: Majuli= largest freshwater riverine
island in the world

B. Peninsular Rivers
The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as the
water divide between the major Peninsular rivers, discharging their
water in the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining the
Arabian Sea. Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada
and Tapi flow from west to east. The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa,
the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part of the Peninsula
belong to the Ganga river system.
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System
Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the
present drainage systems of Peninsular India:
(i) Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to
its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary
period. Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of
the river on either side of the original watershed.
(ii) Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the
Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the
consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow
in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus

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 materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic
deposits in these rivers.
(iii) Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the
southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage
system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period
i. West Flowing
i. Narmada
 Arises in Shahdol distt. MP in Amarkantak P.
 Flows via a rift between Vindhyas and Satpuras
 Length: 1310 km (1078 km in MP)
 Forms Dhuandhar falls (15 m) in Jabalpur
 R Bank Trib.: Hiran (joins close to Chhindwara),
Barna, Kolar, Orsang
L Bank Trib.: Burnher, Banjar, Shakkar, Tawa, Kundi,
Shar
Waterfalls: Dhuandhar, Kapildhara
Temple Omkareshwar on its banks
ii. Tapti
 Arises in Betul P. in a tank in Multai in Satpura hills
 Called ‘twins of Narmada’
 Trib.: Purna (joins in Khandesh i.e. between Satpura
and Ajanta Ranges), Arunavati, Gomai, Ganjar
 Length: 730 km
 Its lower 48 km is in a tidal stretch.
 Ukai dam
 Surat on its bank: world’s largest diamond cutting and
polishing centre.
iii. Ghagghar
 Originates in HP and dries in Rann of Kutch i.e. inland
river- doesn’t reach oceans.
iv. Luni/ Lune:
 Aka Salt river
 Born in Aravalli of Ajmer
 Length: 482 km
v. Sabarmati
 Born due to confluence of Hathmati and Sabar
 Arises in Mewar hills
 Length: 320 km
 Trib.: Wakul, Vatrak, Hathmati
 Falls into Gulf of Khambat
vi. Mahi
 Born in Vindhyan ranges
 Length: 533 km
 Basin states: RJ, MP, GJ
vii. Saravati
 Arises in Vindhyan ranges
 Flows in MP, RJ, GJ
viii. Pumba, Periyar, Bharatpuja: in KR
ii. East Flowing

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i. Suvarnarekha
 Arises: Ranchi P.
 Forms boundary of WB & OD in lower course
 395 km
 Hundru waterfall
 Trib.: Kanchi, Karfari
 Basin states: JH(71%), OD(16%),WB(18%)
ii. Mahanadi
 Arises in foothills of Dandakaranya near Siwaha in
Raipur
 Main trib in upper course:
L bank: Ib, Mand, Hasdeo, Sheonath
R bank: Ong, Jonk, Tel
 Length: 857 km
 Hirakund Mahanadi Project (OD)
iii. Godavari/ Dakshin Ganga:
 Length: 1465 km- longest peninsular river; 2nd largest
river basin in India
 Arises in Trimbak Pl. in Nasik
 Temple Trimbakeshwar
 Only imp. Right bank trib.: Manjira (724 km long)-
Joins Godavari near Kondalwadu after passing
through Nizamsagar
 Penganga: 676 km; arises in Buldana range; joins
Wardha near Ghughus
 Wardha: 483 km; joins Waiganga;
 Pranahita( joined Wardha and Waiganga) joins
Godavari
 Downstream of Sironcha, Indravati joins Godavari.
 Polavaram Dam
iv. Krishna
 Arises in Mahabaleshwar P.
 1400 km
 Forms delta near Vijaywada
 Longest trib.: Bhima (arises in Matheron hills)- joins
near Raichur; 861 km; left bank trib.
 Tungabhadra: confluence of Tumga and Bhadra; arises
from Gangamula hills of Sahyadris; Right bank Trib.;
531 km; has the famous site Hampi
 Other trib.: Musi, Malprabha, Ghataprabha, Koyna
 Dams: Nagarjuna Sagar; Alamatti Dam
v. Pennar/ Penna/ Penneru:
 Arises in Nandi Durg of KN
 Enters AP and then flows into BoB
 Length: 597 km
 Imp. Trib.: Chitravati, Jaimangali
vi. Kaveri/Cauvery:
 Arises as Talakaveri in Brahmagiri hills in Coorg distt.
 800 km

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  Descends from KN P.into TN plainsas Sivasamudram
falls (101m)
 Starts forming a delta near Tiruchrapalli
 N trib.: Arkavati, Srimsha, Himavati, Lokpavani,
Herangi
S trib.: Lakshmantirtha, Kabani, Bhavani (longest),
Amaravati
 Krishnaraj Sagar Dam- a joint venture by KR, KN, TN,
Puducherry.
vii. Brahmani
 Arises near Rourkela
 800 kms
 Headstreams= Koel, Sankh
C. CLASSIFICATION OF RIVERS

1. Classification 1:
On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of
India are grouped into three categories:
(i) Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of
catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins such as
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the
Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the
Barak, etc.
(ii) Medium river basins with catchment area between 2,000-
20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river basins such as the
Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
(iii) Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000
sq. km include fairly good number of rivers flowing in the
area of low rainfall.

2. Classification 2:
a. Himalayan Rivers: By melting snow and glaciers =>
perennial; flood during monsoon
b. Deccan rivers: rainfed => fluctuate in volm; non-perennial;
c. Coastal rivers: short, ltd. Catchment areas; non-perennial
d. Rivers of inland drainage basin: W RJ; ephemeral

3. Classification 3 (almost like 1st one):

a. 12 major basins (>20,000 sq. km):
- Indus
- Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna
- Godavari
- Krishna
- Cauvery
- Mahanadi
- Pennar
- Brahmani-Baitarani
- Sabarmati
- Mahi

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 - Narmada
- Tapti
b. 8 composite river basins:
- Suvarnarekha- Suvarnarakha + other small rivers
between S and Baitrani
- E flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar
- E flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari
- Area of inland drainage in RJ desert
- W flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra incl. Luni
- W flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri
- W flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari
- Minor rivers draining into Myanmar and
Bangladesh

D. DIFFERENCES

Himalayan Rivers Peninsular Rivers

Snow/glacier fed rainfed
Originate at great elevations Originate at lower altitudes
Lean period (less water discharged)Very low discharge in non-rainy
in winter months but heavy during SW
monsoon pd.
Uncertain and unpredictable More predictable
Meandering course at places Avoid meanders
Youthful and descend down steep Old and senile topography
slopes
Develop courses free ly in Plains; Follow major str.al lines like joints
dendrictic pattern; show char. of and faults in the old crystalline
antecedent rainage and these are rocks of the P., thus show evid. Of
instances of river capture, e.g. superiposed drainage and river
basins of Kosi, Gandhak, Ghaghara capture due to diff. in rock
formations
Best for irrigation as perennial + Better for hydel power as drain in
easy to dig canal hilly terrain and fall from steep
scarps at many places, esp. in W
Ghats

West Flowing Rivers East Flowing Rivers

Short and flow swiftly-> no deltas Long and drain slowly-> large deltas
Flow in narrow valleys and extend Flow thro’ broad valleys with gentle
their courses headwards slopes
River courses not yet graded to base Graded almost up to source level
level
Descend the steep slopes of W Descend rel.ly gentler slopes/
Ghats thro’ waterfalls and rapids scarps
Usually flow between 2 mt. ranges, Have wide and fan shaped courses
thus elongated and narrow
catchments

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 E. RIVER REGIMES
The pattern of flow of water in a river channel over a year is known
as its regime. The north Indian rivers originating from the
Himalayas are perennial as they are fed by glaciers through snow
melt and also receive rainfall water during rainy season. The rivers
of South India do not originate from glaciers and their flow pattern
witnesses fluctuations. The flow increases considerably during
monsoon rains. Thus, the regime of the rivers of South India is
controlled by rainfall which also varies from one part the
Peninsular plateau to the other. The discharge is the volume of
water flowing in a river measured over time. It is measured either
in cusecs (cubic feet per second) or cumecs (cubic metres per
second). The Ganga has its minimum flow during the January-
June period. The maximum flow is attained either in August or in
September. After September, there is a steady fall in the flow. The
river, thus, has a monsoon regime during the rainy season. There
are striking differences in the river regimes in the eastern and the
western parts of the Ganga Basin. The Ganga maintains a sizeable
flow in the early part of summer due to snow melt before the
monsoon rains begin. The mean maximum discharge of the Ganga
at Farakka is about 55,000 cusecs while the mean minimum is
only 1,300 cusecs. What factors are responsible for such a large
difference? The two Peninsular rivers display interesting differences
in their regimes compared to the Himalayan rivers. The Narmada
has a very low volume of discharge from January to July but it
suddenly rises in August when the maximum flow is attained. The
fall in October is as spectacular as the rise in August. The flow of
water in the Narmada, as recorded at Garudeshwar, shows that the
maximum flow is of the order of 2,300 cusecs, while the minimum
flow is only 15 cusecs. The Godavari has the minimum discharge
in May, and the maximum in July-August. After August, there is a
sharp fall in water flow although the volume of flow in October and
November is higher than that in any of the months from January to
May. The mean maximum discharge of the Godavari at Polavaram
is 3,200 cusecs while the mean minimum flow is only 50 cusecs.
These figures give an idea of the regime of the river.

2. Lakes
A. Types (Not Defining)
i Tectonic Lake
ii Volcanic Lakes
Iii Solution Lakes
iv Glacial Lakes
v Alluvial Lakes
vi Aeolian Lakes
vii Rock Fall Lakes
viii Lagoons

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 B. Lakes: (If reqd., consult Made Easy)
i. Lakes of JK:
o Wular
o Dal
o Anantnag, Sheshnag, Verinag, Gandhavabal,
Nagin, Manasbal
ii. Lakes of Kumaon- mostly tectonic lakes; Nainital, Bhimtal,
Naukuchiatal, Khurpatal, Sattal, Punatal, Malwatel
iii. Lakes of Rajasthan:
o Sambhar Lake
o Dhands
o Salt water Lakes: Annasagar, Didwana, Lankaransar,
Falodi, Kachhor, Rivasa, Sambhar
o Freshwater lake: Udaisagar, Fatehsagar, Pichhola, Jai
Samand, Rajasamnd, etc
iv. Lakes of South India:
- Lakes of Maharashtra (MH has max. lakes):
o Lonar
o Andhra Lake(?), Beale Lake, Mulshi Lake
- Coastal Lakes:
o Ashamudi(KR)
o Vembanad (KR)
o Pulicat(AP)
o Kolleru(AP)
o L. Chilka (OD)
v. Lakes in NE
o Loktak Lake
vi. Lakes of Tibet
o Kokonoor Lake
o Parichur Lake
o L. Mansarovar
o Rakash Tal
o Gunchu Tso

DO YOU KNOW?

1. Indus Water Treaty 1960- RM

2. R. Hugli= ‘most treacherous river of the world’
3. Kolkata= ‘London of East’
4. Ganga Brahmaputra delta: largest and fastest growing in the world;
extends Hugli to Meghna river; seaward side of the delta covered by
Sunderbans (after the Sundari tress found here)
5. The viability of the scheme of interlinking the Indian Rivers:
The scheme is in two components: Himalayan, Peninsular.
a. To add 35 mn hectares as addnal irrigational potential
b. To add 34 GW addnal power capacity
c. To control floods/ droughts and improve dryland agriculture
Main issues of viability:

37 | P a g e
 a. Inter-basin transfer is the most expensive method to transfer water
an improve agri.. Failed in Turkey, USA
b. Potentially create ecological imbalances e.g. deforestation, water
logging
c. Estimates of surpluses in India’s river basins are only rough
approximations as run-off of rivers varies seasonally and hence the
surpluses may not be surpluses after all.
d. There is no clear quantitative est. of amt. of water to be transferred
from one basin to another, hence the infra created to utilise
surpluses may not be fully utilised.
e. The dam construction involved, as shown by prev. exp.:
. Not effective in flood control
. by promoting flood irrigation, may cause water logging/ soil
salination, thus negate gains of irrigation led agri.
. big dams undergo rapid siltation of reservoir, thus do not last
their planned life, thus do not justify costs.
6. Collect information about Narmada river conservation mission named
“Namami Devi Narmade” .
7. ‘Namami Gange Programme’, is an Integrated Conservation Mission,
approved as “Flagship Programme” by the Union Government in June
2014 with the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution,
conservation and rejuvenation of the National River Ganga. Main
pillars of the Namami Gange Programme are:
• Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
• River-Front Development
• River-Surface Cleaning
• Bio-Diversity
• Afforestation
• Public Awareness
• Industrial Effluent Monitoring
• Ganga Gram
You may explore about this project at
http://nmcg.nic.in/NamamiGanga.aspx#
8. Teachers may explain the following examples • Periyar Diversion
Scheme • Indira Gandhi Canal Project • Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal •
Beas-Satluj Link Canal • Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal
9. Extent of Usability of River Water:
(i) No availability in sufficient quantity
(ii) River water pollution
(iii) Load of silt in the river water
(iv) Uneven seasonal flow of water
(v) River water disputes between states
(vi) Shrinking of channels due to the extension of settlements
towards the thalweg.

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D. NATURAL VEGETATION AND FOREST

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 (I) VEGETATION
According to world biogeographic classification, India represents two of the
major realms (the Palearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes (Tropical
Humid Forests, Tropical Dry/Deciduous Forests and Warm Deserts/ Semi-
Deserts). The Wildlife Institute of India has proposed a modified
xclassification which divides the country into 10 biogeographic regions
Trans-Himalayan W Ghats Islands
Himalayan Deccan Peninsula Coasts
Indian Desert Gangetic Plains
Semi-Arid NE India
Within 2% of world’s total surface area, India hold 7.5% of worlds’ animals
species i.e. 92,037 species. Twice as many remain to be discovered.
1. Types of Forests
a. Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen
i. Evergreen
o Distribution:
- Rainy slopes of W Ghats
- NE India (Shillong P.) except ArunP.
- E WB, OD
- Lakshadweep, AN (95% AN is forest)
o Climatic Conditions
- Rainfall> 200 cm
- Relative Humidity> 70%
- Avg. temp.> 22°C
- Hot and Humid
o Characteristics
- Tree ht. ~ 40-60 m
- V. less undergrowth
- Broad, dark green leaves
- Well stratified with layers closer to the ground and
are covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
- Important for spices
- No distinct shedding season, flowering or fruition =>
Evergreen
o Tree species: Mahogany, Rosewood, Aini, Ebony,
Cinchona (used in Malaria Drug Quinine), Mahua,
Bamboo, Canes, Ironwood, Kadam, Jamun, Rubber tree,
etc
ii. Semi- Evergreen
o Distribution:
- Less rainy parts of the above regions
o Characteristics:
- Mixture of evergreen and moist deciduoustrees
- undergrowing climbers provide an evergreen
character to these forests
o Tree Species: White Cedar, Hollock, Kail
The British were aware of the economic value of the forests in India, hence,
large scale exploitation of these forests was started. The structure of forests

40 | P a g e
was also changed. The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced by
pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared
for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The British also used
timber for construction activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced by commercial use.
b. Tropical Deciduous
i. Moist/Wet (aka Monsoon Forests):
These forests cover 20% of India’s forest cover
o Distribution:
NE states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes
of the Western Ghats and Odisha
o Climatic Conditions
- Rainfall- 100-200 cm
- Moderate temperature
o Characteristics
- Tree ht. 30-40 m
- High undergrowth
- Due to water deficiency, shed off leaves in spring.
o Tree Species: Sal, Teak, Mulberry, Kusum, Sandalwood,
Siris, Haldi, Khair, Mango, Banyan tree (to do- uses of
these), Shisham, Hurra, Mahua, Amla, Semul,
ii. Dry
Most widespread type in India; On the wetter margins, it has
a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier
margins to thorn forests
o Distribution
- MH, AP; PB, HR, RJ; MP; TN; UP;
o Climatic Conditions
- Moderate humidity
- Rain= 70-100 cm
o Characteristics
- Tree ht. 6-15 m
- Thick and long roots
- Thick bark to avoid undue evaporation
- Distinct season of shedding leaves in spring
- At the dry margins, these forests are replaced by
thorny bushes. Excessive grazing= big prob.
- have a parkland landscape with open stretches in
which teak and other trees interspersed with
patches of grass are common.
- As the dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves
completely and the forest appears like a vast
grassland with naked trees all around
o Tree species: Teak, Sal, Babool, Mango, Acacia, Neem,
Shisham, Tendu, Palas, Amaltas, Bel, Khair, Axlewood
c. Tropical Thorn/ Dry Forests/ Arid Forests
o Distribution:
- RJ and adj. HR, GJ, PB
- Rainshadow are of Peninsular India

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 o Climatic Conditions
- Rainfall< 50 cm
- Less relative humidity
o Characteristics
- Thorny Vegetation; grasses and shrubs; scrub
vegetation
- Very Long roots
- Small leaves
- Tree Species: Cactus, Thorny bushes, Kikar,
Babool, Date Palms, Acacia, Khair, ber, khejris,
palas
- Tussocky grass grows (ht. of 2m) as the
undergrowth.
d. Montane/ Mountainous
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing
altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural vegetation
i. North Mountain/ Himalayan Forests
The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from
the tropical to the tundra, which change in with the altitude.
Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of forests between
an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of
northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and
chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine
forests are also well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as
a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued
endemic species grows mainly in the western part of the
Himalayan range. Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in
construction activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut,
which sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts, belong to
this zone. Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-
3,048 m. At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands
are also found. But in the higher reaches there is a transition
to Alpine forests and pastures. Silver firs, junipers, pines,
birch and rhododendrons, etc. occur between 3,000-4,000
m. However, these pastures are used extensively for
transhumance by tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the
Bhotiyas and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover because of
relatively higher precipitation than the drier north-facing
slopes. At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of
the tundra vegetation.
E Him. has more ht. than W Him as it gets more rainfall and
is nearer to sea and to equator
ii. South Mountain Forests
o Distribution: W Ghats, Vindhyas, Nilgiris; Satpura,
Maikal ranges

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 o Characterstics: Closer to tropics + only 1500 m above sea
level => vegetation is temperate (called Sholas in Nilgiris,
Anaimalai, Palani hills) in the higher regions, and
subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats,
especially in KR, TN, KN
o Trees: Magnolia, Laurel, Cinchona, Wattle
e. Littoral and Swamp Forests
About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation.
The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites —
Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are
protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands
of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
8 groups:
(i) the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together
with the lagoons and other wetlands of the southern west
coast;
(ii) the vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf
of Kachchh;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards
through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya
Pradesh;
(iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast (Chilika
Lake);
(v) the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain;
(vi) the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and
swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills;
(vii) the lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and
Ladakh; and
(viii) the mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks,
mud flats and estuaries. They consist of a number of salt-tolerant
species of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and
tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of birds. In
India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7
per cent of the world’s mangrove forests. They are highly developed
in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West
Bengal. Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari
and the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being encroached
upon, and hence, need conservation
National Envt. Policy 2007 considers the Katchch mangroves and
coral reefs as the significant coastal envtal. resources. A
programme for the conservation of mangroves in India is run by
Min. of Envt. Since 1987, under which the Min. has set up
National Katchch(Mangroves) forest Genetic Resources centre in
OD.
Uses of Mangroves: - I think this wld be covered in world geo.
Check.

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 The National Wetlands Management Committee has been expanded
to cover conservation and management of Mangroves and Coral
Reefs. Areas listed in management action plan: setting up
Biosphere Reserves ( Rann of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Sunderbans,
Andaman) declaring NPs, rehabilitation of tribals.
Wetlands- do in envt. section
2. Forest Cover In India
According to state records, the forest area covers 23.28% of the total
land area of India. It is important to note that the forest area and the
actual forest cover are not the same. The forest area is the area
notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of the existence of
trees, while the actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with
canopy. The former is based on the records of the State Revenue
Department, while the latter is based on aerial photographs and
satellite imageries. According to India State of Forest Report 2011,2019
21.67 per cent. Of the forest
the actual forest cover in India is only 21.05
12.41
cover, the shares of dense and open forests are 12.29 and 8.75 per
9.26
cent respectively. Both forest area and forest cover vary from state to
state. Lakshadweep has zero per cent forest area; Andaman and
Nicobar Islands have 86.93 per cent. Most of the states with less than
10 per cent of the forest area lie in the north and northwestern part of
the country. These are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and
Delhi.
Most of the forests in Punjab and Haryana have been cleared for
cultivation. States with 10-20 per cent forest area are Tamil Nadu
and West Bengal. In Peninsular India, excluding Tamil Nadu, Dadra
and Nagar Haveli and Goa, the area under forest cover is 20-30 per
cent. The northeastern states have more than 30 per cent of the land
under forest. Hilly topography and heavy rainfall are good for forest
growth. There is a lot of variation in actual forest cover, which ranges
from 9.56 per cent in Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01 per cent in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. From the table showing the
distribution of forests in India (Appendix IV), it is clear that there are
15 states where the forest cover is more than one-third of the total
area, which is the basic requirement for maintaining the ecological
balance. On the basis of the percentage of the actual forest cover, the
states have been grouped into four regions:

Forest Survey of India: assesses country’s forest resources

Forest Cover Mapping: FSI does biennial forest cover assessment by
interpreting satellite data (read most recent data point)

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 Forests Inventory: Inventory of forests and Trees Outside Forests(TOF)
is second major activity of FSI. India=14 physiographic zones and 60
random distt. India State of Forest Report, 2015 released
New Forest Inventory Design adopted in 2016- grid based.
International Tropical Timber Organisation: HQ in Yokohama, Japan;
by ITT Agreement under UNCTAD; 73 members: 35 producer and 38
consumer countries; Aim: conserving tropical forest and assisting
countries to develop economically in the field of forestry; India=
founding member in producing category.
International Network of Bamboo and Rattan- name is enough
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): at Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992- see envt. Section
CEBOL: Indian Govt. with Norwegian govt. has estd. “Centre for
Biodiversity Policy and Law” in National Biodiversity Authority (NBA),
Chennai.
Biological Diversity Rules 2004
Biological Diversity Act, 2003: conservation, sustainable utilisation
and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of use of
biological resources and associated knowledge.. The Act is
implemented at 3 tiers: NBA, State Biodiversity boards, Biodiversity
Management Committees (local level)
Rest of chapter 12 of India Year Book to be done at the time of
environment.

3. Forest Conservation
a. Background
i. Deforestation
ii. Scarcity of fuelwood in rural areas
iii. Loss of farmland manure to soil because of its use in rural
energy requirements.
Accordingly, the Government of India proposed to have a nation-
wide forest conservation policy, and adopted a forest policy in
1952, which was further modified in 1988. According to the new
forest policy, the Government will emphasise sustainable forest
management in order to conserve and expand forest reserve on the
one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on the other. The
forest policy aimed at :
(i) bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest
cover;
(ii) maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests
where ecological balance was disturbed;
(iii) conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological
diversity and genetic pool;
(iv) checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and
reduction of floods and droughts;
(v) increasing the forest cover through social forestry and
afforestation on degraded land;

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 (vi) increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel,
fodder and food available to rural population dependant on
forests, and encourage the substitution of wood;
(vii) creating of a massive peoples movement involving women to
encourage planting of trees, stop felling of trees and thus,
reduce pressure on the existing forest
National Commission on Agriculture recommended three
programmes in 1976:
i. Afforestation of degraded forest land
ii. Development of social forestry to meet the need of fuelwood,
fodder, timber reqts.
iii. Dvpt. Of productive forests to meet commercial reqts.
Forming one of the important components of the 20-point
programme, social forestry was launched in 1980-81 in 101 distt.
as a centrally sponsored programme. The scheme included “A tree
for every child” and Rural Fuelwood Plantations.
b. Social Forestry
Social forestry means the management and protection of forests
and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in
the environmental, social and rural development. The National
Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into
three categories.
i. Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of
trees on public and privately owned lands in and around
urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
ii. Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry
and community-forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees
and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the
waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus,
altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel,
timber and fruit.
iii. Community forestry involves the raising of trees on public or
community land such as the village pasture and temple
land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and
schools etc. Community forestry programme aims at
providing benefits to the community as a whole. Community
forestry provides a means under which the people of landless
classes can associate themselves in treeraising and thus, get
those benefits which otherwise are restricted for landowners.
Specific Components of Social Forestry:
i. Village woodland on community and government lands
ii. Block plantation in tank beds and foreshore lands
iii. Aggro-forestry on marginal and sub-marginal lands
iv. Tree planting along homesteads and field boundaries
v. Developments of pasture and silverpasture
vi. Afforestation of degraded areas
vii. Tree plantation in industrial and urban areas to combat
noise and water pollution

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 viii. Control of water and wind erosion by tree and shrub planting
which will act as shelter belts and noise protection belts
ix. Strip plantation along canal, rail and roadsides.
Uses: Food, fodder, employment, envt., rural cottage industry,
fuelwood
c. Farm forestry
Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under which farmers
grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their
farm lands. Forest departments of various states distribute
seedlings of trees free of cost to small and medium farmers. Several
lands such as the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and
pastures, land around homes and cow sheds may be used for
raising trees under non-commercial farm forestry.
d. Desertification
Causes:
i. Climatic: sub-tropical belts of high pressure on W margins of
continents where warm/dry offshore winds throughout year.
ii. Topographic: lee regions of mountainous regions e.g., KN, TL
iii. Lack of orographic barriers e.g., Thar
iv. Siltation due to flooding leading to soil erosion
v. Mining (Aravalli, Kumaon/Garhwal) and quarrying (of
limestone in Him. foothills)
vi. Deforestation, Jhum cultivation, timber mafia, development
projects
vii. Overgrazing
Steps Taken:
i. Social forestry section
ii. Desert Development Programme launched in 1977-78 which
includes measures to halt march of desert, restore ecological
balance in arid regions, pasture development and
development of land/water resources. Covers 3.62Lakh
sq.km
iii. Drone Prone Areas Programme launched in 1973 as a long
term integrated area development programme for the
restoration of land/water/livestock/human resources.
iv. Wasteland Development Programme launched in 1985. (More
on Wastelands in India elsewhere- ensure)
Areas threatened:
i. The areas in the vicinity of the Aravallis which is primarily
due to mining of phosphates and gypsum besides
overgrazing by livestock in this fragile ecosystem.
ii. Large areas in the Rann of Kutch are exposed to this hazard
due to the expansion of agriculture (i.e. animal husbandary
and some hardy crop agriculture) and salt mining.
iii. Badlands from Chambal basin are exposed to intense ravine
and gully erosion which has already turned them into
wastelands which could easily turn into desert.
iv. The forested regions on the fringes of Aravalli are exposed to
desertification due to deforestation.

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 v. The fragile ecosystem of the rainshadow regions of
peninsular India (like regions E of W Ghats in AP and KN)
face this threat due to intense agri activity.
vi. Vidharbha region of Deccan P.: due to intense agri activity.
e. Wastelands in India
i. Definition: All vacant lands lying unused for having become
unproductive as a result of topsoil erosion due to causes like
soil erosion, deforestation and development of soil toxicity
ii. Extent in India:
Out of India’s 329 m.ha. land area, 130 m.ha. is wasteland
(94 of non-forest, of which 74 waste due to water and wind
erosion, and spread od saline/alkaline soils).
Max. in RJ, MP, MH; other: GJ, OD, BR, WB, SK
iii. Causes: same as erosion
iv. Measures Taken:
The National Wasteland Board was set up in 1985 with a
mandate of reclaiming mha of wasteland every year primarily
through afforestation. The deptt. of Wasteland Development
has launched following measures for wasteland reclamation:
- Comprehensive plan for development of 94 m.ha
non-forest wasteland including:
 Integrated land use planning
 Preparation of village level action plans
 Creation of sectoral linkages at
implementation level planning on a
watershed basis.
 Provide financial support to NGOs with an
additional programme to build on work done
by existing NGOs
- 5 schemes of Deptt. of Wasteland:
 Integrated wasteland development
programme
 Production of fuelwood and timber
 Grant-in-aid to NGOs and voluntary
organisations
 Raising nurseries for afforestation
 Programmes for realising margin money from
wasteland developed.
- The deptt. has also recognised 147 distt. (15% of
area as wasteland) for reclamation of wasteland.
Microplans for 45 of the most affected distt.
- Initiated an expt. To revegetate the saline lands of
India (about 7 m.ha of land in 14 states of India
suffer from high salinity and alkalinity). The expt.
will involve tech evolved by Aus for wasteland
reclamation which basically involves vegetation with
salt tolerant species like a triplex.
v. Other General Measures:

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 - Revision of forest policy in 1988 to prevent
conversion of forestland to non-forest use, promote
afforestation and protect existing forests.
- Centre has proposed to give major thrust to
wasteland development linking it with Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana and other such rural development
programmes.
- About 330 voluntary agencies are engaged in the
task of wastelands development in India
- The Centre has embarked upon a programme of
identifying committed voluntary agencies which
will be given the task of motivating and organising
communities for protection, afforestation, and
development of wastelands, esp. in the vicinity of
habitations.
vi. Obj. of Wasteland devpt. In India
- Improvement and stabilisation of soil and water
regime to an optimum level.
- Planting suitable trees/ legumes/ grasses for the
production of fuel, fodder, small timber and also
meet the reqt.s of people.
- Prevent further expansion/ extn. of wastelands.
f. Movements(do from net):
i. Van Mahotsav
ii. Chipko Movement
iii. Forest Conservation Act, 1980
(II) WILDLIFE
Some of the important reasons of the declining of wildlife are as follows:
(i) Industrial and technological advancement brought about a rapid
increase in the exploitation of forest resources.
(ii) More and more lands were cleared for agriculture, human
settlement, roads, mining, reservoirs, etc.
(iii) Pressure on forests mounted due to lopping for fodder and
fuelwood and removal of small timber by the local people.
(iv) Grazing by domestic cattle caused an adverse effect on wildlife and
its habitat.
(v) Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite and hundreds of wild
animals were killed in a single hunt. Now commercial poaching is
rampant.
(vi) Incidence of forest fire.
4. Wildlife and Wildlife Conservation in India
The protection of wildlife has a long tradition in India. Many stories of
Panchtantra and Jungle Books, etc. have stood the test of time
relating to the love for wildlife.
a. In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides
the main legal framework for conservation and protection of wildlife
in India. The two main objectives of the Act are;
i. to provide protection to the endangered species listed in the
schedule of the Act to provide legal support

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 ii. to the conservation areas of the country classified as
National parks, sanctuaries and closed areas.
This Act has been comprehensively amended in 1991, making
punishments more stringent and has also made provisions for the
protection of specified plant species and conservation of
endangered species of wild animals. There are 103 National parks
and 535 wildlife sanctuaries in the country.
b. For the purpose of effective conservation of flora and fauna, special
steps have been initiated by the Government of India in
collaboration with UNESCO’s ‘Man and Biosphere Programme’.
c. Special schemes like Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant
(1992) have been launched to conserve these species and their
habitat in a sustainable manner. Project Tiger has been
implemented since 1973. The main objective of the scheme is to
ensure maintenance of viable population of tigers in India for
scientific, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values, and to preserve
areas of biological importance as natural heritage for the benefit,
education and enjoyment of the people. Initially, the Project Tiger
was launched in nine tiger reserves, covering an area of 16,339 sq.
km, which has now increased to 44 tiger reserves, encompassing
36,988.28 sq. km of core tiger habitats distributed in 17 states.
The tiger population in the country has registered an increase from
1,411 in 2006 to 1,706 in 2010. Project Elephant was launched in
1992 to assist states having free ranging population of wild
elephants. It was aimed at ensuring long term survival of identified
viable population of elephants in their natural habitat. The project
is being implemented in 17 states. Apart from this, some other
projects such as Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul and
conservation of Himalayan Musk deer have also been launched by
the Government of India
5. Biosphere Reserve
A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of
terrestrial and coastal areas which are internationally recognised
within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB)
Programme., initiated in 1971; obj. of MAB:
- Conserve ecosystem
- Promote sustainable management of living
resources of a reserve
- Promote international coop. in conserving/
managing biosphere reserves.
- Conserve genetic diversity
- Facilitate basic and applied research in genetic
diversity.
BR provides endemic species a biorhythmic familiarity.

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i. Important BRs
a. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), the first of the fourteen
biosphere reserves of India, was established in September 1986. It
embraces the sanctuary complex of Wyanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur
and Mudumalai, the entire forested hill slopes of Nilambur, the
Upper Nilgiri plateau, Silent Valley and the Siruvani hills. The total
area of the biosphere reserve is around 5,520 sq. km. The Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve possesses different habitat types, unspoilt areas
of natural vegetation types with several dry scrubs, dry and moist
deciduous, semievergreen and wet evergreen forests, evergreen
sholas, grasslands and swamps. It includes the largest known

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 population of two endangered animal species, namely the Nilgiri
Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque. The largest south Indian
population of elephant, tiger, gaur, sambar and chital as well as a
good number of endemic and endangered plants are also found in
this reserve. The habitat of a number of tribal groups remarkable
for their traditional modes of harmonious use of the environment
are also found here. The topography of the NBR is extremely varied,
ranging from an altitude of 250 m to 2,650 m. About 80 per cent of
the flowering plants reported from the Western Ghats occur in the
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

b. Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve situated in Uttarakhand
includes parts of Chamoli, Almora, Pithoragarh and Bageshwar
districts. The major forest types of the reserve are temperate. A few
important species are silver weed and orchids like latifolie and
rhododendron. The biosphere reserve has a rich fauna, for
example the snow leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk deer,
snowcock, golden eagle and black eagle. Major threats to the
ecosystem are the collection of endangered plants for medicinal
use, forest fires and poaching.

c. Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve

It is located in the swampy delta of the river Ganga in West Bengal.
It extends over a vast area of 9,630 sq. km and consists of
mangrove forests, swamps and forested islands. Sunderbans is the
home of nearly 200 Royal Bengal tigers. The tangled mass of roots
of mangrove trees provide safe homes for a large number of
species, from fish to shrimp. More than 170 birds species are
known to inhabit these mangrove forests. Adapting itself to the
saline and fresh water environment, the tigers at the park are good
swimmers, and they hunt scarce preys such as chital deer, barking
deer, wild pig and even macaques. In the Sunderbans, the
mangrove forests are characterised by Heritiera fomes, a species
valued for its timber

d. Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve

The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 105,000
hectares on the southeast coast of India. It is one of the world’s
richest regions from a marine biodiversity perspective. The
biosphere reserve comprises 21 islands with estuaries, beaches,
forests of the nearshore environment, sea grasses, coral reefs, salt
marshes and mangroves. Among the Gulf’’s 3,600 plant and animal
species are the globally endangered e.g. sea cow (Dugong dugon).
Besides six mangrove species, endemic to Peninsular India are also
endangered.
ii. Aim of BR:
 Need of conserving ecosystems of a larger size to self-
perpetuate and unhindered evolution of living organisms.

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 In-situ conservation of plants/ animals and micro-organisms
not in isolation but in their totality s part of a wider eco-
system.
 Conserve biodiversity
 Promote research
 Facility for edu., awareness, training.

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54 | P a g e
E. CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA

1. UNITY AND DIVERSITY IN THE MONSOON CLIMATE

The monsoon regime emphasises the unity of India with the rest of
SE Asian region. This view of broad unity of the monsoon type of
climate should not, however, lead one to ignore its regional
(expressed in the pattern of winds, temperature and rainfall,
rhythm of seasons and the degree of wetness or dryness), described
as sub-types of monsoon climate. (e.g.- common knowledge). Not
only this, if we take only a single place and record the temperature
for just one day, variations are no less striking. In Kerala and in
the Andaman Islands, the difference between day and night
temperatures may be hardly seven or eight degree Celsius. But in
the Thar desert, if the day temperature is around 50°C, at night, it
may drop down considerably upto 15°-20°C. In spite of these
differences and variations, the climate of India is monsoonal in
rhythm and character

2. FACTORS DETERMINING CLIMATE OF INDIA

A. Factors Related to Location and Relief

i. Latitude:
- N India lies in sub-tropical and temperate zone->
away from equator-> extreme climate with high
daily and annual range of temp.
- S is in the tropical zone ->nearer to the equator->
experiences high temperatures throughout the year with
small daily and annual range.
ii. The Himalayan Mountains :
- Effective climatic divide: an invincible shield to
protec from the cold northern winds. These cold
and chilly winds originate near the Arctic circle and
blow across central and eastern Asia.
- The Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds,
forcing them to shed their moisture within the
subcontinent.
iii. Distribution of Land and Water:
India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in the
south and girdled by a high and continuous mountain-
wall in the north. Differential heating of land and sea
creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in
and around the Indian subcontinent. Difference in air
pressure causes reversal in the direction of monsoon
winds.
iv. Distance from the Sea (moderating infl. of sea):
- Coastal areas have an equable climate.
- Interior of India: extremes of climate.
v. Altitude

55 | P a g e
 Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air,
places in the mountains are cooler than places on the
plains. For example, Agra and Darjiling are located on the
same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C
whereas it is only 4°C in Darjiling.
vi. Relief/ Physiography :
Affects the temperature, air pressure, direction and speed
of wind and the amount and distribution of rainfall. The
windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high
rainfall during June-September whereas the southern
plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the
Western Ghats.

B. Factors Related to Air Pressure and Winds

To understand the differences in local climates of India, we need

to understand the mechanism of the following three factors:
 Distribution of air pressure and winds on the surface of
the earth.
 Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global
weather and the inflow of different air masses and jet
streams.
 Inflow of western cyclones generally known as
disturbances during the winter season and tropical
depressions during the south-west monsoon period into
India, creating weather conditions favourable to rainfall.
The mechanism of these three factors can be understood with
reference to winter and summer seasons of the year separately.

i. Mechanism of Weather in WINTER Season

a. Surface Pressure and Winds
In winter months, the weather conditions over India
are generally influenced by the distribution of pressure
in Central and Western Asia. A high pressure centre in
the region lying to the north of the Himalayas develops
during winter. This centre of high pressure gives rise to
the flow of air at the low level from the north towards
the Indian subcontinent, south of the mountain range.
The surface winds blowing out of the high pressure
centre over Central Asia reach India in the form of a
dry continental air mass. These continental winds
come in contact with trade winds over northwestern
India. The position of this contact zone is not, however,
stable. Occasionally, it may shift its position as far east
as the middle Ganga valley with the result that the
whole of the northwestern and northern India up to
the middle Ganga valley comes under the influence of
dry northwestern winds.
b. Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation

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 The pattern of air circulation discussed above is
witnessed only at the lower level of the atmosphere
near the surface of the earth. Higher
up in the lower troposphere, about three km above the
surface of the earth, a different pattern of air
circulation is observed. The variations in the
atmospheric pressure closer to the surface of the earth
have no role to play in the making of upper air
circulation. All of Western and Central Asia remains
under the influence of westerly winds along the
altitude of 9-13 km from west to east. These winds
blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of
the Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan
highlands (Figure 4.1). These are known as jet
streams. Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path
of these jet streams. As a result, jet streams get
bifurcated. One of its branches blows to the north of
the Tibetan highlands, while the southern branch
blows in an eastward direction, south of the
Himalayas. It has its mean position at 25°N in
February at 200-300 mb level. It is believed that this
southern branch of the jet stream exercises an
important influence on the winter weather in India.

c. W. Cyclonic Disturbances and Tropical Cyclones

The western cyclonic disturbances which enter the
Indian subcontinent from the west and the northwest
during the winter months, originate over the
Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India by the
westerly jet stream. An increase in the prevailing night
temperature generally indicates an advance in the

57 | P a g e
 arrival of these cyclones disturbances. Tropical
cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the
Indian ocean. These tropical cyclones have very high
wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha coast. Most of
these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind
velocity and torrential rain that accompanies it.
ii. Mechanism of Weather in SUMMER Season
a. Surface Pressure and Winds
As the summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards,
the wind circulation over the subcontinent undergoes a
complete reversal at both, the lower as well as the
upper levels. By the middle of July, the low pressure
belt nearer the surface [termed as Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ10)] shifts northwards, roughly
parallel to the Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N. By
this time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from the
Indian region. In fact, meteorologists have found an
interrelationship between the northward shift of the
equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the withdrawal of the
westerly jet stream from over the North Indian Plain. It
is generally believed that there is a cause and effect
relationship between the two. The ITCZ being a zone of
low pressure, attracts inflow of winds from different
directions. The maritime tropical airmass (mT) from
the southern hemisphere, after crossing the equator,
rushes to the low pressure area in the general
southwesterly direction. It is this moist air current
which is popularly known as the southwest monsoon.

10
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the equator where trade winds
converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes
(over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough encourages the
development of thermal low over north and northwest India. Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the
southern hemisphere cross the equator between 40° and 60°E longitudes and start blowing from southwest to
northeast due to the Coriolis force. It becomes southwest monsoon. In winter, the ITCZ moves southward, and
so the reversal of winds from northeast to south and southwest, takes place. They are called northeast
monsoons.

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b. Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation
The pattern of pressure and winds as mentioned above
is formed only at the level of the troposphere. An
easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the
Peninsula in June, and has a maximum speed of 90
km per hour (Figure 4.3). In August, it is confined to
15oN latitude, and in September up to 22o N latitudes.
The easterlies normally do not extend to the north of
30o N latitude in the upper atmosphere

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 c. Easterly Jet Stream And Tropical Cyclone
The easterly jet stream steers the tropical depressions
into India. These depressions play a significant role in
the distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Indian
subcontinent. The tracks of these depressions are the
areas of highest rainfall in India. The frequency at
which these depressions visit India, their direction and
intensity, all go a long way in determining the rainfall
pattern during the southwest monsoon period.

3. NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON

A. Onset of Monsoon
Do from other Sources
B. Rainbearing system and relnship b/w their freq. and
distribution of monsoon rainfall
i. Two rainbearing systems:
- BoB: northern plains
- AS: W coast- orographic: intensity based on two
factors:
 The offshore meteorological conditions.
 The position of the equatorial jet stream along
the eastern coast of Africa.
ii. The frequency of the tropical depressions originating from
the Bay of Bengal varies from year to year. Their paths
over India are mainly determined by the position of ITCZ
which is generally termed as the monsoon trough. As the
axis of the monsoon trough oscillates, there are
fluctuations in the track and direction of these
depressions, and the intensity and the amount of rainfall

60 | P a g e
 vary from year to year. The rain which comes in spells,
displays a declining trend from west to east over the west
coast, and from the southeast towards the northwest over
the North Indian Plain and the northern part of the
Peninsula.

C. Break in the Monsoon

During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a
few days, if rain fails to occur for one or more weeks, it is known
as break in the monsoon. These dry spells are quite common
during the rainy season. These breaks in the different regions
are due to different reasons:
(i) In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing
storms are not very frequent along the monsoon trough
or the ITCZ over this region.
(ii) Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with
days when winds blow parallel to the coast.
4. THE RHYTHM OF SEASONS

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 A. Cold Weather Season
i. Temperature:
- Northern India:
 Sets in by mid-Nov.
 Coldest- Dec., Jan.
 Daily mean< 21°C
 Night temp may go < 0°C
 There are three main reasons for the
excessive cold in north India during this
season :
× PB, HR and RJ: away from moderating
sea experience continental climate.
× Snowfall in the nearby Him.
× Around February, the cold winds
coming from the Caspian Sea and
Turkmenistan
- Peninsular India:
 No well-defd. Cold weather as
× Moderating infl. of sea
× Proximity to equator
 Temperatures at the hills of Western Ghats
remain comparatively low
ii. Pressure and Winds:
- By 22nd Dec., sun shines vertically over the To
Capricorn
↓
N India: feeble high pressure conditions.
S India, the air pressure is slightly lower.
(The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb pass through
northwest India and far south, respectively)
↓
winds start blowing from northwestern high
pressure zone to the low air pressure zone over the
Indian Ocean in the south.
Due to low pressure gradient, the light winds with a low velocity of about 3-
5 km per hour begin to blow outwards. By and large, the topography of the
region influences the wind direction. They are westerly or northwesterly
down the Ganga Valley.
- They become northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra
delta. Free from the influence of topography, they
are clearly northeasterly over the Bay of Bengal.
- During the winters, the weather in India is
pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions,
however, at intervals, get disturbed by shallow
cyclonic depressions originating over the east
Mediterranean Sea and travelling eastwards across
West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan before
they reach the northwestern parts of India. On
their way, the moisture content gets augmented

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 from the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian
Gulf in the south. What is the role of Westerly Jet
Streams in steering these depressions in India?

iii. Rainfall:
Winter monsoons do not cause rainfall as they move from
land to the sea. It is because
a. firstly, they have little humidity; and
b. secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation on land, the
possibility of rainfall from them reduces.
So, most parts of India do not have rainfall in the winter
season. However, there are some exceptions to it:
a. In NW, some weak temperate cyclones from the
Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in Punjab, Haryana,
Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh. Although the
amount is meagre, it is highly beneficial for rabi crops.

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 The precipitation is in the form of snowfall in the lower
Himalayas. It is this snow that sustains the flow of
water in the Himalayan rivers during the summer
months. The precipitation goes on decreasing from
west to east in the plains and from north to south in
the mountains. The average winter rainfall in Delhi is
around 53 mm. In Punjab and Bihar, rainfall remains
between 25 mm and 18 mm respectively.
b. Central parts of India and northern parts of southern
Peninsula also get winter rainfall occasionally.
c. Arunachal Pradesh and Assam also have rains
between 25 mm and 50 mm during these winter
months.
d. During October and November, northeast monsoon
while crossing over the Bay of Bengal, picks up
moisture and causes torrential rainfall over the Tamil
Nadu coast, southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast
Karnataka and southeast Kerala.

64 | P a g e
B. HOT WEATHER SEASON

1. Temperature:
a. North:
i. With the apparent northward movt. of the sun
towards the ToCancer in March, temp. rise
ii. Apr., May and June are the months of summer.
iii. In most parts of India, temperatures recorded are
between 30°-32°C. In May, the heat belt moves
further north, and in the north-western part of
India, temperatures around 48°C are not
uncommon (Figure 4.8).
b. South:
i. Mild, not so intense
ii. Moderating effect of the
iii. 26°C- 32°C.
iv. Due to altitude, the temperatures in the hills of
Western Ghats remain below 25°C.
v. In the coastal regions, the north-south extent of
isotherms parallel to the coast confirms that
temperature does not decrease from north to south
rather it increases from the coast to the interior.
The mean daily minimum temperature during the
summer months also remains quite high and rarely
goes below 26°C.
2. Pressure and Winds : The summer months are a period of
excessive heat and falling air pressure in the northern half of
the country. Because of the heating of the subcontinent, the
ITCZ moves northwards occupying a position centred at 25°N
in July. Roughly, this elongated low pressure monsoon
trough extends over the Thar desert in the north-west to
Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east-southeast
(Figure 4.9). The location of the ITCZ attracts a surface
circulation of the winds which are southwesterly on the west
coast as well as along the coast of West Bengal and
Bangladesh. They are easterly or southeasterly over north
Bengal and Bihar. It has been discussed earlier that these
currents of southwesterly monsoon are in reality ‘displaced’
equatorial westerlies. The influx of these winds by mid-June
brings about a change in the weather towards the rainy
season. In the heart of the ITCZ in the northwest, the dry
and hot winds known as ‘Loo’, blow in the afternoon, and
very often, they continue to well into midnight. Dust storms
in the evening are very common during May in Punjab,
Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. These
temporary storms bring a welcome respite from the
oppressing heat since they bring with them light rains and a
pleasant cool breeze. Occasionally, the moisture-laden winds
are attracted towards the periphery of the trough. A sudden

65 | P a g e
 contact between dry and moist air masses gives rise to local
storms of great intensity. These local storms are associated
with violent winds, torrential rains and even hailstorms.

C. THE SOUTHWEST MONSOON SEASON

As a result of rapid increase of temperature in May over the

northwestern plains, the low pressure conditions over there get
further intensified. By early June, they are powerful enough to
attract the trade winds of Southern Hemisphere coming from
the Indian Ocean. These southeast trade winds cross the
equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only
to be caught up in the air circulation over India. Passing over
the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in

66 | P a g e
 abundance. After crossing the equator, they follow a
southwesterly direction. That is why they are known as
southwest monsoons. The rain in the southwest monsoon
season begins rather abruptly. One result of the first rain is that
it brings down the temperature substantially. This sudden onset
of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and
lightning, is often termed as the “break” or “burst” of the
monsoons. The monsoon may burst in the first week of June in
the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra
while in the interior parts of the country; it may be delayed to
the first week of July. The day temperature registers a decline of
5°C to 8°C between mid-June and mid-July.
As these winds approach the land, their south-westerly
direction is modified by the relief and thermal low pressure over
the northwest India. The monsoon approaches the landmass in
two branches:
(i) The Arabian Sea branch
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
i. Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea further split into three
branches:
a. Its one branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These winds climb
the slopes of the Western Ghats from 900-1200 m. Soon, they become
cool, and as a result, the windward side of the Sahyadris and Western
Coastal Plain receive very heavy rainfall ranging between 250 cm and
400 cm. After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds descend and
get heated up. This reduces humidity in the winds. As a result, these
winds cause little rainfall east of the Western Ghats. This region of low
rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. Find out the rainfall at
Kozhikode, Mangalore, Pune and Bengaluru and note the difference
(Figure 4.10).
b. Another branch of the Arabian sea monsoon strikes the coast north of
Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and Tapi river valleys, these
winds cause rainfall in extensive areas of central India. The
Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm rainfall from this part of the branch.
Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains and mingle with the Bay of
Bengal branch.
c. A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula
and the Kachchh. It then passes over west Rajasthan and along the
Aravalis, causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab and Haryana, it too
joins the Bay of Bengal branch. These two branches, reinforced by
each other, cause rains in the western Himalayas,
ii. Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of
southeast Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the coast of
Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian
subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and
Bangladesh from south and southeast instead of from the south-
westerly direction. From here, this branch splits into two under the

67 | P a g e
 influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest India.
Its one branch moves westward along the Ganga plains reaching as
far as the Punjab plains. The other branch moves up the
Brahmaputra valley in the north and the northeast, causing
widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills
of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills,
receives the highest average annual rainfall in the world. Here it is
important to know why the Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during
this season. There are two factors responsible for it:
(i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated parallel to the Bay of
Bengal branch of southwest monsoon.
(ii) It lies in the rainshadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of
the south-west monsoon.
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall
(i) Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in
character, which occurs between June and September.
(ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For
instance the windward side of the Western Ghats register a rainfall
of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the north-eastern
states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern
Himalayas.
(iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing
distance from the sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm during the
southwest monsoon period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and
Delhi 56 cm.
(iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of few days duration at a
time. The wet spells are interspersed with rainless interval known
as ‘breaks’. These breaks in rainfall are related to the cyclonic
depressions mainly formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and
their crossing into the mainland. Besides the frequency and
intensity of these depressions, the passage followed by them
determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
(v) The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to
considerable run off and soil erosion.
(vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy of India
because over three-fourths of the total rain in the country is
received during the southwest monsoon season.
(vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to
more than 250 cm.
(viii) The beginning of the rains sometimes is considerably delayed over
the whole or a part of the country.
(ix) The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing
great damage to standing crops and making the sowing of winter
crops difficult.
D. Season of Retreating Monsoon
The months of October and November are known for retreating
monsoons. By the end of September, the southwest monsoon
becomes weak as the low pressure trough of the Ganga plain
starts moving southward in response to the southward march of

68 | P a g e
the sun. The monsoon retreats from the western Rajasthan by
the first week of September. It withdraws from Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Western Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by the
end of the month. By the beginning of October, the low pressure
covers northern parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early
November, it moves over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By the
middle of December, the centre of low pressure is completely
removed from the Peninsula. The retreating southwest monsoon
season is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. The
land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature
and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive. This is
commonly known as the ‘October heat’. In the second half of
October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in
northern India. The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in
north India but it is associated with rain in the eastern part of
the Peninsula. Here, October and November are the rainiest
months of the year. The widespread rain in this season is
associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions which
originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These tropical cyclones
are very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred targets. Every
year cyclones bring disaster here. A few cyclonic storms also
strike the coast of West Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. A
bulk of the rainfall of the Coromondal coast is derived from
these depressions and cyclones. Such cyclonic storms are less
frequent in the Arabian Sea.

69 | P a g e
5. MISCELLANEOUS
A. Traditional Indian Seasons:
In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two-monthly
seasons. This cycle of seasons, which the common people in
north and central India follow is based on their practical
experience and age-old perception of weather phenomena.
However, this system does not match with the seasons of south
India where there is little variation in the seasons.

B. Distribution of Rainfall
India’s avg. rainfall= 125 cm
i. Areas of High Rainfall (>200 cm)
- West coast, on the Western Ghats
- sub-Himalayas in NE and the hills of Meghalaya.
- Parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall
(>1000cm).
ii. Areas of Medium Rainfall (100-200 cm)

70 | P a g e
 - S. GJ,
- E TN
- NE Peninsula: OD, JH, BR, E-MP
- N Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas and the
Cachar Valley and Manipur.
iii. Areas of Low Rainfall (50-100 cm):
- W. UP, DL, HR, PB, JK, E-RJ, GJ
- Deccan Plateau
iv. Areas of Inadequate Rainfall(< 50 cm)
- Parts of the Peninsula: AP, KN, MH,
- Ladakh
- W-RJ
Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
C. Variablity in Rainfall
𝑆𝑡𝑑. 𝐷𝑒𝑣.
𝐶. 𝑉. = x 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
Varaibilty Area Annual Rainfall
< 25% W coasts, W Ghats, NE P., E > 100 cm
plains of the Ganga, NE, UK, HP,
SW-JK.
25%-50% Rest of India 50-100 cm
>50% W-RJ, N-JK, interior Deccan P. <50 cm
D. Monsoons and the Economic Life in India
(i) Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire
agricultural cycle of India. It is because about 64 per cent
people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood
and agriculture itself is based on southwest monsoon.
(ii) Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have
temperature above the threshold level to grow the crops or
plants throughout the year.
(iii) Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing
various types of crops.
(iv) Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year
in some parts of the country.
(v) Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on
timely and adequately distributed rainfall. If it fails,
agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those
regions where means of irrigation are not developed.
(vi) Sudden monsoon burst creates problem of soil erosion
over large areas in India.
E. Climatic Regions of India
A climatic region has a homogeneous climatic condition which
is the result of a combination of factors. Temperature and
rainfall are two important elements which are considered to be
decisive in all the schemes of climatic classification.
Major climatic types of India based on Koeppen’s scheme have
been described below: Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic
classification on monthly values of temperature and
precipitation. He identified five major climatic types, namely:

71 | P a g e
 (i) Tropical climates, where mean monthly temperature
throughout the year is over 18°C.
(ii) Dry climates, where precipitation is very low in
comparison to temperature, and hence, dry. If dryness is
less, it is semiarid (S); if it is more, the climate is arid(W).
(iii) Warm temperate climates, where mean temperature of the
coldest month is between 18°C and minus 3°C.
(iv) Cool temperate climates, where mean temperature of the
warmest month is over 10°C, and mean temperature of
the coldest month is under minus 3°C.
(v) Ice climates, where mean temperature of the warmest
month is under 10°C.
Koeppen used letter symbols to denote climatic types as given
above. Each type is further sub-divided into sub-types
- S for semi-arid
- W for arid and
Sub-types:
- f (sufficient precipitation)
- m (rain forest despite a dry monsoon season)
- w (dry season in winter),
- h (dry and hot),
- c (< 4months with mean temp.>10°C),
- g (Gangetic plain).
Accordingly, India can be divided into eight climatic regions:

72 | P a g e
73 | P a g e
Human Geography
A. General
B. National and State Patterns of Population Distribution,
Density, Growth and Composition

1. Distribution of Population
a. Uneven spatial distribution of population
i. Top 10 states: UP, MH, BR, WB, AP, RJ, KN, GJ account for 76% of
population
JK (1.04%), ArunP (0.11%), UK (0.84%)
ii. Why?- Close relnship between population and :
- Physical factors:
o climate,
o water availability,
o terrain;
N. Plain, Deltas, Coastal Plains have higher than interior
distt.s of South and centre, NE, W states. With availability of
irrigation in RJ, minerals in JH and development of transport
in Peninsula has led to substantial population.
- Socio-economic and historical factors:
o Evolution of settled agri.,
o pattern of human settlement;
o development of transport network
o industrialisation
o urbanisation
River plains, Mineral rich land (even when minerals
degraded) , metropolitan cities
2. Density and Growth of population
Annual population growth rate = 1.64% (2011)
In 2011: 382 persons/ sq. km
Increased by 200 over the past 50 years. See the appendix.
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐴𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ;
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐴𝑔𝑟𝑖 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑛. = 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 + 𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑖 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑟 + 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
3. Growth of Population
Census Year Growth % Two components of Population Growth:
1911 +5.75 a. Natural: Crude BR-DR based
1921 -0.31
b. Induced: Migration based (next chapter)
1931 +11.60
1941 +14.22 Population Doubling Time: Time taken by any
1951 +13.31 population to double itself at its current
1961 +21.51 annual rate.
1971 +24.80 Demographic Transition:
1981 +24.66 Phase Period Name BR/DR
1991 +23.85 I 1901- Pd. of stagnant or /
2001 +21.54 21 stationary growth
2011 +17.64 II 1921- Pd. of steady /
51 population
growth
III 1951- Pd. of Population /
81 explosion
IV 1981- - /

4. Regional Variation in Population Growth

- Low growth states (<20%):KR (<9.4%-lowest), KN, TN, AP,
OD, Pudu, GA
High growth (20-25%): Hindi Belt
- Almost all states growth lower in 2001-11 w.r.t. 1991-
2001.
- Growth of adolescents (up to age group of 10-19):
 At present: 20.9%; ♀️= 47.3%
 High potential but very vulnerable, crime
 National Youth Policy (NYP-2014) proposes a holistic
‘vision’ for the youth of India, which is “To empower
the youth of the country to achieve their full
potential, and through them enable India to find its
rightful place in the community of nations”. The
policy defines ‘youth’ as persons in the age group of
15-29 yrs.
 National Policy for Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship, 2015 “to provide an umbrella
framework to all skilling activities being carried out
within the country, and to align these to common
standards and link skilling with demand centres.
5. Population Composition
a. Rural-Urban composition
b. Linguistic Composition
According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903-1928), there were
179 languages and 544 dialects. Modern India has 22 Scheduled Lang.

c. Religious Composition
there are 6 religions in India identified as
“National Minority”- Muslims, Christians,
Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Zoroastrians,
Under NCM Act-5 religious communities-
Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis
Jains= added as minority under Section 2c of
NCM Act in 2014

d. Composition of Working Population

Three groups:
i. Main workers: a person who works for at least 183 days (6 mths)
ii. Marginal workers: <183 days in a year
 iii. Non-workers
(a)+(b)=39.8%; moderate variation in states
54.6% are cultivators; 3.8% HH industries; 41.6% other industries.
2011 sus divides working. Population into 4 categories:
i. Cultivators
ii. Agricultural Laborers
iii. HH Ind.l Workers
iv. Other Workers
e. Racial Groups:
i. Negritos:
 Short stature
 Dark skin
 Woolly hair
 Bulbous forehead
 Protruding jaws
 First to arrive in India
 In A&N, Badgis of Rajmahal Hills in JH, etc.
ii. Proto-Australoid
 Second to arrive in India
 Same as negritos except the woolly hair
 Bulk of the popn in isolated and semi-isolated parts of
S and Central India
 True rep.s: Irulas, Veddahs and Malavedahs, in S. India
 Other reps.: Bhils, Kols, Mundas, of Central India;
Chenchus and Kurumbas in S. India
iii. Mongoloids
 Round and broad head
 High cheek bones
 Hairless skin
 Long flat nose
 They belong to:
o Paleo-Mongoloids who are represented by tribes
in Himalayan fringes in Assam and Myanmar
border
o Tibeto-Mongoloids who are who are rep. by people
of SK, Ladakh and Baltistan
iv. Mediterraneans
 Medium stature
 Dark skin
 Long head
 Paleo-Medit., a sub-type of this category constitute bulk
of N. and S.
v. Brachycephals
 Broad heads
 Came from C. Asia
 Made up of Alpinoids, Dinarics and Armenoids.
 Re. by Coorgis and Parsis.
vi. Nordics
 Last to come to India
  Indo Aryans
Promoting Gender Sensitivity through ‘Beti Bachao- Beti Padhao’ Social
Campaign
UNDP: “If development is not engendered it is endangered” (HDR UNDP 1995).
Discrimination, in general, and gender discrimination, in particular, is a
crime against humanity.

Demography of Tribal Population in India

The spatial distri of tribal popn in India shows a striking tendency of
clustering and concentration. This is primarily because of isolation and
dependence on forests. The ST’s account for 8.2% of the population (2001).
According to 2001 Census, 94.5% of total popn in Mizoram and Lakshadweep,
followed by Nagaland (89.1%), Meghalaya (85.9%) and ArunP (64.2%). In abs.
terms, MP has the highest followed by MH, OD, GJ.
1/3rd of ST population lives in MP, MH, OD.
>57 distt. Have tribal popn.> 60%.

Demography of SC Population in India

542 SCs in India
16.2% of Popn. (2001)
No tendency of clustering, unlike STs.
High conc. In Indo-Gangetic plains and coastal plains
2001 Census: hishest number in UP, then WB, BR, AP.
UP+WB=1/3rd of total SC popn.
Max SC (in %) in PJ, HP and WB.

C. MIGRATION
the responsibility of conducting the census rests with the Registrar General and Census Commner under MHA, GoI
Census Methodology
1881: Place of Birth only
1961: Place of birth + Duration of residence (if born elsewhere)
1971: Addnal info on last place of residence and duration of stay at place of
enumeration
1981: Reason of migration
Two questions asked:
a. Is the person born in this village or town? If no, then further information
is taken on rural/urban status of the place of birth, name of district
and state and if outside India then name of the country of birth.
b. Has the person come to this village or town from elsewhere? If yes, then
further questions are asked about the status (rural/urban) of previous
place of residence, name of district and state and if outside India then
name of the country.
In Census, migration on enumerated on two bases:
a. Place of Birth, if PoB is different from Po Enumeration (known as life-
time migrant)
b. Po Residence, if Po Last residence is different from Po Enumeration
(known as migrant by place of last residence).
As per 2011 Census, 37% were reports as migrants of place of last
residence.
 1. Streams of Migration
a. Internal Migration:
- Intra-state dominated by female migrants, mostly marriage
related.
- Female dominate short distance rural to rural migration in
both inter- and intra- state
- Men dominate rural-to-urban inter-state migration
Chief Points on internal Migration Pattern in India:
i. The smaller states have a larger proportion of inter-state
migrants compared to larger states
ii. The most dominant class in the internal migration
process is rural to urban migration in which female
migrants dominate over the males, usually due to
marriage. R-U, esp. men, slowed by MGNREGA.
iii. The second most important form of internal migration
is rural to urban because of both push and pull factors
in which male migrants dominate over the female
migrants.
iv. The urban to urban form the 3rd
v. U-R: dominated by women due to marriage.
b. External:

July 2019: 2011 Census Data on Migration released:

1. UP, BR have a disproportionately high number of out-
migrants= 20.9M (37% of inter-state migration. UP, BR, RJ,
MP= 50% inter-state migration
2. migrants constitute more than 1/3rd og popn of DL, Mumbai
3. MH, DL, GJ, UP, HR- house 50% of inter-state migrants (UP
in both lists)
4. Max share of out-migrants= UP; Max share of in-migrants=
MH
5. inter-state migrants: inc 55% (1991-2001) and decreased
(2001-11)
6. Overwhelming majority of migration is INTRA-state
7. Total number of migrants increased from 2001 to 2011

Spatial Variation in Migration: UP, BR to MH, GJ, DL

2. Causes of migration
a. Push Factors; b. Pull Factors
3. Consequences of Migration
a. Economic Consequences
i. Remittances to India: $11B in 2002
ii. Remittances to poorer part of India- equalizing effect and life-
blood of rural India
iii. Overcrowding in metropolitan cities + slums
b. Demographic Consequences
i. Redistri of popn.
ii. City growth
iii. High out migration from UK, RJ, MP, E MH has caused sex
and age imbalances
 c. Social Consequences
i. Migration acts as agents of social change
ii. Intermixing of people, etc.
d. Environmental Consequences
e. Others
i. Male selective out migration (excluding marriages) leaves
behind wives under lot of physical and mental pressure.
Women out migration for education and employment
increases their autonomy and role in economy.
ii. Brain drains

D. Human Development

What is human development?

Human development is the process of enlarging the range of people’s
choices, increasing their opportunities for education, health care,
income and empowerment and covering the full range of human choices
from a sound physical environment to economic, social and political
freedom.

Thus, enlarging the range of people’s freedom is the most significant

aspect of human development. People’s choices may involve a host of
other issues, but living a long and healthy life, to be educated and have
access to resources needed for a decent standard of living including
political freedom. Guaranteed human rights and personal self-respect
etc., are considered some of the non-negotiable aspects of human
development.
First Human Development Report by UNDP in 1990.
According to World Development Report 1993, “progressive
democratization and increasing empowerment of people as seen as the
minimum conditions for human development”. It also mentions that
 “development must be woven around people, not the people around
development”.
1. HD in India
Rank: 129/189 in 2019; 130/189 in 2018
Between 1990 and 2018, India’s HDI value increased by 50% (0.431
to 0.647).
Thus, we are above the average in medium HDI countries (0.634),
and other S. Asian countries (0.642).
Criticism of HDI methodology: Lack to sensitivity to
a. historical factors like colonialism, imperialism, neo-
imperialism.
b. Socio-cultural factors like HR violations, social
discriminations, crimes, terrorism, war
c. Political factors like nature of state, forms of govt., etc
Planning Commn also started HD Reports for States. (see)
2. Indicators:
a. of Economic Attainment: GNP and GNP/capita.
b. of Healthy Life: life expectancy. + nuggets
c. Social indicators: education in terms of adult literacy rate and
gross school enrolment (now, average actual education
attainment and expected attainment of today’s children)
3. HDI in India

Popn, Envt & Dvpt: See book, if reqd.

Human Settlements:
1. Types of Human Settlements:
a. Clustered Settlement
b. Semi-Clustered Settlement
c. Hamleted
d. Dispersed or isolated
2. Urban Settlements in India:
a. Ancient Towns: Prayag, Patliputra (Patna), Madurai, Varanasi
b. Medieval Towns: DL, Jaipur, Agra, Lucknow, etc
c. Modern: Goa, Surat, pondi, Daman, Bombay, Chennai, Kolkata,
Jamshedpur, Bhubaneshwar, Gandhinagar, etc
 3. Urbanization in India
Level of urbanization = (urban popn/total popn)x 100 (in%)
2011: 31.16%

4. Classification of Towns on the basis of population Size:

An urban agglomeration may consist of one of the following three combinations:

i. A town and its adjoining urban outgrowth
ii. Two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowth
iii. A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a
contiguous spread.
5. Functional Classification of Towns: e.g. in book if reqd.
a. Administrative Towns
b. Industrial Towns
c. Transport Cities
d. Commercial Towns
e. Mining Towns
f. Garrison Cantonment Towns
g. Educational Towns
h. Religious Towns
i. Tourist Towns
Resource Geography

A. Soils

Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which

develop on the earth’s surface.
Factors affecting formation of soil:
a. Relief d. Other life forms
b. Parent material e. Time
c. Climate vegetation

1. Classification of Soils
a. Ancient classification: Urvara (fertile) and Usara (sterile)
b. 16th CE: Based on inherent char. and external features- texture,
color, slope of land and moisture-
Moisture: sandy, clayey, silty and loam
Color: Red, Yellow, Black, etc.
c. Since Indep.:
- Soil Survey of India, 1956
- National Bureau of Soil Survey
- Land Use Planning, an institute under the control of ICAR
ICAR has classified Indian soil on the basis of their nature and
char. as per US Dept. of Agri Soil Taxonomy:

On the basis of genesis, color, composition and

location, soils in India have been classified into:
i. Alluvial Soils
ii. Black Soils
iii. Red and Yellow Soils
iv. Laterite Soils
v. Arid Soils
vi. Saline Soils
vii. Peaty Soils
viii. Forest Soils

i. Alluvial Soils
- Widespread in N plains and the river valleys
- Cover 40% of India
- They’re depositional soils.
- Through a narrow corridor in RJ, they extend into GJ plains
- In peninsular region, found in deltas of E coast and in the
river valleys.
- Vary from sandy loam to clay:
- In Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types:
o Khadar
 New alluvium
formed after transported material (mainly running water action- wind also)
N Plains, Coastal Plains, Terai, Delta Plain
Deficient: N, humus; Adeq: Potash, Phosphoric acid
  Deposited by floods annually, which enriches the
soil by depositing fine silts.
o Bhangar
 Reps. a system of older alluvium, deposited away
from the flood plains
- Rich in potash but poor in phosphorous.
- Both types contain calcareous concretions (Kankar).
- Loamier in lower and middle Ganga plains and Brahmaputra
Valley.
- Sand content dec. W to E.
- Color varies from light grey to ash grey, depending on:
o depth of depositions
o texture of materials
o time taken for attaining maturity.
- Intensively cultivated
ii. Black Soil/ Regur Soil/ Balck Cotton Soil
- Covers most of Deccan P.
- In the Upper reaches of the Godavari, Krishna, and the N-W
more fertile than alluvial part of Deccan P., black soil is very deep.
Mostly in Deccan Trap rock - Very clayey, deep and impermeable
- Swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
deficient- Phosphoric acid,
- Develop wide cracks in dry season.
N, organic matter - Thus, there occurs a ‘self-ploughing’
sticky when wet - Because of this character of slow absorption and the loss of
develop deep crack when dry moisture, black soil retains moisture for long period, which
helps the crops, esp. rain fed crops, to sustain indry
seasons.
- Rich in lime, Fe, Magnesia and Alumina.
iii. Red and Yellow Soil
forms from granite, gneiss,
- Develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall
oth metamorphic rocks in E and S Deccan P. Along the piedmont zone of W Ghats,
formed under Well-Drainedlong stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil
condns - Also, in OD and CHH and S. middle Ganga plains
- Red due to wide infusion of Fe in crystalline and
light in texture (as leaching)
locally- CHALKA in AP, TL metamorphic rocks.
Poor in lime, Magnesia,- Looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
- The fine-grained are normally fertile; coarsely grained are
Phosphate, N and humus
infertile
Rich in potash - Generally poor in N, P and humus.
iv. Laterite Soil
- Develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall
- Result of intense leaching due to tropical rains
- With rain, lime and silica are washed away, and soils rich in
Iron oxide and Al compound are left
- Humus content is removed fast by bacteria that thrives in
high temperature
- Poor in inorganic matter, N, Phosphate, Ca
- Excess of Fe oxide, potash
- Not suitable for cultivation without manures and fertilizers
 In dry condn, upper surface becomes very hard —> used for building material
- Red laterite soil in TN, Andhra, KR are more suitable for
Cashew-nuts
- Widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
- Mainly developed in higher areas of peninsular plateau.
- Found in KN, KR, TN, MP, hilly areas of OD, AS.
v. Arid Soil
high %age of soluble - Range from red to brown
salt - Generally sandy (in str.) & saline (in nature).
alkaline - In some areas, the salt content is so high that common salt
poor- N, organic matter is obtd. by evaporating the saline water.
- Due to dry climate, high temp. & accelerated evaporation,
rich- phosphate, nitrate they lack moisture & humus.
==> rocky (not sandy) - Insufficient N
part is FERTILE if - Normal phosphate content
irrigation available - Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers
because of the increasing Ca content downward. This
restricts the infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation
is made available, the soil moisture is readily available for a
sustainable plant growth.
- Characteristically devpd. In W RJ
- Poor soil
- Contain little humus & organic matter.
vi. Saline Soils/ Usara soils
- Larger prop. of Na, K, Mg: thus, infertile & not support any
Because of capillary action,
salt is sucked up in soln to the
veg.ve growth
surface and form white - More salts, largely because of dry climate & poor drainage.
enrustation on the surface— - Occur in arid & semi-arid regions, & in waterlogged &
Infertile. Salination also swampy areas.
because of over-irrigation - Their structure ranges from sandy to loamy.
Saline Soil- excess of natural- Lack in N & Ca.
soiluble salt of chloride and - More in W GJ, deltas of E coast & in Sundarbans areas of
sulphate so as to affect plant WB.
growth - In Rann of Kutch, SW Monsoon brings salt particles and
Alkaline soil- high deposits there as crust.
exhangeable Na2CO3, - Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote their occurrence
NaHCO3 - Saline increasing in over-cultivated over-irrigated alluvial
Local names: Reh, Kallar, Here, farmers are advised to use gypsum.
Usar, Chopan, Thur vii. Peaty Soils
- Heavy rain, high humidity areas
- Large qty. of dead organic matter  rich humus and organic
content
- Good veg. growth poor- Potash, Phosphate
- Organic matter = 40-50% Local name- Kari in KN
- Normally heavy and black
- Many times, alkaline
- N BR, S UK, Coastal WB, OD, TN
viii. Forest Soils
- heterogenous nature
- In forest areas
- good for tea, coffee, spices, tropical fruits
- Sufficient rainfall
- Loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in upper slopes
- In snow-bound Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are
acidic
- Soils in lower valleys are fertile.
 - Loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in upper
slopes
- In snow-bound Himalayas, they experience denudation, and
are acidic with low humus content.
- Soils in lower valleys are fertile.
2. Soil Degradation
Soils are living systems- they develop, decay, get degraded, respond
to proper treatment. These have serious repercussions on other
components of the system of which they themselves are important
parts.
Soil degradation: decline in soil fertility, when the nutritional
status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and
misuse.
Depends on: topography, wind velocity and amt. of rainfall.
3. Soil Erosion
Defn1: Destruction of soil cover due to soil erosional processes
being greater than soil forming processes, usually due to
anthropogenic factors.
Gully erosion.
CAZRI Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Central Soil Conservation Board

B. WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

1. Water Resources
India= 2.45% world global surface area; and 4% of water res.
Total water available from precipitation= 4000 km3 / year (BCM)
Rainfall by SW Monsoon= 75%
Only 30% of the cultivated area receives 75-100 cm annual rainfall.
Total water from surface and groundwater= 1869 km3 / year
Out of this, usable for beneficial purpose= 60%
Thus, total utilisable = 1122 km3 / year
Share of area drought-prone= 1/3rd
a. Surface Water Resources
- 4 major sources; rivers, lakes, ponds tanks.
- 10,360 rivers ant their trib. > 1.6 km each.
- Mean annual flow in the river basins= 1869 km3 / year
- Due to topogr., hydrolog., etc, utilisable= 690 km3 /year (32%)
- Water flow in a river depends on
 Size of catchment area/ river basin
 Rainfall within its catchment area.
- Both factors high in Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus.
- G+B+ Barak rivers =1/3rd total area= 3/5th surface water
- Much of the annual water flow in southern Indian rivers like
the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri has been harnessed, but it is
yet to be done in Brah., Ganga basins.
b. Groundwater Resources
- Total replenishable Gw= 432 km3 /year
- Gw utilisation is relatively high in river basins in NW & S
- Low util. in KR, OD, CHH
 - Moderate in UP, GJ, BR, MH, etc
c. Lagoons and Backwater
- The vast Indian coastline is indented in some states leading
to a number of lagoons and lakes
- KR, OD, WB have vast surface water res. in these
- Although water is generally brackish, used for fishing and
irrigation of paddy crops, coconuts
2. Water Demand and Utilisation: Irrigation
- Agri eco: water dd predominated by irrigation.
- Dams: Bhakra Nangal, Hirakund, Damodar, Nagarjuna
Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project.
- Water utilisation
Surf. Gw
Agri 89% 92%
Ind. 2% 5%
Dom. 9% 3%
Need for irrigation:
i. Uneven rainfall- spatio-temporal
ii. Rainfall deficiency + droughts
iii. Makes multiple cropping possible
iv. HYV seeds and other tech only on irrigated lands
v. Declining Gw, leading to increased fluoride conc. and As
vi. Only 30% of land area receives annual rainfall 75-100 cm
vii. Essential to cultivate wet crops like rice, sugarcane
viii. Seasonal rivers
Potential of Irrigation (Irrigation Commission, 1969-72)
i. Ganga has 400M Acre feet of water (150 MAF utilizable)
ii. Entire waters of Krishna, Narmada, Tapi & Godavari and Kaveri
are utilizable
iii. Mahanadi: 100 MAF (40 utilizable)
Types of Irrigations:
i. Well Irrigation:
- Most widely distributed
- Popular in Deccan, GJ, MH, RJ, UP
ii. Canal Irrigation:
- Principal source of irrigation in plains as:
 Perennial rivers
 Gradual and gentle slopes
 No rocky ground
 Definite volumes of water discharged by Him. rivers
- Second largest area of net irrigated area in India
iii. Tank Irrigation: TN, AP, KN, WB, OD, KR
Major Irrigation Projects in India
Dam Project River State(s) Addnal. Info
i. Bhakra Nangal Sutlej RJ, HR,
PJ
ii. Thein Ravi PJ
iii. Dulhasti Chenab JK
iv. Salal Chenab JK
v. Beas Beas HR, RJ,
PB
vi. Sharda Sahayak Ghaghara UP
vii. Rihand Rihand UP
viii. Mayukrakshi Mayurakshi WB
ix. Damodar Valley Damodar JH, WB
x. Hirakund Mahanadi OD
xi. Nagarjunasagar Krishna AP
xii. Pochampad Godavari AP
xiii. Jayakawadi Godavari MH
xiv. Upper Krishna Krishna KN
xv Tungabhadra Tungabhadra KN, AP
xvi Gandak Gandak UP
xvii. Kosi Kosi BR
xviii. Chambal RJ, MP
xix. Tawa Tawa MP
(Narmada)
xx. Mahi Mahi GJ
xxi. Matatila Betwa UP, MP
xxii. Ukai Tapi GJ
xxiii. Kakrapara Tapi GJ
xxiv. Sharavati Sharavati KN
xxv. Malprabha Malprabha KN
(Krishna)
xxvi. Bhima Bhima MH
xxvii. Mettur Kaveri TN
xxviii. Shivasamudram Kaveri KN
xxix. Ghatprabha Ghatprabha AP, KN
(Krishna)
xxx. Chukka Teesta -
3. Watershed Management
a. Defn.: Efficient management and conservation of surface and
Gw resources
b. Involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of Gw
through methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc
c. Broad sense: Includes conservation, regeneration and judicious
use of all resources- natural (land, water, plants, animals) and
human with in a watershed.
d. Aim: To bring about a bal. between natural resources and soc.
e. Depends largely on community participation
Government and NGO initiatives:
a. Haryali is a watershed development project sponsored by Centre
which aims at enabling rural popn. to conserve water for
drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation. Being executed
by Gram Panchayats
b. Building percolation tanks, ponds (Johad), check dams, etc
thorugh people’s participation:
i. Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (Andhra)
ii. Arvary Pani Sansad (Alwar, RJ)
c. TN: water harvesting in houses compulsory
4. Water Conservation and Management, Prevention, etc- general
5. Rainwater Harvesting
a. Defn.: Method to capture and store rainwater for various uses,
including recharge of Gw aquifers
b. Advantages:
i. Low-cost and eco-friendly
ii. Preserving every drop by guiding rainwater into borewell,
pits and wells.
iii. Increases water availability
iv. Checks declining water table
v. Improves water qly.
vi. Prevents soil erosion, flooding
vii. Arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas
viii. Decreases community dependence on Gw for dom. use.
ix. Saves energy to pump water as Gw recharged
c. Methods
i. Tradnal: RJ- Kund or Tanka (covered underground tank)
ii. Rooftops and open spaces
6. India’s National Water Policy, 2012:
Adopted by National Water Resources Council
Emphasis on community participation. Micro irrigation, automated irrigation
operation;
Undertake conservation of rivers, river corridors, water bodies and infra. in a
sc.lly planned manner by comm. Participation
Arrest declining Gw water levels in over-exploited areas.
Recommendations:
- Need for a national water framework law
- Comprehensive legislature for optimum development of inter-state rivers
and river valleys
- Evolving a system of benchmarks for water uses for diff. purposes to
ensure efficient water use.
- Setting up water regulatory authority by each state
- Incentivise recycle and reuse water
7. National Water Mission
NAPCC (National Action Plan on CC) prep.ed by GoI has 8 mission, including
National Water Mission.
Aim: “conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable
distribution both across and within States thro’ integrated water resources
development and management”
5 Goals:
- Comprehensive water data base in public domain and assessment of
impact of climate change on water resource;
- promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation,
augmentation and preservation;
- focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas;
- increasing water use efficiency by 20 per cent,
- promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.
8. National Mission for Clean Ganga
- Most populous basin
- 28% of India’s water resources
- Holds 26% of India’s landmass
- Hosts 43% of India’s popn.
- States: UP, UK, BR, JH, WB
- Ganga basin best exemplifies a typical “hydraulic civilisation”, where
achieving water security to harness the river’s productive potential and
 limit its destructive potential is critical for sustenance and economic
growth.
- Ganga Action Plan I (GAP-I) in 1985 and GAP-II: focus on urban
wastewater and WWTPs (Waste Water Treatment Plants), etc
- 2015, Namami Gange- Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission. NGRBA
replaced in 2016 by National Ganga Council for Rejuvination.
9. Jal Kranti Abhiyan
The Jal Kranti Abhiyan launched in 2015–16 with an aim to ensure water
security through per capita availability of water in the country. People in
different regions of India had practised the traditional knowledge of water
conservation and management to ensure water availability.
The Jal Kranti Abhiyan aims at involving local bodies, NGOs and citizens, at
large, in creating awareness regarding its objectives. The following activities have
been proposed under the Jal Kranti Abhiyan: -
1. Selection of one water stressed village in each 672 distt. of the country to
create a ‘Jal Gram’
2. Identification of model command area of about 1000 hectares in different
parts of the country
3. Abatement of polln.:
a. Water conservation and artificial recharge
b. Reducing Gw polln.
c. Cons. Of As-free wells in selected areas of the country.
4. Creating mass awareness through social media, radio, TV, print media,
poster and essay-writing competitions in schools
JKA is designed to provide livelihood and food security through water security.
10. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sichayee Yojana
Main obj.:
- Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level
- Enhance phy access of water on farm and expland cultivable area under
assured irrigation, improve on farm water use efficiency, introduce
sustainable water conservation practices, etc (har khet ko pani)
- Improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage
- Enhance recharge of aquifers and intro sust. water cons. Practices
- Promote extension activities relating to water harvesting, water
management and crop alignment for farmers and grassroot level field
functionaries.
- Attract greater private investments in precision irrigation.
Note: Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP). 1996-97
Note: Jal Manthan: churning of new ideas and tangible solns.
11. Command Area Development (CAD) and Water Management
The Centrally sponsored CAD Programme was launched in 1974-75 to develop
adeq. delivery system of irrigation water up to farmers’ field with an objective to
enhance water use efficiency and production and productivity of crops per unit of
land and water for improving socio-economic condition of farmers. The programme
envisages integration of all activities relating to irrigated agriculture in a
coordinated manner with multi-disciplinary team under a Command Area
Development Authority.
The Programme was restructured and renamed as Command Area Development
and Water Management(CAD&WM) Programme in 2004. The Programme is being
implemented pari-passu with Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)
during the XII Five Year Plan. The programme is under implementationas a sub-
component of Har Khet Ko Pani (HKKP) component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) - from 2015-16 onwards. The ongoing CADWM
programme has been restricted to the implementation of CAD works of 99
prioritized AIBP projects from 2016-17 onwards. The activities covered under CAD
component are broadly categorized as ‘Structural’ and ‘Non-Structural’
interventions as detailed here:
a. structural intervention: includes survey, planning, design and execution of:
(i) on-farm Development (OFD) works;
In 2016, MoFPI introduced SAMPADA (an umbrella scheme for Agro-Marine Processing and Devept of Agr-processing Clusters)
In 2017, it was renamed— PMKSY
From farm gate to retail outlet; infra;
7 components: Mega food Park; Integrated Cold Chain and va infra; Agro-Processing cluster infra; b/f linkages; create/ expand
capacities of Food processing, etc.; HR+ Instns; Food safety+ qly assurance infra.
(ii) construction of field, intermediate and link drains;
(iii) correction of system deficiencies; and
(iv) reclamation of waterlogged areas.
b. non-structural intervention: includes activities directed at strengthening of
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM):
(i) one time functional grant to the registered water users’ associations (WUAs); (ii)
one time Infrastructure Grant to the registered WUAs;
(iii)trainings, demonstration, and adaptive trials with respect to water use
efficiency, increased productivity, and sustainable irrigation participatory
environment.
To promote water use efficiency in irrigation, financial assistance is provided to
the states for development of infrastructure for micro-irrigation to facilitate use of
sprinkler / drip irrigation as an alternative to construction of field channels. At
least 10 per cent CCA of each project is to be covered under micro- irrigation.
Micro-irrigation infrastructure includes components of sump, pump, high-density
polyethylene pipelines, and pertinent devices needed for bringing efficiency in
water conveyance and field applications (through sprinklers, rain guns, pivots,
etc). In case of micro-irrigation, other components such as land levelling, drainage
works, etc., would be reduced, or entirely discarded; enabling certain cost savings
which is expected to offset the higher cost of micro- irrigation infrastructure. The
devices - such as sprinkler/ rain gun/ drip sets, etc. - needed to be installed by
individual farmers below farm outlets are not part of the micro-irrigation
infrastructure. Farmers are expected to bear the cost of such devices or avail
subsidies available in extant scheme of the Ministry of Agriculture.