Chemistry Notes For Class X e B - Pradeep Jethwa

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CHEMISTRY NOTES PART-- II
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CLASS –X—CBSE-ICSE
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CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS JETHWA SIR
CL– 12
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
Organic compounds: The compounds like urea, sugars, fats, oils,
dyes, proteins vitamins etc., which were isolated directly or indirectly
from living or indirectly from living organism such as animals and
plants were called organic compounds. The branch of chemistry
which deals with the study of these compounds is called ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY.
12.2 BONDING IN CARBON = THE COVALENT BOND :
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity. The
boiling and melting points of the carbon compounds are low. Forces
of attraction between these molecules of organic compounds are not
very strong/ As these compound are largely non conductors of
electricity hence the bonding in these compound does not give rise to
any ions.
The reactivity of elements if explained at their tendency to attain a
completely filled outer shell, that is, attain noble gas configuration.
Element forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or
losing electrons from the outermost shell. In the case of carbon, it has
four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four
electrons to attain noble gas configuration. It is were to gain or lose
electrons–
(i) it could gain four electrons forming C C anion. But it would be

difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons,
that is, four extra electrons.
(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require
a large amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a
carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two
electrons.
12.2 (a) Some Simple Molecules Formed by the Sharing of

Valence Electrons are s follows:
(i) Hydrogen molecules: This is the simplest molecule formed by

sharing of electrons. The atomic number of hydrogen is 1 and it has
only one electron is its outermost K shell. It required only one more
electron to complete the K shell. So, when two hydrogen atoms
approach each other, the single electron of both the atoms form a
shared pair. This may be represented as:
x
H + H ⎯⎯→H•H orx
Hydrogen Hydrogen atoms molecule
H2
or H - H
Shared electron pair
According to Lewis notation, the electrons in the valence shell are

represented by dots and crosses. This method was proposed by
G.N.Lewis and is known as Lewis representation or Lewis structure.
The shared pair of electron (show x) is said to constitute a single
bond between the two hydrogen atoms and is represented by a line
between the two atoms. Pictorially, the molecule can be represented
by drawing two overlapping circles around the symbols of the atoms
and showing the shared pair of electrons in the overlapping part.
(ii) Chlorine molecule : Each chlorine atom has seven electrons in

its outermost shell. When the two chlorine atoms come close
together, an electron of both the atoms is shared between them.
or CI2
Chlorine Chlorine
atoms molecule
or CI - CI Shared electron
pair
(iii) Hydrogen chloride molecule: It may be note that a covalent

bond is not only formed between two similar atoms, but it may be
formed between dissimilar atoms also. For example, hydrogen and
chlorine form a covalent bond between their atoms. In HCI, hydrogen
atom (1) has only one electron in its valence shell and chlorine atom
(2,8,7) has seven electrons in its valence shell. Therefore, by mutual
sharing of electron pair between hydrogen and a chlorine atom. Both
the atoms acquit nearest noble gas configuration.
Hydrogen Chlorine
atom atom Hydrogen chlorine molecule
or H - CI Shared electron
Pair
(iv) Formation of water molecule (H2O) : Each hydrogen atom has

only one electron in its outermost shell. Therefore, each hydrogen
atom required one more electron to achieve the stable configuration
of helium (nearest noble gas). The oxygen atom has the electronic
configuration 2,6 and has six electrons in its outermost shell. It needs
two electrons to complete its octet. Therefore, one atom of oxygen
shares its electrons with two hydrogen atoms.
Hydrogen Oxygen Water

atoms atom molecule
2 Shared electron pairs

(v) Formation of methane molecule (CH4) : Methane (CH4) is a
covalent compound containing covalent bonds. Carbon atom has
atomic number 6. Its electronic configuration is 2,4. It has four
electrons in its valence shell and needs 4 more electrons to get the
stable noble gas configuration. Hydrogen atom has one electron and
needs one more electron to get stable electronic configuration of
nearest noble bas, helium. Therefore, one atom of carbon shares its
four electrons with four atoms of hydrogen to form four covalent
bonds.
Carbon
Hydrogen Methane
Atom atoms
4 Shared electrons pairs
12.2 (b) Different Kinds of Covalent Bonds :
Electron pair shared between two atoms results in the formation of a
covalent bond. This shared pair is also called bonding pair of
electron.
If two atoms share one electron pair, bond is known as single
covalent bond and is represented by one dash (-)
If two atoms share two electron pairs, bond is known as double
covalent bond and is represented by two dashed (=).
If two atoms share three electron pairs, bond is known as triple
covalent bond and is represented by three dashes (=).
(i) Formation of double bond (oxygen molecule) : Two oxygen

atoms combine to form oxygen molecule by sharing two electron
pairs. Each oxygen atom (2, 6) has six electrons in the valence shell.
It required two electrons to acquire nearest noble gas configuration.
Therefore, both the atoms contribute two electrons each for sharing
to form oxygen molecule. In the molecule, two electron pairs are
shared and hence there is a double bond between the oxygen atoms.
Oxygen Oxygen
atoms molecule or O = O Oxygen molecule

2 Shared electrons
pairs
(ii) Formation of triple bond (Nitrogen molecule) : Nitrogen atom

has five electrons in its valence shell. In the formation of a nitrogen
molecule, each of the following atoms provide three electrons to form
three electrons pairs for sharing. Thus, a triple bond is formed
between two nitrogen atoms.
Nitrogen Nitrogen
atoms molecule or N N Nitrogen molecule

3 Shared electron pairs
12.2 (c) Characteristic Properties of Covalent Compounds:
The important characteristic properties of covalent compounds are :

(i) Covalent compounds consist of molecules: The covalent
compounds consist of molecules. They do not have ions. For
example - hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc. consist of H2, O2 and N2
molecules respectively.
(ii) Physical state : Weak Vanderwaal’s forces are present

between the molecules of covalent compounds. So, covalent
compounds are in gaseous or liquid state at normal temperature
and pressure.
For example: Hydrogen, chlorine, methane, oxygen, nitrogen are

gases while carbon tetrachloride, ethyl alcohol, ether, bromine etc.
are liquids. Glucose, sugar, urea, iodine etc. are some solid covalent
compounds.
(iii) Crystal structure Covalent compounds exhibit both crystalline

and non crystalline structure.
(iv) Melting point and boiling point: Energy required to break the
crystal is less due to the presence of weak Vanderwaal’s force, so
their melting and boiling points are less.
(v) Electrical conductivity Covalent compounds are bad
conductors of electricity due to the absence of free electrons or
free ions.
(vi) Solubility : Due to the non - polar nature of covalent
compounds they are soluble in non - polar solvents like benzene,
carbon tetrachloride etc. and insoluble in polar solvents like water
etc.
12.3 ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON :

Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element exist in more
than one form and each form has different physical properties but
identical chemical properties. These different forms are called
allotropes. The two common allotropic forms of carbon are diamond
and graphite.
12.3 (a) Damon :

(i) Structure of Diamond : Diamond crystals found in nature are
generally octahedral (eight faced). In the structure of diamond, each
carbon i linked to four other carbon atoms forming regular and
tetrahedral arrangement and this network of carbon atoms extends in
three dimensions and is very rigid. This strong bonding is the cause
of its hardness and its high density. This regular, symmetrical
arrangement makes the structure very difficult to break. To separate
one carbon atom from the structure, we have to break four strong
covalent bonds.
Elements in which atoms are bonded

covalently found in solid state. For example diamond, graphite,
sulphur etc.
Three dimensional
tetrahedral structure
(ii) Properties of Diamond :
(A) It occurs naturally in free state and has octahedral shape.
(B) It is the hardest natural substance known.
(C) It has high specific gravity (about 3.5).
(D) It is transparent, colourless and brittle solid.
(E) It has a high refractive index (about 2.4).
(F) It is non-conductor of electricity.
(iii) Uses of Diamond :
(A) They are used in jewellery because of their ability to reflect and
refract light.
(B) Diamond is used in cutting glass and drilling rocks.
(C) Diamond has an extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays and due to
this reason, it is used for making high precision thermometers.
(D) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations and due to
this reason it is used for making protective windows for space probes.
(E) Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very thin tungsten
wires of diameter less than one-sixth of the diameter of human hair
have been drawn using diamond dies.
(F) Surgeons use diamond knives for performing delicate operations.
12.3 (b) Graphite:
Graphite is an allotrope of carbon, which is black or bluish grey with a
metallic lustre and or greasy feel. It occurs in igneous and
metamorphic rocks, such as marble.
(i) Structure of Graphite :
Each carbon is bonded to only three neighboring carbon atoms in the

same plane forming layers of hexagonal networks separated by
comparatively larger distance. The different layers are held together
by weak forces, called vanderwaal’s forces. The layers can therefore,
easily slide over one another. This makes graphite lubricating, soft
and greasy to touch.
One layer
Showing how the layers fit together
Within each layer of graphite, every carbon atom is joined to three

others by strong covalent bonds. This forms a pattern of interlocking
hexagonal rings. The carbon atoms are difficult to separate from one
another. So graphite also has high melting point.
However, the bonds between the layers are weak. The layers are
able to slide easily over one another, rather like pack of cards. This
makes graphite soft and slippery. When we write with a pencil, layers
of graphite flake off and stick to the paper.
(ii) Properties of Graphite:

(A) It is soft and greasy in touch.
(B) Its specific gravity is 2.25 (generally).
(C) It is grayish black and opaque.
(D) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(E) It occurs in hexagonal layers.
(F) It is stable and has high melting point.
(iii) Uses of graphite:
(A)It is used for making pencil lead, printer’s ink, black paint etc.
(B) It is used as dry lubricant for heavy machinery.
(C) It is used in making crucibles for melting substances.
(D) It is used as an electrode in batteries and electric furnaces.
(E) It is used in nuclear reactors as moderator to regulate nuclear
reactions.
(F) It is also used in making artificial diamonds.
12.3 (c) Fullerenes:
(i) Structure: Fullerene is naturally occurring allotrope of carbon in

which 60 carbon atoms are linked to form a stable structure.
Previously, only two forms of carbon (diamond and graphite) were
known. The third allotrope of carbon, called fullerene was discovered
in 1985 by Robert Curl, Herald Kroto and Richard Smalley.
STRUCTURE OF FULLERENE
The correctly suggested the cage structure as shown in the figure

and named the molecule Buckminster fullerene after the architect
Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the Geodesic dome, which
resembles the molecular structure of C60. Molecules of C60 have a
highly symmetrical structure in which 60 carbon atoms are arranged
in a closed net with 20 hexagonal faces and 12 pentagonal faces.
The pattern in exactly like the design on the surface of a soccer ball.
C60 has been found to form in sooting flames when hydrocarbons are
burned.
All the fullerenes have even number of atoms, with formulae ranging
upto C400 and higher. These materials offer exacting prospects for
technical application. For example, because C60 readily accepts and
donates electrons, it has possible application in batteries.
(ii) Uses of Fullerenes : It is hoped fullerenes or their compounds

may find used as
(A) superconductors
(B) semiconductors
(C) lubricants
(D) catalysts
(E) as highly tensile fibers for construction industry.
(F) inhibiting agents in the activity of the AIDS virus.
12.3 (d) Explaining Conduction in Carbon :
In diamond, all four electrons in the outer shell of each carbon atom
are used to make covalent bonds. This means that there are no free
electrons and so diamond is an insulator. In graphite, only three of the
outer shell electrons are used in bonding to other carbon atoms. This
leaves on electrons per atom free to move, so graphite acts as an
electrical conductor.
12.3 (e) Difference Between Properties of Diamond and Graphite

:
Property Diamond Graphite
Hardness Hardest natural substance Very Soft
Density 3.5 g/cm3 2.4 g/cm3
Tendency to
counduct electric current Bad conductor Good conductor
Colour Pure diamond is colourless Black
Transparency Transparent Opaque
Occurrence Rare Abundant

DAILY PRACTICE PROBLEMS # 12
OBJECTIVE DPP - 12.1

1. Which of the following is an allotropic form of carbon ? (A)
Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) All of these
2. Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity because (A) it is

very hard.
(B) its structure is very compact.
(C) it is not water soluble.
(D) is has no free electrons to conduct electric current.
3. In a double covalent bond number of electron pairs shared are (A)

2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6
4. Which of the following compound contain single covalent bond ?
(A) Oxygen (B) Nitrogen (C) Methane (D) Carbon dioxide
5. Carbon dioxide molecule contains (A) single covalent bond

(C) triple covalent bond
(B) double covalent bond (D) ionic bond
6. Covalent bond between atoms is formed by (A) loss of electrons

(C) sharing of electrons
(B) gain of electrons
(D) loss and gain of electrons both
7. Covalent compounds can be dissolved in

(A) benzene (B) ether (C) alcohol (D) all of these
8. Covalent compounds are
(A) good conductors of electricity.
(B) bad conductors of electricity.
(C) semiconductors of electricity.
(D) none of these.
9. Which of the following allotrope of carbon is used in making
crucibles ? (A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Fullerene (D) Coke
10. Structure of diamond is
(A) linear (B) tetrahedral (C) trigonal (D) hexagonal
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 12.2
1. Why do atoms take part in bond formation ?
2. Write the Lewis dot structure of PH3.
3. Name one electrovalent and one covalent compound containing
chlorine.
4. An element ‘X’ has four valence electrons, while an element ‘Y’ has
sis valence electrons. What type of bond is expected to be formed
between the two? Draw the structure of the compound. 5. Name a
carbon containing molecule in which two double bonds are present.
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
CL - 13
13.1 VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON :

About 3 million organic compounds are known today. The main
reasons for this huge number of organic compounds are =
(i) Catenation : The property of self linking of carbon atoms through

covalent bonds to form long straight or branched chains and rings of
different sizes is called catenation. Carbon shows maximum
catenation in the periodic table due to its small size, electronic
configuration and unique strength of carbon - carbon bonds.
(ii) Tetravalency of carbon : Carbon belongs to group 14 of periodic

table. Since the atomic number of carbon is 6. The electronic
configuration of carbon atom is 2,4. It has four electrons in the
outermost shell. Therefore, its valency is four. Thus carbon forms four
covalent bonds in its compounds. A methane molecule (CH4) is
formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen
atoms are shown below.
x
H
x•
x
C
•C
x+ 4H H xx
•H or CH
4x x•
H
Carbon Hydrogen Methane
atom atom
(iii) Tendency to form multiple bond : Due to small size of carbon it

has a strong tendency to form multiple bond (double & triple bonds)
by sharing more than one electron pair. As a result, it can form a
variety of compound. For example
H HH H
H
−
C
−
C
−
h
H
−
C
=
C
H−C C−H −H Ethyne
H H Ethene
Ethane
13.2 VITAL FORCE THEORY OF BERZELIUS HYPOTHESIS :
Organic compounds cannot by synthesized in the laboratory because
they require the presence of a mysterious force (called vital force )
which exists only in living organisms.
13.3 WOHLER’S SYNTHESIS :
In 1828, Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea (a well known organic
compound) in the laboratory by heating ammonium cyanate. Urea is
the first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory.
(NH4)2 SO4 + 2 KCNO ⎯⎯→ NH4CNO + Ammonium

sulphate
Potassium Ammonium cyanate cyanate K2SO4
Potassium sulphate
O
NH4CNO Re Ammonium Cyanate
Heat
⎯⎯ → NH2− C−NH2arrangement
Urea
13.4 HYDROCARBONS : 13.4 (a) Introduction :
The organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are

called hydrocarbons. These are the simplest organic compounds an
are regarded as parent organic compounds. All other compounds are
considered to be derived form them by the replacement of one or
more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups of atoms. The major
source of hydrocarbons is petroleum.
13.4 (b) Types of Hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons can be

classified as : (I) Saturated hydrocarbons.
(A) Alkanes : Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only

carbon - carbon and carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds. For
e.g. : CH4 (Methane)
C4H6 (Ethane)
Electron dot
structure of ethane
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :
(A) Alkenes : These are unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain
carbon - carbon double bond. They contain two hydrogen less than
the corresponding alkanes.
General formula: CnH2n+2
For e.g. : C2H4 (Ethane) C3H6 (Propane)
Electron dot structrure

of etherne
(B) Alkynes : They are also unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain
carbon - carbon triple bond. They contain four hydrogen atoms less
than the corresponding alkanes.
General formula : CnH2n
For e.g. : C2H2 (Ethane)
C3H4 (Propane)
Electron
dot structure of ethane
13.4 (c) Classifications of Organic Compounds:
The organic compounds are very large in number on account of the
self - linking property of carbon called catenation. These compounds
have been further classified as open chain and cyclic compounds.
Organic compounds
Open chain compounds Closed chain compounds
Alicyclic Aromatic compounds compounds
(i) Open chain compounds : These compounds contain an open

chain of carbon atoms which my be either straight chain or branched
chain in nature. Apart from that, they may also be saturated or
unsaturated based upon the nature of bonding in the carbon atoms.
For example.
HHHHHH
H − C − H H−C−C−H H−C− C−C−H
H H H H H H J E T H W A SMethane Ethane Propane14
HHHHHHH
H−C−C− C−C−H, H−C− C −C−H
H H H H H H−C−H H
H Butane 2-Methylpropane
Butane is a straight chain alkane while 2- Methylpropane is branched
chain in nature.
(ii) Closed chain or Cyclic compounds : Apart form the open
chains, the organic compounds can have cyclic or ring structures. A
minimum of three atoms are needed to form a ring. These
compounds have been further classified into following types.
(A) Alicyclic compounds : Those carboxylic compounds which

resemble aliphatic compounds in their properties are called alicyclic
compounds.
For eg.
or Cyclopropane
or
or
or
Cyclobutane
Cyclopentane
Cyclohexane
(B) Aromatic compounds : Organic compounds which contain one
or more fused or isolated benzene rings are called aromatic
compounds.
For eg.
Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene

Phenol Anilien
13.5 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES :
Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly

constituted compounds in which the members possess similar
chemical characteristics and the two consecutive members differ in
their molecular formula by - CH2.
13.5 (a) Characteristics of Homologous Series :

(i) All the members of series can be represented by the same
generally formula.
For eg. General formula for alkane series is CnH2n+2.
(ii) Any two consecutive members differ in their formula by a common
difference of CH2 and differ in molecular mass by 14.
(iii) Different member in a series have a common functional group.
For eg. All the members of alcohol family have - OH group.
(iv) The members in any particular family have almost identical

chemical properties. Their physical properties such as melting point,
boiling point, density etc. show a regular gradation with the increase
in the molecular mass.
(v) The members of a particular series can be prepared almost by the

identical methods. 13.5 (b) Homologues :
The different members of a homologous series are known as
homologues.
For example :
(i) Homologous series of alkanes
General formula : CnH2n+2.
Value of n Molecular formula n = 1 CH4
n = 2 C2H6
n = 3 C3H8
IUPAC name Methane
Ethane
Propane
(ii) Homologous series of alkenes

Value of n Molecular formula n = 1 C2H4
n = 3 C3H6
n = 4 C4H8
IUPAC name Ethane
Propane
But - 1 – ene Common name
Ethylene
Propylene
- Butylenes
(H3C - CH2 - HC = CH2) (iii) Homologous series of alkynes
General formula : CnH2n-2
Value of n Molecular formula n = 2 C2H2

n = 3 C3H4
n = 4 C4H6
IUPAC name Ethyne
Propyne
But - 1 - yne Common name
Acetylene
Methyl acetylene
Ethyl acetylene
(CH3 - CH2 - C CH)
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLESM # 13

1. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbon is
(A) CnH2n+2 (B) CnH2n (C) CnH2n-2 (D) CnH2n-n
2. Select the alkyne form the following
(A) C4H8 (B) C5H8 (C) C7H19 (D) None of these
3. The first compound to be prepared in the laboratory was
(A) methane (B) ethyl alcohol (C) acetic acid (D) urea
4. In order to form branching, an organic compound must have a

minimum of (A) four carbon atoms (B) three carbon atoms (C) five
carbon atoms (D) any number of carbon atoms
5. The number of C - H bonds in ethane (C2H6) molecule is

(A) four (B) six (C) eight (D) ten
6. The main reason for this huge number of organic compounds are
(A) catenation (B) tetravalency of carbon (C) tendency to form
multiple bonds (D) all of these
7. Which of the following is a saturated hydrocarbon ? (A) C2H6 (B)

C2H4 (C) C2H5 (D) All of these
8. Whish of the following is not an open chain compound ? (A)
methane (B) ethane (C) Toluene (D) Butyne
9. Which of the following is an aromatic compound? (A) Cyclohexane
(B) Ethyne (C) Phenol (D) All of these
10. Which of the following does not belong to alkane ? (A) C2H4 (B)
CH4 (C) C2H6 (D) C4H10
SUBJECTIVT DPP = 13.2
1. What is the common difference in two consecutive members in a
homologous series ?
2. What is catenation? Why does carbon show maximum tendency to
catenate ? 3. What are saturated hydrocarbons? Give one example.
CL -14
14.1 NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS :

Nomenclature means the assignment of names to organic
compounds. There are two main systems of nomenclature of organic
compounds–
Trivial system
IUPAC system (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
14.1 (a) Basic Rules of Nomenclature or Compounds in IUPAC
System :
For naming simple aliphatic compounds, the normal saturated

hydrocarbons have been considered as the parent compounds and
the other compounds as their derivatives obtained by the
replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms with various functional
groups.
Each systematic name has first two or all three of the following
parts :
(i) Word root : The basic unit is a series of word rot which indicate
linear or continuous number of carbon atoms.
(ii) Secondary suffix : Suffixes added after the primary suffix to
indicate the presence of a particular functional group in the carbon
chain are known as secondary suffixes.
14.1 (b) Name of Straight Chain Hydrocarbons
The name of straight chain hydrocarbon may be divided into two
parts
(i) Word root (ii) Primary suffix
(i) Word roots for carbon chain lengths :
Chain length Word root Chain length Word root
C1 MethC8 Hex–
C2 Eth – C7 Hept–
C3 Prop– C8 Oct –
C4 But – C9 Non –
C5 Pent C10 Dec
(ii) Primary suffix :

Class of Cmpounds Primary suffix General name
C-C
- ane Alkane
Saturated
C=C
Unsaturated
- ene Alkene
(−C C−) Unsaturated
- yne Alkyne
Examples :
Molecular formular
CH4
CH3-CH3
CH3CH2CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH3
CH2 = CH2
CH3 –CH = CH2
CH3 -C CH
Word root Primary suffix IUPAC Name
Meth – -
Eth – -
Prop– -
But – -
Eth – -
Prop– -
Prop -
ane Methane ane Ethane ane Propane ane Butane ane Ethene ane
Propene yne Propyne
14.1 (c) Names of Branched Chain Hydrocarbon :
The carbon atoms in branched chain hydrocarbons are present as

side chain. These side chain carbon atoms constitute the alkyl group
or alkyl radicals. An alkyl group is obtained from an alkane by
removal of a hydrogen. General formula of an alkyl group = CnH2n+1
An Alkyl group is represented by R.
For eg.
HH
(i)
H
−
C
−
H
−H
⎯⎯ →H−C−
H H Methane Methyl
HHHH
(ii)
H
−
C
−
C
−
H
−H
⎯⎯ → H−C −C−
H H H H Ethane Ethyl H H H
-H H−C−C−C−
H H H n−propylor (1−Propyl) H H H
(ii)H−C− C−C−H
H H H Pr opane
HHH
-H H−C−C− C−H
HHH
isopropyl or(2−Pr opyl)
14.1 (d) A Branched Chain Hydrocarbon is Named Using the
Following General IUPAC Rules :
Rule 1 : Longest chain rule : Select the longest possible continuous
chain of carbon atoms. If some multiple bond is present, the chain
selected must contain the multiple bond.
(i) The number of carbon atoms in the selected chain determines the
word root.
(ii) Saturation or unsaturation determines the primary suffix (P. suffix(.
(iii) Alkyl substituents are indicated by prefixes .
e.g.
Prefix : Methyl word root : pent P. suffix : ane
eg.
Prefixes : Methyl
Word root : Hept P. Suffix : ane
eg.
Prefix : Methyl Word root : But P.
Suffix : ene
eg.
Prefixes : Ethyl, Methyl word

root : Pent P. Suffix : ane
Rule 2 : Lowest number Rule : The chain selected in numbered in
terms of arabic numerals and the position of the alkyl groups are
indicated by the number of the carbon atom to which alkyl group is
attached. (i) The numbering is done in such a way that the
substituents carbon atom has the lowest possible number.
(ii) If some multiple bond is present in the chain, the carbon atoms
involved in the multiple bond should get lowest possible numbers.
1 2 3 4 eg. CH3 −CH- CH2 −CH3|
CH3
2 – Methyl butane (Correct)
4 3 2 1 CH3 −CH- CH2 −CH3|
CH3
3– Methyl butane
(Wrong)
1 2 3 4 5 eg. CH3 −CH- CH2 −CH2 −CH3|

CH3
2- Methylpentane
(Correct)
5 4 3 2 1 CH3 −CH- CH2 −CH2 −CH3|
CH3
4- Methylpentane
(Wrong)
4 3 2 1 eg. CH3 −CH- CH =CH2|

CH3
3 – Methylbut – 1 – yne (Correct)
1 2 3 4 CH3 −CH- CH =CH2|
CH3
2 – Methylbut – 3 – ene (Wrong)
e.g.CH3
43|
CH2 C 1CH3 − CH −
3 – Methylbut – 1 – yne (Corract)
CH3
42|
CH3C 4CH3 − CH−
2 – Metylbut - 3 - yne (Wrong)
The name of the compound, in general, is written in the following
sequence. (Position of substituents) (prefixes) (word root) (p - suffix)
Rule : 3 Use of prefixed di, tri etc. : If the compound contains more
than one similar alkyl groups, their positions are indicated separately
and an appropriate numerical prefix, di, tri, etc., is attached to the
name of the substituents. The positions of the subsistent are
separated by commas.
eg.
CH
1
2
|
3 CH3
3| 4 5 CH3 −CH −CH −CH2 −CH3

1, 3 – Dimethylpentane
CH3
5 4 3| 2 1 CH3 − CH2 −|C − CH
| − CH3 CH3 CH3
2,3,3 – Trimethylpentane
1 2 3 4 5 6 eg. CH3 −CH−CH−CH2 −CH −CH3| | |
CH3 CH3 CH3
2, 3, 5 Trimethylhexane
CH3 CH3
1 2| 3
CH4|CH5 CH3| 2 − −3 − C −CH
CH3
2, 2, 4 Trimethylpentane Rule 4 : Alphabetical arrangement of
prefixes : If there are different alkyl substituents present in the
compound their names are written in the alphabetical order. However,

the numerical prefixes such as di, tri etc. are not considered for the
alphabetical order.
CH3
For eg : 1 2 3| 4CH −CH −C − −CH5CH
2 3| 3
|
CH3 CH3
3 – Ethyl– 2, 3 - dimethylpentane
Rule 5 : Naming of different alkyl substituents at the equivalent
positions :
If two alkly substituents are present at the equivalent position then
numbering of the chain is done is such a way that the alkyl group
which comes first in alphabetical order gets the lower position. CH3
C2H3 eg. 6 5 4| 3| 2 1 CH3 −CH2 −CH −CH−CH2 −CH3
3 – Ethyl– 4 – methylhexane 14.1 (e) Some More Example :
C2H3
6 5 4| 3 2 1 (i) CH3 −CH2 −C −CH2 −CH −CH | | CH3 CH3
Word root : Hex

Primary suffix : ane
Substituents : two methyl & one ethyl groups
IUPAC name : 4- Ethyl - 2,4 - dimethylhexane

CH33(ii) 1 2|
CH3 − C −CH3|
CH3
Word root : Prop
P. Suffix : ane
Substituents : to methyl groups
IUPAC name : 2,2- Dimethylpropane

34
CH3 −CH−CH3
(iii)
|
CH3 −C = CH22 1
Word root : But

P. Suffix : ene
Substituents : two methyl groups IUPAC name : 2, 3 – Dimethylbut -
1 - ene
6 5 4 3C2 C1CH3(iv) CH3 − CH2 −CH − −|
CH3
4 – Methylhex– 2 - yne
14.2 FUNCTIONAL GROUP :
14.2 (a) Introduction :
An atom or group of atoms in an organic compound or molecule that

is responsible for the compound’s characteristic reactions and
determines its properties is known as functional group. An organic
compound generally consists of two parts
(i) Hydrocarbon radical (ii) Functional group

HH
For eg. H− C− C− OH
HH
Hydrocarbon radical Functional group
Functional group is the most reactive part of the molecule.

Functional group determines the chemical properties of an organic
compound. Hydrocarbon radical determines the physical properties
of the organic compound.
14.2 (b) Main Functional Groups : (i) Hydroxyl group (-OH) : All
organic compounds containing - OH group are known as alcohols.
For e.g. Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3 - CH2 - OH) etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO) : All organic compounds containing
CHO group are known as aldehydes. For e.g. Methanol (HCHO),
Ethanol (CH3CHO) etc.
(iii) Ketone group (-CO-) : All organic compounds containing -CO-
group are known as ketones. For e.g. 2- Propanone (CH3COH3), 2-
Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3) etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group ( -COOH) : All organic acids contain carboxyl
group. Hence they are also called carboxylic acids.
For e.g. CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid) CH3CH2COOH (Propanoic acid)
(v) Halogen group (x= F, CI, Br, I) : All organic compounds
containing - X(F, CI, Br or I) group are known as halides.
For e.g. Chloromethane (CH3CI), Bromomethane (CH3Br) etc.
14.2 (c) Nomenclature of Compounds Containing Functional
Group :
In case come functional group (other than C = C and C C) is

present, it is indicated by adding secondary suffix after the primary
suffix. The terminal ‘e’ of the primary suffix is removed if it is followed
by a suffix beginning with ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’. Some groups like - F, - CI,
- Br and - I are considered as substituents and are indicated by the
prefixes.
o
Some groups like – CHO, - COOH, and - OH are considered as
functional groups and are indicated −C−
by suffixes.
Class Functional General Group Formular Carboxylic acid O O
Prefix Suffix IUPAC Name
Carboxy
- oic acid Alkanoic acid
− C − OH R −C−OH
(R=CnH2n +1) Ester O O Carbalkoxy Alkyl (r;)– oate Alkyl alkanoate
− C − OR R− C −O−R'
(R R') Aldehyde - CHO R - CHO Ketone − C − R− C −R
Formyl or oxo oxo

- al Alkanal
- one Alkanal
O O Alcohol -OH R – OH Alkenes C =C C nH2n Alkynes C C CnH2n-2

Halides -X R – X
(X = F, CI, Br, I)
Hydroxy
-
-
Halo
- ol Alkanol
- ene Alkene
- yne Alkene
- Haloalkane
14.2 (d) Naming of an Organic Compound Containing Functional

Group :
Step 1 : Select the longest continuous chain of the carbon atoms as

parent chain. The selected chain must include the carbon atom
involved in the functional groups like - COOH, - CHO etc., or those
which carry the functional groups like - OH, - CI etc.
Step 2 : The presence of carbon - carbon multiple bond decides the
primary suffix.
Step 3 : The secondary suffix is decided by the functional group.
Step 4 : The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered in such
a way so that the carbon atom of the functional group gets the lowest
possible number. In case the functional group does not have the
carbon atom, then the carbon atom of the parent chain attached to
the functional group should get the lowest possible number.
Step 5 : The name of the compound is written as

Prefixes - word root - primary suffix - secondary suffix
The number of carbon atoms in the parent

chain decides the word root.
S.No. Compound Common name

1
CH3– OH Methyl alcohol or Wood spirit Carbiinol
Derived name IUPAC Strucutre
H Methanol
H −C− O− H
H 2 CH3– CH2– OH Ethyl alcohol Methyl carbinol
H H Ethanol
H −C −C −O− H
H H 3 CH3– CH2– CH2– OH n-Propyl alcohol Ethyl carbinol
H H H 1-PropanolH− C−C −C−O−H
4 CH
3
−
CH− OH Isopropyl alcohol |
CH3
Dimethyl carbinol
H H H HH 2-Propanol
H− C− C − O−H
H H− C−H
H 5 CH3– CH2– CH2– CH2 - OH n-Butyl alcohol n-Propyl carbinol
H H H H 1-Butanol
H− C− C−C− C− O−H
6 HCOOH Formic acid
7
-
H H H H O Methanoic acid
- CH3 COOH Acetic acid
H− C− O −H H O Ethanoic acid
H− −C−C −OH
8
- CH3– CH2– COOH Propionic acid
H H H O Propanoic acid
H−C−C−C −O −H
HH9
- CH3– CH2– CH2– COOH
H H H O Butanoic acid
Butryic acid H− C− C− C− C− OH
H H H 10
- CH3– CH2– CH2– CH2– COOH Valeric acid
H H H H O Petanoic acid
H−−C− C−C− C−C −OH
HHHH
14.2 (e) Some More Example :
2 3 4 5(i) CH −CH −CH −CH −CH −CH 1
3 2 2 3
| 6
| 7 CH2 −OH CH2 −CH3
Longest chain contains carbon : 7 Word root : Hept

primary suffix : ane
Functional group : - OH
Secondary suffix : - ol
IUPAC Name : 2,5 - Dimethylheptan -1 - olJ E T H W A S
25
(ii)
5
4
3
2
O 1|| CH3 −CH2 −CH =CH −C−OH
Word root : Pent
Primary suffix : ene
Secondary suffix : -oic acid
Position of double bond : 2nd
IUPAC name : Pent - 2 - en - 1 - oic acid
1 2 3 (iii) CH3 −CH−CH2|
CI
Word root :
4
−CH3
But
Primary suffix : ane
Prefix : chloro
IUPAC name : 2 - Chlorobutane 14.3 ISOMERS & ISOMERSISM :
14.3 (a) Introduction :
Such compounds which have same molecular formula but different in
some physical or chemical properties are known as isomers and the
phenomenon is known as isomerism.
ISOMERSIM
Structural Isomerism Stereoisomerism
Chain Position Functional Metamerism Tautomerism group
Geometrical Optical
14.3 (b) Structural Isomerism: Such compounds which have same
molecular formula but different structural arrangement of atoms in
their molecules are known as structural isomers and the phenomenon
is known as structural isomerism.
(i) Chain isomerism : The isomerism in which the isomers differ from
each other due to the presence of different carbon chain skeletons in
known as chain isomerism.
For eg:
(A) C4H10 CH3– CH2– CH2– CH3’ CH3 − CH −CH3|
CH3
n - Butane 2- Methylpropane (Isobutane) (B) C5H12
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 CH3 − CH −CH2 −CH3|
CH3
n - Pentane 2- Methylbutane (isopentance)
CH3
CH3 − C − CH3
CH3
2,2 - Dimethylpropane (neo - pentane)
(C) C4H8
CH3 - CH2 - CH = CH2 ,
CH3
|
CH3 −C = CH2
But - 1 - ene 2 - Methylpropene

(ii) Position isomerism: In this type of isomerism, isomers differ in
the structure due to difference in the position of the multiple bond or
functional group.
For eg.
(A) C4H8
CH2 - CH2 - CH = CH2 , CH3 - CH = CH - CH3 But - 1 - ene But-2-ene
(B) C3H8O
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH CH3 −CH−CH3
OH
Propane - 1 - ol Propane - 2 - ol
(iii) Functional group isomerism : In this type of isomerism,
isomers differ in the structure due to the presence of different
functional groups.
For eg.
(A) C3H8O
CH3 - CH2 - O - CH3 and CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - OH Methoxy ethane
Propane - 1 - ol
(B) C4H6
CH3-CH2C CH and CH2 = CH - CH = CH2 But-1-yne Buta - 1, 3-
diene [or 1, 3 - Butadiene]
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 14
OBJECTIVE DPP - 14.1 1. The general formula fo an ester (where R

represents an alkyl group ) is (A) ROH (B) R-COOH (C) R-COOR (D)
RH
2. The functional group, present in CH3COOC2H5 is(A) ketonnic (B)
aldehydic (C) ester (D) carboxylic
3. IUPAC name of CH3CH2OOH is (A) wood spirit (B) methyl carbinol
(C) ethanol (D) ethyl alcohol
4. The IUPAC name of the compound having the formula (CH3)3 CCH
= CH2 is
(A) 3,3,-trimethyl -1-propane
(C) 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene
(B) 1,1,1- trimethyl-1-butene (D) 1,1-dimethyl-1,3-butene
5. The IUPAC name of (CH3CHCH3 is (A) 2-methylpropane

(C) trimethylmethan
(B) 2,2-dimethylethane (D) none of these
6. The IUPAC name of the following compound is CH2 - CH - CH

(CH3)2
(A) 1,1-dimethyl -2 propane

(C) 2- vinyl propane
(B) 3- methyl -1-butene (D) 1-isoproply ethylene
7. IUPAC name of second member of homologous series of

carboxylic acids is (A) methanoic acid (B) ethanoic acid (C) propanic
acid (D) butanoic acid
8. The IUPAC name of cH3 - C(CH3) (OH) CH2 - CH(CH3) CH3 is (A)
2,4-dimethyl pentan -2-ol
(C) 2,2- dimethyl butane
(B) 2,4- dimethyl pentan -4-ol (D) butanol -2-one
9. The IUPAC name of (CH3)2 CHCH2CH2Br is
(A) 1-bromopentance
(C) 1- bromo -3- methyl butane
(B) 2- methyl-4-bromo pentane (D) 2-methyl -3- bromo pentane
10. The functional group in an alcohol is O O O

(A) − C − O− (B) − C − OH (C)-OH (D) − C− H
1. In an organic compound, which part largely determines its physical
& chemical properties ?
2. Give IUPAC name of the following compounds
(a) CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - OH
(b) CH3 −CH −CH3
OH
(C) How are these two compounds related to each other ?
3. Draw the structures of the following compounds (a) simplest

ketone (c) acetic acid
(b) next higher homologue of butanoic acid (d) n-butly alcohol
4. Name a functional group which can never occupy terminal position.
5. Give the IUPAC names of

(a) CH3 - CH2 - Br
(b) CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - C CH
6. How many structural isomers are possible for pentane? Draw

these.
7. Name the isomerism exhibited by the following pairs of compounds

(a) Proponal & Propanone
(b) 1- Propanol & 2- Propanol
CL - 15
15.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS :

The important chemical properties of organic compounds are
discussed below :
15.1 (a) Combustion:
Carbon in all its allotropic forms burns in air or oxygen to give carbon
dioxide and releases energy in the form of heat and light.
Most carbon compound also release a large amount of heat and light
on burning.
C + O2 ⎯⎯→ Carbon Oxygen CO2 + Carbon

dioxide
Hear and light
CH4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯→ Methane Oxygen CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light
Carbon Water
dioxide
C2H4 + 3O2 ⎯⎯→ Ethane Oxygen 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light
Carbon Water
dioxide
2C2H2 + 5O2 ⎯⎯→ Ethyne Oxygen 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and light
Carbon Water
dioxide
CH2CH2OH + 3O2 ⎯⎯→ Ethanol Oxygen 2CO2 + Carbon

dioxide
3H2O + Heat and light Water
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while

unsaturated carbon compounds will give a yellow flame with lots of
black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on the metal plate.
However, limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of
even saturated hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame.
15.1 (b) Oxidation :
Oxidation is a process in which oxygen is added to a substance. The

substances which add oxygen to other substances are called
oxidising agents. There are many oxidising agents such as alkaline
potassium permanganate (alk. KMnO4), acidified potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7), nitric acid (HNO3) etc. which are commonly
used in organic chemistry. Some common reactions of oxidation are
CH2− CH2 (i)

CH
2 = CH2 + H2O + (O) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Alkaline KMnO4→ OH OH
Ethyleneglycol Ethane
(ii) CH CH + 4(O) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
COOH Alkaline KMnO4 → COOH
Oxalic acid
(iii)
CH
3
CH
2
OH
⎯
⎯
Alkaline KMnO
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯4⎯⎯→ CH3COOHAcidified K2Cr2O7 +Heat
Ethanol Ethanoic acid
(iv) CH3CHO ⎯
Alkaline KMnO4Or
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→ CH3COOH Acidified K2Cr2O7
Ethanol Ethanoic acid 15.1 (c) Substitution Reaction:
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is

replaced or substituted by different atoms or group of atoms are
called substitution reactions. Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly
uncreative. For example, chlorine does not react with methane at
room temperature. However, in the presence of sunlight the reaction
of chlorine and hydrocarbons is fairly fast reaction. It gives a variety
of products.
CH
4
+
CI
2
⎯
Sulight
⎯⎯⎯→ CH3CI + HCI
Methane Chlorine Chloromethane Hydrogen chloride

In this reaction H - atom of methane has been replaced by a - CI
atom converting CH4 to CH3CI. However, if Cl2 is used in excess, all
the hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine atom one by one.
CH
3
CI
+
CI
2
⎯
Sulight
⎯⎯⎯→
Chloromethane Chlorine
CH3CI2 + HCI
Dichloromethane Hydrogen chloride
CH
2
CI
2
+
CI
2
⎯
Sulight
⎯⎯⎯→
Dichloromethane Chlorine
CHCI2 + HCI Trichloromethane (Chloroform)
Hydrogen chloride
CHCI
3
+
CI
2
⎯
Sulight
⎯⎯⎯→
Trichloromethane Chlorine
CCI4 + HCI Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride) Hydrogen
chloride
15.1 (d) Addition Reaction:
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product

having all the atoms of the combining molecules are called addition
reactions. Unsaturated compounds such as alkenes contain double
bond between carbon atoms. Because of the presence of double
bond, they undergo addition reaction.
(i) Addition of halogen to alkenes:
CCI4CH2 = CH2 + cI2 ⎯⎯ →
CH2− CH2
CI CI
Ethane Chlorine 1,2-Dicloroethane
CH
2
= CH
2
+Br
2
⎯
CCI ⎯4 →
Ethene Bromine
CH2− CH2
Br Br
1,2- Dibromoethane
(ii) Addition of hydrogen :
Ni
CH
2
= CH
2
+H
⎯⎯→
CH2 - CH3
2 573K
Ethene Hydrogen Ethane
This reaction is called hydrogenation. Hydrogenation reaction is used

in the manufacture of vanaspati ghee from vegetable oils. The
vegetable oil such as ground nut oil, cotton speed oil and mustard oil
contain bonds (C = C) in their molecules. When reacted with
hydrogen in the presence of nickel as catalyst, they are converted
into vanaspati ghee which is solid at room temperature like butter or
ghee.
Ni
Vegetable oil + H⎯⎯→ Vegetable ghee or Vanaspati ghee2 Catalyst
(Unsaturated hydrocarbons ) (Saturated hydrocarbons)
15.2 BURNING OF SUBSTANCES WITH OR WITHOUT SMOKY
FLAME :
When coal or charcoal burns n an ‘angithi’, sometimes it just glows

red and gives out heat without a flame. This is because a flame is
only produced when gaseous substances burn. When wood or
charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present vapourise and
burn with a flame in the beginning. A luminous flame is also observed
when the atoms of the gaseous substances are heated and start to
glow. The colour of the flame is characteristic of that element. For
example, when a copper wire is heated in the flame of the a gas
stove, a bluish green colour is obtained.
The incomplete combustion gives soot or smoke which is due to

carbon. Saturated hydrocarbons burn with blue non-sooty flame. This
is because the percentage of carbon in these compounds is low
which gets oxidised completely by the oxygen present in the air.
On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with yellow sooty
flame. This is because the percentage of carbon in these compounds
is comparatively higher (than saturated compounds). Therefore, all
the carbon does not get oxidised completely in the oxygen of the air.
Due to incomplete combustion, the flame is sooty due to the
presence of unburnt carbon particles.
The fuels such as coal, petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and
sulphur in them. On heating, they are burnt to oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur, which are released in the atmosphere. These are the major
pollutants in the environment.
15.3 FORMATION OF COAL AND PETROLEUM:
Coal and petroleum are the fossil fuels. These are believed to be
formed from biomass which has been subjected to various biological
and geological processes inside the earth. Coal is formed from the
remains of plants and animals (fossils) which died about millions of
years ago. These remains gradually got buried deep in the earth
during earthquakes, volcanoes etc. These remains were covered with
sand, clay and water. Due to high temperature and high pressure and
the absence of air inside the earth, the fossils got converted into coal.
This process of conversion of plants and animals buried inside the
earth under high temperature and pressure to coal is called
carbonisation. It is a very slow process and may have taken
thousands of years.
Petroleum is formed form the bacterial decomposition of the remains

of animals and plants which got buried under the sea millions of years
ago. When these organisms died, they sank to the bottom and got
covered by sand and clay. Over a period of millions of years, these
remains got converted into hydrocarbons by heat, pressure and
catalytic action. The hydrocarbons formed rose though porous rocks
and got trapped between two layers of impervious rock forming an oil
trap.
15.4 SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS :

15.4 (a) Ethanol or (Ethyl alcohol):
Ethanol is the second member of the homologous alcoholic series.
It is also known as methyl carbinol.
Structural formula. H H
H− C −C −O −H
HH
(i) Properties of Ethanol: (A) Physical properties. Ethanol is
colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
Ethanol boils at 351 K.
It is miscible with water in all proportions.
It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
It is neutral to litmus.
(B) Chemical properties :
Combustion : Ethanol burns in air with a blue flame to form CO2 &
H2O. C2H5OH + 3O2 ⎯→ 2O2 + 3H2O
Oxidation
(i) By mild oxidizing agent CrO3 (Chromic anhydride).
CH CrO3⎯⎯⎯→ CH2CHO3CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
In glacial acetic acid
(ii) By strong oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 or alkaline KMnO4).
CH
3CH2OH ⎯Alkaline KMnO
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯4 → CH3COOHorK2Cr2O7 +H2SO4
Ethanol Ethanoic acid
(C) Reaction with sodium: Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce
hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide.
2 C2H5OH + 2Na ⎯→ 2C2H5ONa + H2( )
(iv) Reaction with carboxylic acids : [ESTERIFICATION] The
process of formation of an ester by the combination of an alcohol with
carboxylic acid is known as etherification/
OO
R
−
C
−
OH
+
HO
−
R
'
⎯
Conc.H2SO4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→R− C−OR'+H2O
Carboxylic Alcohol Alkyl Alkanoate acid (Ester)
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid ethyl ethanoate and water are formed.
CH
3
COOH + C
2
H
5
OH
⎯
Conc. H2SO ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯4 →
Ethanoic Ethanol
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O Ethyl Ethanoate
acid
Esters are sweet smelling perfumes.

substances and thus are used in making
(v) Acton with concentrated sulphuric acid : Ethanol reacts with

concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This
reaction is known as acidic dehydration of ethanol because in this
reaction, water molecule is removed from ethanol.
CH
3
CH
2
OH
⎯
Conc.H2SO4
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH2 = CH2 + H2O 443K
Ethanol
The concentrated sulphuric acid may be regarded as a dehydrating
agent because it removes water from ethanol.
15.4 (b) Some Important Terms :
(i) Denatured alcohol : To prevent the misuse for drinking purpose,

the alcohol supplied for industrial purpose is rendered unfit by mixing
it with some poisonous substances like methanol, pyridine, copper
sulphate etc. It is known as denatured alcohol.
(ii) Rectified spirit : Ethanol cottoning 5 percent water is known as

rectified spirit.
(iii) Absolute alcohol : Rectified spirit is heated under reflux over

quicklime for about 5 to 6 hours and then allowed to stand for 12
hours. One distillation, pure alcohol (C2H5OH = 100%) is obtained.
This is called absolute alcohol.
(iv) Power alcohol : Alcohol, which is used for generating power is

called power alcohol. It consists of a mixture of absolute alcohol
petrol roughly in the ratio 20 : 80. Since alcohol itself, does not mix
with petrol, therefore, a third solvent such as benzene, ether etc. is
added as a co-solvent.
15.4 (c) Uses of Ethanol: (I) Ethanol is a constituent of beverages

like beer, wine, whisky and other liquors.
Beer = 3 - 6% Ethanol
Whisky = 50% Ethanol
Wine = 10 - 20% Ethanol
(ii) Ethanol is used to sterilize wounds and syringes.
(iii) Antifreeze : It is a mixture of ethanol and water which has a
much lower freezing point than that of water. It is used in radiators of
vehicles in cold countries.
(iv) It is used in manufacture of paints, des, medicines, soaps and
synthetic rubber. Solution of ethanol prepared in pharmaceutical
industry are known as tinctures.
15.4 (d) Harmful effects of drinking alcohol : (i) If ethanol is mixed
with CH3OH and consumed, it may cause serious poisoning and loss
of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction (habit forming) and mixes with blood. It
damages liver if taken regularly.
(iii) Higher amount of consumption of ethanol leads to loss of body
control & consciousness. It may even cause death.
1. Sometimes during cooking the bottom of the vessel becomes black

from outside. This means that (A) food is not cooked properly. (C) fuel
is burring completely. (B) fuel is not burning completely. (D) fuel is dry.
2. Rectified spirit is
(A) 50% ethanol (B) 80% ethanol (C) 95% ethanol (D) 100 % ethanol
3. Which of following gives ethane when heated with cons. sulphuric
acid ? (A) CH3CHO (B) CH3COOH (C) CH3OH (D) CH3CH2OH
4. Which of the following will react with sodium metal ? (A) Ethanol
(B) Ethanol (C) Ethane (D) Ethane
5. Ethanol on complete oxidation gives (A) CO2 and water (B)
acetaldehyde (C) acetic acid (D) acetone
6. When ethyl alcohol is heated with conc. H2SO4 the product formed
is (A) C4H8 (B) C2H4 (C) C3H4 (D) C2H2
7. When alcohol reacts with sodium metal the gas evolved is(A) O2
(B) CH2 (C) CO (D) CO2
8. Power alcohol contains (A) 50% petrol and 50% ethanol (B) 80%
petrol and 20% ethanol (C) 25% petrol and 75% ethanol (D) 70%
petrol and 30% ethanol
SUBJECTIVE DPP -15.2
1. What is denatured alcohol ? How is it prepared ?
2. What are the harmful effects of drinking alcohol ?
3. What is an antifreeze ?
4. Do alcohols give litmus test ? 5. Give the important uses of ethyl
alcohols.
CL - 16
16.1 ETHANOIC ACID (OR ACETIC ACID) : (i) Molecular formula :

CH3COOH
HO
(ii) Structural formula : H−C− C−O−H
H
(iii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. Its dissolution in water
takes place with the evolution of heat and decrease in volume of the
solution.
(iv) The melting point of ethanoic acid in 290 K and hence it often
freezes during winter in cold climates. Therefore, it is names as
glacial acetic acid.
16.1 (b) Chemical properties : (i) Acidic character : Ethanoic acid
is a monobasic acid. It has a replaceable hydrogen atom in its -
COOH group. Therefore, it neutralizes alkalies.
(A) It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium
ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+ NaOH ⎯⎯→ CH3COONa + H2O ⎯ ⎯
Sodium
Ethanoate
Sodium ethanoate is an ionic compound which dissolves in polar
solvents such as water, but does not dissolves in non polar solvents
such as alcohol, propanone etc.
The aqueous solution of sodium ethanoate is alkaline due to
hydrolysis.
CH H2O CH3COOH + NaOH3COONa
Weak acid Strong base
(B) It reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate with the
evolution of CO2 gas.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
(C) It reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate
hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOh + 2Na → 2CH3COONHa + H2
2CH3COOH + Zn → (CH3COO)2Zn + H2
(ii) Ester formation : When ethanoic acid in heated with ethanol in
presence of small quantity of conc. H2CO4 ethyl ethanoate, a sweet
smelling ester, is formed.
H
CH
3
COOH + HOC
2
H
5 ⎯⎯⎯ → CH3COOC2H + H2O

Ethel ethanoate
This process of Easter formation is called etherification.
(iii) Decarboxylation :
When sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime, methane is
formed.
CaO
CH3COONa + NaOH ⎯⎯ → CH4 + Na2CO3
Sodium ethanoate Methane
The term’ decarboxylation ‘ is used when the elements

of carbon dioxide are removed from a molecule.
16.1 (c) Uses : (i) Dilute aqueous solution (5-8%) of ethanoic acid is
called vinegar, which is used to preserve food (sausage, pickles, etc.)
(ii) Pure ethanoic acid is used as a solvent and chemical reagent.
(iii) As cellulose ethanoate, it is used in making photographic films
and rayon.
(iv) Ethanoic acid finds application in the preparation of propanone,
choroethanoic acid, ethanoates of metals etc.
(v) It is widely used in the manufacture of textiles.
(vi) It is used in the preparation of white lead.
16.1 (d) Tests for Ethanoic Acid :
(i) Litmus test : Add small amount of blue litmus solution to the given
compound. If the blue litmus solution turns red, it indicates that the
organic compound is ethanoic acid.
(ii) Sodium bicarbonate test: Take a small portion of the organic
compound in a test tube and add a pinch of solid sodium bicarbonate.
Evolution of carbon dioxide with brisk effervescence shows the
presence of carboxylic acid.
(iii) Ester formation : When a mixture of ethanoic acid and ethanol is

heated in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, a fruity
smelling ester, ethyl ethanoate, is produced.
16.2 SOAPS AND DETERGENT :

The word ‘detergent’ means’ cleansing agent and so the detergents
are substances which remove dirt and have cleansing action in
water. According to this definition of detergents, soap is also a
detergent and has been used for more than two thousand years.
There are two types of detergents : (a) Soapy detergents or soaps
(b) Non - soapy detergents or soapless soaps.
16.3 (a) Soap:
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of some long chain

carboxylic acids (fatty acid). Sodium salts of fatty acids are known
as hard soaps and potassium salts of fatty acid are known as soft
soaps. A soap has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic
COO-Na+ group. The structure of soap can be represented as:
where
represents the hydrocarbon group and represents
negatively charged carboxyl group. Some example so soaps are
sodium stearate, C17H35COO- Na+, sodium palmitate, C15H31COO-
Na+ and sodium oleate, C17H33COO- Na+.
Hard water, which contains salts of magnesium and

calcium, reacts with soap to form magnesium and calcium salts
of fatty acid.
(i) Preparation of soap : Soap is prepared by heating oil or fat of

vegetable or animal origin with concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution (caustic soda solution). Hydrolysis of fat takes place and a
mixture of sodium salt of fatty acids and glycerol is formed. Since the
salt of fatty acids thus formed are used as soap so alkaline hydrolysis
of oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.
CH2O.COC15H31 CH2OH
CHO.COC15H31 +3NaOH CHOH +3C16H31COONa
CH2O.COC15H31 CH2OH
fat or oil Soap (Tripalmitin) (sodium palmitate)
(ii) Limitation of soaps : Soap is not suitable for washing clothes
with hard water because of the following reasons.
(A) Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. When soap
is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard water
react with soap forming insoluble calcium and magnesium salts of
fatty acids.
2C17H35COONa + MgCI2 Soap (Hardness
of water) ⎯⎯→ (C17H35COO)2 Mg + 2NaCI White ppt.
2C17H35COONa + CaCI2 (Hardness of water ⎯⎯→ (C17H35COO)2 Ca

+ 2NaCI
White ppt.
Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.
(B) When hard water is used, soap forms insoluble precipitates of

calcium and magnesium salts, which stick to the cloth being washed.
Therefore, it interferes with the cleaning ability of the soap and makes
the cleaning process difficult.
These calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acid are

insoluble in water and separate as cruddy white precipitate.
16.3 (b) Detergents:
These are also called synthetic detergents or soapless soaps. A

synthetic detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain benzene
sulphonic acid or the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen
sulphate.
(i) Preparation of Synthetic Detergents : Synthetic detergents are

prepared by reacting hydrocarbons from petroleum with conc.
sulphuric acid and converting the product into its sodium salt.
Example :
Sodium p-dodecyl benzenesulphonate
Sodium lauryl
sulphate
Washing powders available in the market contain

about 15 to 30 percent detergents by weight.
Alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is

commonly known as saponification.
16.3 (c) Comparison Between Properties of Soaps and

Detergents :
S.No Soaps
Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids
1
2 Soaps are prepared form natural oils and fats.
3 Soaps form insulable salts (curdy white ppt.) with calcium and
magnesium which are present in hard water and hence, cannot be
used in hard water/
4 Soad cannot be used in acidic medium and they are decomposed

into carboxylic acids in a cidic medium.
5 Soaps are biodegradable.
Synthetic detergents
Synthetic detergents are sodium alkyl sulphates or sodium alkyl
benzene sulphonates with alkyl group having more than ten carbon
atoms.
Synthetic detergents are prepared form the hydrocarbons of
petroleum.
Calcium and magnesium salts of detergents are soluble in water and,
therefore, no curdy white
precipitates are obtained in hard water and hece, can be used even
in hard water.
They cay be used in acidic medium as they are the salt of strong
acids and are not decomposed in acidic medium.
Some of the synthetic detergents are not biodegradable.
16.3 (d) Advantages of Synthetic Detergents Over Soap :

Synthetic detergents are widely used as cleaning agents these days.
Some of their advantages over soaps are :
(i) Synthetic detergents can be used for washing even in hard water.
On the other, soaps are not suitable for use with hard water.
(ii) Synthetic detergents can be used even in acidic solutions

because they are not readily decomposed in acidic medium. On the
other hard, soaps cannot be used in acidic medium because they are
decomposed into carboxylic acids in acidic medium.
(iii) Synthetic detergents are more soluble in water than soaps.

(iv) Synthetic detergents have a stronger cleaning action than soaps.
16.3 (e) Cleaning Action of Soaps and Detergents :
A molecule of soap is made up of two parts : a non polar part
consisting of a long chain 12 - 18 carbon atoms and a polar part,
COO- Na+. The polar end in water soluble and is thus hydrophilic
whereas hydrocarbon part is insoluble in water and is thus
hydrophobic. In a soap solution, the hydrocarbon portions of several
soap molecules huddle together to form aggregates of molecules (or
ions) called micelles. The soap micelles are negatively charged due
to the presence of carboxylate ions at the surface. Repulsion
between similarly charged micelles keeps them dispersed in the
solution.
The hydrocarbon part is however soluble in

non-polar solvents and is sometimes called lipophilic.
(i) Cleansing action of soap : Mostly the dirt is held to any surface
such as cloth by the oil or grease which is present there. Now since
the oil and grease are not soluble in water, the dirt particles cannot be
removed by simply washing the cloth with water. However, when
soap is applied, the non polar hydrocarbon part of the soap
molecules dissolves in oil droplets while the polar - COO- NA+ groups
remain attached to water molecules. In this way, each oil droplet gets
surrounded by negative charge.
These negatively charged oil droplets cannot coalesce and continue
breaking into small droplets. These oil droplets (containing dirt
particles) can be washed away with water along with dirt particles.
So, the action of soap or detergents in to emulsify oil or grease, this
loosens the soil particles of dirt and they are removed.
In a soap molecule hydrophilic polar end in water

soluble and hydrophobic hydrocarbon part is insoluble in water.
Soap or detergent helps in cleansing in another way. Not only it

emulsifies oil or grease but it also lowers the surface tension of water.
As a result of this water wets things more effectively.
When water is added on to the surface of the cloth then water
molecules tend to stay as close to each other as possible because of
the strong forces of attraction (hydrogen bonding) for each other and
do not wet the cloth properly. If some soap solution is added to this
away then polar end of soap dissolves in water and non polar
hydrocarbon end remains away from the water. Thus, soap molecules
arrange themselves between the water molecules on the surface of
water and decrease the forces of attraction between the water
molecules. Water can now spread on the surface of cloth and can
make it wet effectively.
16.3 (f) Synthetic Detergent : A Serious Problem :
It may be noted that in the past, the widespread use of detergents

caused pollution of rivers and other water bodies. Earlier the synthetic
detergents were made from long chain of hydrocarbons having a lot
of branched chains in them. These branched chain detergent
molecules were degraded very slowly by the micro organisms present
in water bodies like lakes or rivers.
Therefore, they tend to remain in water bodies for a long time and
make water unfit for aquatic life. For example, detergents containing
phosphates can cause rapid growth of algae and therefore, deplete
the dissolved oxygen present in the water of lakes and rives. As a
result of lack of oxygen, fish and other aquatic animals may die. To
solve these problems, now-a-days, the detergents are prepared from
hydrocarbons which have minimum branching. These are degraded
more easily than branched chain detergents. Therefore, these are
biodegradable and create less problems.

1. Vinegar is
(A) 5% aqueous solution of acetic acid (B) 20% alcoholic solution of
acetic acid (C) 100% acetic acid
(D) none of these
2. Glacial acetic acid is

(A) 100% acetic acid free of water. (C) gaseous acetic acid.
(B) solidified acetic acid. (D) frozen acetic acid.
3. When ethanoic acid is heated with NaHCO3 the gas evolved is (A)
H2 (B) CO2 (C) CH4 (D) CO
4. Which of the following will give a pleasant smell heated with ethyl
alcohol, in presence of sulphuric acid (A) CH3COOH (B) CH3CH2OH
(C) CH3OH (D) CH3CHO
5. During decarboxylation of ethanoic acid with soda lime (NaOH +
CaO), CO2 is removed as (A) CO2 (B) CO (C) NA2CO3 (D) CaCO3
6. A by product of soap industry is (A) sodium hydroxide

(C) glycerol
(B) sodium palmitate (D) Both B & C
7. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about soaps :

(A) Soaps are biodegradable.
(B) Soaps are sodium salts of higher fatty acids.
(C) Soaps are prepared from natural oils & fats.
(D) Soaps can be used in acidic solutions.
8. Which of the following is not correctly matched ?
(A) Hard soaps - sodium salts of fatty acids.
(B) Soft soaps - potassium salts of fatty acids.
(C) Hydrophilic - water insoluble
(D) None of these 9. Cleansing action of soaps includes :
(A) formation of micelles.
(B) emulsification of oil or grease.
(C) lowering of surface tension of water.
(D) all of the above.
10. Washing powders contain detergent in the following range
(A) 10 - 15 % (B) 15 - 30% (C) 50 - 60 % (D) 40 - 50 %
1. Although both acid and base are obtained from the salt of ethanoic
acid, yet the overall aqueous solution of sodium ethanoate is alkaline.
Give reason.
2. Complete the following reactions (a) CH3COOH + NAaHCO3 ⎯→
Conc. (b) HCOOH + CH3OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯→

H2SO4
3. Describe the following

(i) power alcohol (ii) denatured spirit
4. Why are detergents preferred over soaps ? 5. Give the chemical
reaction involved in the preparation of soaps.
ANSWERS

Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ans. D D A C B C D B B B
Sol.1 To achieve the configuration of nearest noble gas element.
Sol.2H.P.Hx xH
Sol.3 Sodium chloride (NaCI) & Chlorine gas (CI2)
Sol.4 Covalent, Y = X = Y
Sol.4 O = C= O (CO2) OBJECTIVE DPP - 13.1
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ans. A B D A N D A C C A
Sol.1 (a) Functional group isomerism (b) Position isomerism
Sol.2 The common difference is -CH2.
Ques 1 2 Ans. C C 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C C A B B A C C
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 13.2 Sol.1 Functional group

Sol.2 (a) Propan-1-ol (b) propan-2-ol (c) Position isomers
Sol.3 (a) CH3COCH3 (c) CH3COOH (b) CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH (d)

CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Sol.4 Ketone group ( - CO - )

Sol.5 (a) 1- Bromoethane (b) 1- Hexyne
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ans. B C D A C B B B
Sol.3 It is a mixture of ethanol and water which has a much lower
freezing point that than of water. It is used in radiators of vehicles in
cold countries.
Sol.4 No, because they are neutral in nature.
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ans. A A B A C C D C D B
Sol.1 Sodium ethanoate is a salt of strong base and weak acid.
Sol.2 (a) CH3COONa, CO2, H2O (b) HCOOCH3, H2O
PERIODIC TABLE & PERIODICITY IN
PROPERTIES
CL - 17
17.1 DEFINITION :
A periodic table may be defined as the table giving the arrangement

of all the known elements according to their properties so that
elements with similar properties fall with the same vertical column
and elements with dissimilar properties are separated.
17.2 EARLY ATTAMPTS TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS :

17.2 (a) Metals and Non - Metals :
Among the earlier classification, Lavoisier classified the elements as

metals and non-metals. However, this classification proved to be
inadequate. In 1803, John Dalton published a table of relative atomic
weights (now called atomic masses). This formed an important basis
of classification of elements.
17.2 (b) Dobereiner’s Triads :

(i) In 1817, J.W.Dobereiner a German Chemist gave this
arrangement of elements.
(A) He arranged elements with similar properties in the groups of
three called triads.
(B) According to Dobereiner the atomic mass of the central element
was merely the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of the other two
elements. For e.g.
Elements of the triad Symbol Lithium Li Sodium Na
Potassium K
Atomic mass 7
23
39
Atomic mass of sodium =

Atomicmass of lithium+Atomic 2 = 7+39 =232
mass of potassium
Some examples of triads are given in the table :
S.No. Triads Relative atomic Average of atomic masses masses

of the first and the third element 1 S, Se, Te 32, 79, 128
32+128=802
2 CI, Br, I 35.5, 80, 127 35.5+127=81.252

3 Ca, Sr, 40, 88, 137 40+137=88.5Ba 2
(ii) Limitations of Dobereiner’s Classification :
(A) Atomic mass of the three elements of some triads are almost
same.
e.g. Fe, Co, ni and Ru, Rh, Pd
(B) It was restricted to few elements, therefore discarded. 17.2 (c)
Newlands’ Law of Octaves :
In 1866, an English chemist, John Newlands, Proposed a new

system of grouping elements with similar properties. He tried to
correlate the properties of elements with their atomic masses. he
arranged the then known elements in the order of increasing atomic
masses. He started with the element having the lowest atomic mass
(hydrogen) and ended at thorium which was the 56th element. He
observed that every eight element had properties similar to that of the
first.
Thus, Newlands suggested that when the elements are arranged in
the order of increasing atomic masses, the properties of every eight
element are a repetition of that of the first element.
Newland called this relation as a law of octaves due to
the similarity with the musical scale.
(i) Newlands’ arrangement of elements into ‘Octaves’:
Notes of sa (do) re (re) ga (mi) ma (fa) pa (so) da (la) ni (ti) Music

H Li Be B C N O F Na Mg AI SI P S
Elements CI K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se Br Rb Sr
Ce and La Zr - -
(ii) Limitations of law of octaves : The law of octaves has the

following limitations :
(A) The law of octaves was found to be applicable only upto
calcium. It was not applicable to elements of higher atomic masses.
(B) Position of hydrogen along with fluorine and chlorine was not
justified on the basis of chemical properties.
(C) Newlands placed two elements in the same slot to fit elements
in the table. He also placed some unlike elements under the same
slot. For example, cobalt and nickel are placed in the same slot and
in the column of fluorine, chlorine and bromine. But cobalt and nickel
have properties quite different from fluorine, chlorine and bromine.
Similarly, iron which has resemblances with cobalt and nickel in its
properties has been placed for away from these elements.
Thus, it was realized that Newlands’ law of octaves worked well only
with lighter elements. Therefore, this classification was rejected.
17.2 (d) Mendeleev’s Periodic Table :
The major credit for a systematic classification of elements goes to

Mandeleev. He has been trying to group the elements on the basis of
some fundamental property of the atoms. When Mendeleev started
his work, only 63 elements were known. He examined the
relationship between atomic masses of the elements and their
physical and chemical properties.
Among chemical properties, Mendeleev concentrated mainly on the
compound formed by elements with oxygen and hydrogen. he
selected these two elements because these are very reactive and
formed compound with most of the elements known at that time. The
formulae of the compounds formed with these elements (i.e. oxides
and hydrides) were regarded as one the basic properties of an
element for its classification.
(i) Mendeleev’s peri odic law : This law states that the physical and
chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their
atomic masses. This means that when the elements are arranged in
the order of their increasing atomic masses, the elements with similar
properties recur at regular intervals. Such orderly recurring properties
in a cyclic fashion are said to be occurring periodically. This is
responsible for the name periodic law or periodic table.
(ii) Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table : Mendeleev’s periodic

table was one of the greatest achievements in the development of
chemistry. Some of the important contributions of his periodic table
are given below :
(A) Systematic study of elements : He arranged known elements in

order of their increasing atomic masses considering the fact that
elements with similar properties should fall in the same vertical
column.
(B) Correction of atomic masses : The mendeleev’s periodic table

could predict errors in the atomic masses of certain elements were
corrected. For example, atomic mass of beryllium was corrected from
13.5 to 9. Similarly, with the help of this table, atomic masses of
indium, gold, platinum etc. were corrected.
(C) Mendeleev predicated the properties of those missing elements

from the known properties of the other elements in the same group.
Eka-boron, eka– aluminum and eka - silicon names were given for
scandium, gallium and germanium (not discovered at the time of
Mandeleev).
Properties predicted by Mendeleev for

missing elements and those found experimentally were almost
same.
(D) Position of noble gases : Noble gages like helium (He), neon
(Ne) and argon (Ar) were mentioned in many studies. However, these
gases were discovered very late because they are very inert and are
present in extremely low concentrations. One of the achievements of
Mendeleev’s periodic table was that when these gases were
discovered, they could be placed in a new group without disturbing
the existing order.
(iii) Limitations of Mandeleev’s periodic table : Inspite of many

advantages, the Mendeleev’s periodic table has certain defects also.
Some of these are given below
(A) Position of hydrogen : Position of hydrogen in the periodic table

is uncertain. It has been placed in 1A group with alkali metals, but
certain properties of hydrogen resemble those of halogens. So, it may
be placed in the group for halogens as well/
(B) Position of isotopes : Isotopes are the atoms of the same

element having different atomic masses. Therefore, according to
Mendeleev’s classification these should be placed at different places
depending upon their atomic masses. For example, hydrogen
isotopes with atomic masses 1,2 and 3 should be placed at three
places. However, isotopes have not been given separate places in
the periodic table because of their similar properties.
(C) Anomalous pairs of elements “ In certain pair of elements, the

increasing order of atomic masses was not obeyed. In these,
Mendeleev placed elements according to similarities in their
properties and not in increasing order of their atomic masses.
For example :
The atomic mass of argon is 39.9 and that of potassium 39.1 But
argon is placed before potassium in the periodic table.
The positions of cobalt and nickel are not in proper order. Cobalt
(at. mass = 58.9 ) is placed before nickel (at. mass = 58.7)
Tellurium (at. mass = 127.6 ) is placed before iodine (at. mass =
126.9)/
(D) Some similar elements are separated, in the periodic table. For
example copper (Cu) and mercury (Hg), barium (Ba) and lead (Pb).
On the other hand some dissimilar elements have been placed
together in the same group.
e.g. : Copper (Cu), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) have been placed in
group 1 along with alkali metals. Similarly, manganese (Mn) is placed
in the group of halogens.
(E) Cause of periodicity : Mendeleev could not explain the cause of
periodicity among the elements.
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLESM # 17

1. The law of octaves was proposed by
(A) Newlands (B) Dobereiner (C) Lavoisier (D) Mendeleev
2. The early attempt to classify elements as metals and non-metals
was made by (A) Mendeleev (B) Newlands (C) Lavoisier (D) Henry
Moseley
3. The early attempts to classify elements were based on(A) atomic

number
(C) electronic configuration
(B) atomic mass (D) none of these
4. CI, Br, I, if this is Dobereiner’s triad and the atomic masses of CI

and I are 35.5 and 127 respectively, then the atomic mass of Br is
(A) 162.5 (B) 91.5 (C) 81.25 (D) 45.625
5. According to Newlands’ law of octaves 3rd element will resemble in

its properties to- (A) ninth element (B) eight element (C) tenth
element (D) eleventh element
6. New lands could classify elements only upto(A) copper (B) chlorine
(C) calcium (D) chromium
7. According to Mendeleev’s periodic law which properties of the

elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses ?
(A) Physical properties only
(C) Physical and chemical properties both (B) Chemical properties
only (D) none of these
8. Mendeleev classified elements in(A) increasing order of atomic

number (C) decreasing order of atomic masses. (B) increasing order
of atomic masses. (D) decreasing order of atomic number.
9. Mendeleev’s periodic table was divided into - (A) seven periods

and seven groups (C) seven periods and eight groups (B) eight
periods and eight groups. (D) eight periods and seven groups.
10. Noble gases were included in Mendeleev’s periodic table in the

(A) 1st group (B) 7th group (C) 8 th group (D) None of these
1. Why did Mendeleev leave the gaps in the periodic table ?
2. What were the major defects of Mendeleev’s classification ?
3. Why in the law proposed by Newlands called the Law of Octaves ?
4. A,B,C are the elements of a Dobereiner’s triad. It the atomic mass
of ‘A’ is 9 and that of ‘C’ is 39, what is the atomic mass of elements ‘B’
?
5. Among the halogens F, CI, Br, and I which does not fit in the
Dobereiner’s triad ?
6. What does the word ‘Period’ signify in the periodic table ?
7. What is common in the musical notes and the elements arranged
by newlands ? 8. How many elements were know when Mendeleev
gave his periodic table ?
PROPERTIES
CL - 18
18.1 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE :

18.1 (a)Introduction :
In 1913, an English physicist, Henry Moseley showed that the

physical and chemical properties of the atoms of the elements are
determined by their atomic number and not by their atomic masses.
Consequently, the periodic law was modified.
18.1 (b) Modern periodic Law (Moseley’s Periodic Law):
“Physical and chemical properties of an element are the periodic

function of its atomic number”. The atomic number gives us the
number of protons In the nucleus of an atom and this number
increases atomic number, is called periodicity.
18.1 (d) Cause of Periodicity :

The periodic repetition of the properties of the elements is due to the
recurrence of similar valence shell (outermost shell) electronic
configuration (ns1) and therefore, have similar properties.
Alkali Metals
Atomic Element Symbol Electronic number configuration 3

Lithium Li 2,1
11 Sodium Na 2,8,1
19 Potassium K 2,8,8,1
37 Rubidium Rb 2,8,18,8,1
55 Caesium Cs 2,8,18,18,8,1
87 Francium Fr 2,8,18,32,18,8,1
Modern periodic table is based on atomic
number, not an atomic mass.
JETHWAS
55
Pre-foundationCareerCareProgrammes(PCCP)Division
18.1 (e) Long Form of Periodic Table :
(i) The long form of periodic table is based upon Modern periodic
law. Long form of of periodic table is the contribution of Range,
Werner, Bohr and Bury.
(ii) This table is also referred to asBohr’s table Since it follows
Bohr’s scheme of the arrangement of elements into four types based
on electronic configuration of elements.
(iii) Long form of periodic table consists of horizontal rows (periods)
and vertical columns (groups).
18.1 (f) Description of Periods :
(i) A horizontal row of a periodic table is called a period .
(ii) There are seven periods numbered as 1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7.
(iii) Each period starts with an alkali metal having outermost shell
electronic configuration ns1.
(v) Each period ends with a noble gas with outermost shell electronic
configuration ns2 np6 except helium having outermost electronic
configuration 1s2.
(vi) Each period starts with the filling of a new energy level.
(A) 1st period : This period is called very short period because this
period contains only 2elements H and He.
(B) 2nd and 3rd periods : These periods are called short periods
because these periods contain 8 elements. 2nd periods starts from 3Li
to 10Ne and 3rd period starts form 11Na to 18Ar.
(C) 4th and 5th periods : These periods are called long periods
because these periods contain 18 elements. 4th period starts from 19K
to 36Kr and 5th period start from 37Rb to 54Xe.
(D) 6th period : This period is called very long period. This period
contains 32 elements. Out of the
32 elements 14 elements belong to Lanthanoid series (58Ce to
th
71Lu). 6 period starts from 55Cs to
86Rn.
(E) 7th period : This period is called as incomplete period. It contains
25 elements. out of the 25 elements 14 elements belong to Actinoid
series (90Th to 103Lr.) 7th period starts from 87Fr to 111Rg.
Modern period table consists of seven

periods and eighteen groups.
Period No. Of Elements Called as
(1*) n = 1 2 Very short period
(2nd) n = 2 8 Short period
(3rd) n = 3 8 Short period
(4th) n = 4 18 Long period
(5th) n = 5 18 Long period
(6th) n = 6 32 Very long period Incomplete period (7th) n = 7 25
Different elements belonging to a particular period have different

electronic configurations and have different number of valence
electrons. That is why elements belonging to a particular period have
different properties.
18.1 (g) Description of Groups : (i) A vertical column of elements

in the periodic table is called a group.
(ii) There are eighteen groups numbered as 1,2,3,4,5,--------
-13,14,15,16,17,18.
(iii) A group consists of a series of elements configuration and
hence exhibit similar properties. having similar valence shell
electronic e.g. : Li, Na, K belong to the same group and have 1
electron in their valence shell.
(iv) The group 18 is also known as zero group because the valency
of the elements of this group is zero.
the elements of 18th or zero group are called noble
gases.
(v) The elements present in groups 1,2,13 to 17 are called normal
representative elements.
(vi) Elements of group 1 and 2 are called alkali metals and alkaline
earth metals respectively.
(vii) Elements present in group 17 are called halogens.
Elements present in a period have different

properties, while elements present in a group have similar
properties.
18.1 (h) Merits of Long Form of Periodic Table L (i) The long form
of periodic table is based on atomic number. Atomic number is a
more fundamental property of a element as compared to atomic
mass.
Not two elements can have the same atomic number.

(ii) In the long form of periodic table, different isotopes can be placed
at the same place because they have same atomic number. On the
other hand, isobars such as Ar (40) and Ca (40) have to be placed at
different places due to their different atomic numbers.
(iii) The long form of periodic table can explain why all the elements
in a group have similar properties while the elements in a period have
different properties.
The basis for periodicity of elements is the similar electronic
configuration of the outermost shell of elements of the same group.
The similar electronic configuration of the elements are repeated at
regular intervals so the properties of the elements are also repeated
at regular intervals.
(iv) It is easy to remember and reproduce the table.

18.1 (i) Limitations of Long Form of Periodic Table :
(i) Position of hydrogen is not accurate.
(ii) Inner transition elements (lanthaoids and actinoids( have been

given separate positions below in the periodic table.
DAILY PRACTIVE PROBLEMS # 18

1. Modern periodic law was proposed by(A) Mendeleev (B) Henry
Mosley (C) Werner (D) Bohr and Bury
2. The long form of periodic table consists of (A) seven periods &
either groups. (C) eight periods & eighteen groups. (B) seven periods
& eighteen groups. (D) eighteen periods & eight groups.
3. In the long form of periodic table lanthanides are placed in the
(A) 2nd period (B) 5th period (C) 6th period (D) 7th period
4. All the members in a group of long form of periodic table have the
same(A) valency (B) number of valence electrons (C) chemical
properties (D) all of these
5. Which of the following pairs of elements belong to the same period

of the periodic table ? (A) C, Mg (B) N, Ar (C) Ca, CI (D) K, Cu
6. The number of elements in the 4th period of periodic table are (A)
8 (B) 18 (C) 10 (D) 32
7. One important merit of modern periodic table is

(A) it explains why elements in the same group have the same
chemical properties. (B) hydrogen has been placed accurately.
(C) isobars have not been placed separately.
(D) it is based on classifying elements according to their atomic
masses.
8. Which of the following properties does not match to the elements

of halogen family ? (A) They have seven electrons in their valence
shells.
(B) They are diatomic in their molecular form.
(C) They are highly reactive chemically.
(D) They are metallic nature.
9. Which of the following sets does not belong to a group ?

(A) Li, Na, K (B) N, O, F, (C) Be, Mg, Ca (D) He, Ne, Ar
10. In the modern periodic table which one of the following does not
have a appropriate position? (A) Transition elements (B) Inner
transition elements (B) Inert gases (D) Halogens

1. What is a group and period in a periodic table ?
2. State the modern periodic law.
3. Why are 18th group elements called inert gases ?
4. Name three elements with single electron in their valence shell.
5. Name the metals among first ten elements in the modern periodic
tale.
6. Give the name and the electronic configuration of the second alkali
metal.
7. What is the similarity in the electronic configurations Mg, Ca and Sr
?
8. On the basis of the periodic classification, identify each set
belonging to either a group or a period. (a) Na, Mg, Al (b) K, RB, Cs
(c) N, O, F (d) Ne, Ar, Kr
PROPERTIES
CL - 19
19.1 PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES :

(i) The electronic configuration of the atoms display periodic
variations with increase in atomic number. (ii) The elements exhibit
periodic variations of physical and chemical properties.
Following are some the important properties of the elements
(a) Valency (b) Atomic size (c) Metallic and non - metallic character
19.1 (a) Valency :

(i) The valency of an element may be defined at the combining
capacity of the element. (ii) The electrons present in the outermost
shell are called valence electrons and these electrons determine the
valency of the atom.
Valiancy of an element is determined by the number of valence
electrons in an atom of the element.
The valency of an element = number of valence electrons

(when number of valence electrons are from 1 to 4)
The valency of an element - 8 - number of valence electrons.
(when number of valence electrons are more than 4)
(iii) Variation of valency across a period : The number of valence
electrons increases from 1 to 8 on
moving across a period. They valency of the elements with respect to
hydrogen and chlorine increases
from 1 to 4 and then decreases from 4 to zero. With respect to
oxygen valency increases from 1 to 7.
Variation of valency of elements of second and third periods :

Elements of second period
Li Be B C N O F
Valency with respect to H
LiH BeH2 BH3 CH4 NH3 H2O HF
(1) (2) (3) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Valency with respect to CI
LiCI BeCI2 BCI3 CCI4 NCI3 CI2O CIF
(1) (2) (3) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Valency of elements changes in a period.

Elements of third period :
Na Mg AI Si P S CI
Valency with respect to H

NaH MgH2 AIH 3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCI (1) (2) (3) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Valency with respect to O

Na2O MgO AI2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 SI2O7 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(iv) Variation of valency along a group : On moving down a group,

the number of valence electrons remains the same and, therefore, all
the elements in a group exhibit the same valency. e.g. All the
elements of group 1 have valency equal to 1 and those of group 2
have valency equal to 2.
Valency of elements remains same in a group.

19.1 (b) Atomic Size : The term atomic size refers to the radius of
an atom. In general atomic size may be considered as the distance
between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an
isolated atom.
(i) Variation of atomic size in a period : Within each period, the

atomic radii decrease with increase in atomic number.
e.g. Atomic radii decrease from lithium to fluorine in the second
period.
Reason : The decrease of atomic radii along a period can be
explained on the basis of increase in nuclear charge. On moving
from left to right across the period, the nuclear charge increases
progressively by one unit but the additional electron goes to the same
shell. As a result the electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus by the
increased nuclear charge. This causes a decrease in atomic size.
Atomic Radii of Elements of Second period

Element3Li4Be5B7N8O9F9F10Ne
Nuclear + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 8 +9 +9 + 10 Charge
Configuration 2s1 2s2 2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5 2s22p6
Atomic Radii 133 111 88 77 74 72 72 160 (pm)
The values given in the table, show abrupt increase in the atomic
size of Ne. This is due to the reason that the values for other
elements are covalent radii whereas that for Ne it is Vander Waals
radius because it does not form covalent bond due to its stable
configuration.
Covalent radii is taken when electrons are

shared between two elements, while Vander Waals radii is taken
in case of gases.
(ii) Variation of atomic radii within a group : The atomic radii
increase from top to bottom within a group of the periodic table.
Atomic radii of alkali metals and halogens
Alkali Halogens
Element Atomic Radius Element Atomic Radius (pm) (pm)
Li 133 F 64
Na 157 CI 99
K 201 Br 114
Rb 216 I 133
Cs 235
Reason : In moving down a group, the nuclear charge increases

with increase in atomic number, but at the same time there is a
progressive increase in the number of energy levels. Since, the
effect additional energy level is more pronounced than the effect of
increased nuclear charge, the distance of the outermost electron from
the nucleus increases on going down the group.
Atomic radii increase down the group.

Atomic radii decrease across the period.
19.2 METALLIC AND NON - METALLIC CHARACTER :
19.2 (a) Metals :
The metals are characterised by their nature of readily giving up the
electrons.
(i) Metals comprise of more than 75% of all known elements and
most of them appear on the left hand side of the periodic table.
(ii) Metals are usually solid at room temperature (except mercury).
(iii) They have high melting and boiling points and are good
conductors of heat and electricity. 19.2 (b) Non - Metals :
(i) Non-metals do not lose electrons but take up electrons to form

corresponding anions. (ii) Non-metals are located at the top right
hand side of the periodic table.
(iii) Non- metals are usually solids or gases (except bromine whish
is liquid) at room temperature with low melting and boiling points.
(iv) They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Carbon is an exception as one of its

allotropic forms, graphite is a good conductors of electricity.
19.2 (c) Metalloids (Semimetals ) : (i) Some elements lying at the
border of metallic and non- metallic behaviour possess the properties
that are characteristics of both metals and non - metals. These
elements are called semimetals or metalloids.
(ii) The metalloids comprise of the elements B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te and
Po.
(iii) Variation of metallic character across a period :
Metallic character decreases along a period due to increase in
ionisation energy. Non - metallic character increases

with increase in atomic number across a period.
(iv) Variation of metallic character along a group : Metallic

character increases on going down a group from top to bottom. This
can be explained in terms of decrease in lionisation energy on going
down a group fro top to bottom.
NOTE : Metals generally form cations by losing electrons from their

outermost shell, while non - metals generally form anions by
accepting one or more electrons.
e.g. Alkali metals form M+ ions by losing one electron, while alkaline
earth metals form M+ ions by losing two electrons from their
outermost shell.
Metallic character decreases and non-

metallic character increases across a
period from left to right, while metallic character increases and
non-metallic character decrease down the group.

1. The difference between ions and atoms is of
(A) relative size (B) configuration (C) presence of charge (D) All of
these
2. Which of the following has the largest size ?
(A) Na (B) Na+ (C) Mg (D) Mg+2
3. An element M has a atomic number 9 and atomic mass 19. Its ion
will be represented by (A) M (B) M+2 (C) M- (D) M-2
4. Which of the following has the maximum non-metallic character ?
(A) F (B) CI (C) Br (D) I
5. Which of the following is the most reactive halogen ?
(A) F (B) CI (C) Br (D) I
6. In the third period of the periodic table, the element having smallest
size is (A) Na (B) Ar (C) CI (D) Si
7. Which of the following elements has maximum metallic character ?
(A) Li (B) N (C) Na (D) P
8. On moving left to fight in a period, in the periodic table, metallic

character (A) decrease (B) increases
(C) remains same (D) first increase, then decreases
9. On moving from top to bottom in a group, in the periodic table, size

of an atom (A) increases (B) decreases
(C) remains same (D) first increases, then decreases
10. On moving from top to bottom in a group, in the periodic table,

valency (A) increase (B) decreases
(C) remains same (D) first increases, then decreases
SUBJECTIVE DPP - 19.2 1. Why does the atomic size decreases

from Na to CI when we move in the third period of the periodic table ?
2. Show the variation of valency with respect to hydrogen in the 2nd
period.
3. Which of the following species are isoelectronic in nature >
(i) Ca2+ (ii) K (iii) Mg2+ (iv) S(iv) S (v) CI-
4. What is the valency of the elements that are placed in group 18 ?
5. Name three elements which behave as metalloids.
ANSWERS
OBJECTIVE DPP 17.1

Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ans A C B C C C C B C D
SUBJECTIVE DPP 17.2
Sol.4 Atomic mass of the B = 24 Sol.5 Element F Sol. 8 63 elements
OBJECTIVE DPP 18.1
Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ans B B C D D B A D B C
SUBJECTIVE DPP 18.2
Sol. 4 Li, Na, K Sol.5 Li, Be
Sol.6 Second alkali metal = Sodium (Na), Electronic configuration =
2,8,1
Sol.7 All the elements have two electrons in their valence shell.
Sol.8 (a) Period (b) Group (c) Period (d) Group
OBJECTIVE DPP 19.1
Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ans D A C A A C C A A C
SUBJECTIVE DPP 19.2
Sol.3 Ca+2, S, S & CI- ions are all isoelectronic in nature because they
have 18 electrons.
Sol.4 Zero
Sol.5 B,Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te and Po are the elements which behave as
metalloids.

Chemistry Notes For Class X e B - Pradeep Jethwa

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(i) it could gain four electrons forming C C anion. But it would be

12.2 (a) Some Simple Molecules Formed by the Sharing of

(i) Hydrogen molecules: This is the simplest molecule formed by

According to Lewis notation, the electrons in the valence shell are

(ii) Chlorine molecule : Each chlorine atom has seven electrons in

(iii) Hydrogen chloride molecule: It may be note that a covalent

(iv) Formation of water molecule (H2O) : Each hydrogen atom has

Hydrogen Oxygen Water

2 Shared electron pairs

(i) Formation of double bond (oxygen molecule) : Two oxygen

atoms molecule or O = O Oxygen molecule

(ii) Formation of triple bond (Nitrogen molecule) : Nitrogen atom

atoms molecule or N N Nitrogen molecule

The important characteristic properties of covalent compounds are :

(ii) Physical state : Weak Vanderwaal’s forces are present

For example: Hydrogen, chlorine, methane, oxygen, nitrogen are

(iii) Crystal structure Covalent compounds exhibit both crystalline

12.3 ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON :

12.3 (a) Damon :

Elements in which atoms are bonded

Each carbon is bonded to only three neighboring carbon atoms in the

Within each layer of graphite, every carbon atom is joined to three

(ii) Properties of Graphite:

(i) Structure: Fullerene is naturally occurring allotrope of carbon in

The correctly suggested the cage structure as shown in the figure

(ii) Uses of Fullerenes : It is hoped fullerenes or their compounds

12.3 (e) Difference Between Properties of Diamond and Graphite

Occurrence Rare Abundant

OBJECTIVE DPP - 12.1

2. Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity because (A) it is

3. In a double covalent bond number of electron pairs shared are (A)

5. Carbon dioxide molecule contains (A) single covalent bond

6. Covalent bond between atoms is formed by (A) loss of electrons

7. Covalent compounds can be dissolved in

13.1 VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON :

(i) Catenation : The property of self linking of carbon atoms through

(ii) Tetravalency of carbon : Carbon belongs to group 14 of periodic

(iii) Tendency to form multiple bond : Due to small size of carbon it

(NH4)2 SO4 + 2 KCNO ⎯⎯→ NH4CNO + Ammonium

The organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are

13.4 (b) Types of Hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons can be

(A) Alkanes : Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only

For e.g. : C2H4 (Ethane) C3H6 (Propane)

Electron dot structrure

Open chain compounds Closed chain compounds

Alicyclic Aromatic compounds compounds

(i) Open chain compounds : These compounds contain an open

(A) Alicyclic compounds : Those carboxylic compounds which

Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene

Homologous series may be defined as a series of similarly

13.5 (a) Characteristics of Homologous Series :

(iv) The members in any particular family have almost identical

(v) The members of a particular series can be prepared almost by the

(ii) Homologous series of alkenes

Value of n Molecular formula n = 2 C2H2

OBJECTIVE DPP - 13.1

4. In order to form branching, an organic compound must have a

5. The number of C - H bonds in ethane (C2H6) molecule is