Textbook English As A Foreign Language Teachers Tpack Emerging Research and Opportunities 1St Edition Mehrak Rahimi Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Mehrak Rahimi
Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Iran
Shakiba Pourshahbaz
Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Iran
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Titles in this Series
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Preface................................................................................................................... vi
Chapter 1
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL).....................1
Chapter 2
The Role of Teachers in CALL.............................................................................29
Chapter 3
EFL Teacher Knowledge Base..............................................................................53
Chapter 4
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): The Theory.............78
Chapter 5
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): Research
Agenda................................................................................................................103
Chapter 6
EFL TPACK: The Theory...................................................................................115
Chapter 7
EFL TPACK: Research Agenda..........................................................................152
Appendix............................................................................................................ 162
Index................................................................................................................... 191
vi
Preface
The era of technology has brought with itself new types of competencies, skills,
and knowledge. The use of technology for more than half of a century has
evolved people’s minds and has created new ways of thinking and processing
information. As a result, the schools of the 21st century have different students,
and thus demand to have different teachers, environment, and equipment.
Undoubtedly, teachers of this century should empower themselves both
pedagogically and technologically to be able to teach more efficiently and
orchestrate efficient learning. To be able to do that, teachers are required to
arm themselves with appropriate knowledge of the subject matter to teach
the content based on pedagogical principles and practices using the-state-
of-the-art technologies. The knowledge base of teachers of the 21st century
is called TPACK (Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge)with
seven distinct and interrelated components including Content Knowledge
(CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(PCK), Technological Knowledge (TK), Technological Content Knowledge
(TCK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), and Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK).While the framework of TPACK
is based on certain theoretical underpinnings and empirical studies, extensive
research on the model of TPACK has revealed contradictions with respect
to the perfect compatibility of its components with the knowledge base of
different subject matters.
TPACK of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers can subsume
the prototypical model of TPACK if certain additional aspects are taken into
account. This would include specification of teaching English as a Foreign
Language standards, proficiencies, and competencies; accurate definition of
its underlying pedagogical frameworks associated with English Language
Teaching (ELT) and Second Language Acquisition; as well as the way English
is taught with technology in the domain of Computer Assisted Language
Learning (CALL). Although there is extensive research on the way language(s)
Preface
vii
Preface
viii
Preface
Chapter Seven lists studies done on EFL TPACK. As a new and still-
evolving construct, some studies done on the understanding of the construct
itself and its relationship with other variables are listed. In the closing section
of the chapter a few measures of EFL TPACK are introduced. Three samples
of measure of TPACK are enclosed in the Appendix for further reference.
As this book gets its strength both from TPACK and ELT theories and
practices, it thus can be a helpful guide for EFL teacher educators, EFL
teachers, and researchers who are interested in issues related to teacher
empowerment and development.
ix
1
Chapter 1
A Short History of
Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL)
ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses a brief history of computer-assisted language learning
(CALL). First CALL and its key concepts are defined then a comprehensive
but brief account of the history of CALL from the 1950s till the present is
presented. The characteristics of each phase of CALL, the corresponding
linguistic/psychological frameworks, technologies, activities and merits/
demerits, and the role of the computer in instruction are elaborated. CALL
research scope and its future perspective are portrayed and possible fields of
research are introduced. In the end, a quick and brief guideline is provided
on how to use CALL in teaching macro and micro language skills.
BACKGROUND
Since the mid of 20th century, the advent of different types of technological
devices has revolutionized the way people think, work, and live. Technology
and its affordances have affected all areas of science and people’s life style;
and have had a great role in the way people look at the world and process
its components.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6267-2.ch001
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
CALL has been labeled differently and a variety of terms have been used
for it by different scholars over time. Some of these terms are summarized
in Table 1.
The term CALL, however, seems to be more prevalent among language
experts especially after 1980s, although two basic weak points are often
highlighted regarding this term: the use of computer as the only technology
that can be integrated into language instruction and a focus on the learning,
that seems to ignore the teaching procedure (and thus the teacher role) in
2
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
3
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
4
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
The very first generation of CALL came into picture with the development of
the mainframe computers and programs designed for those types of computers.
The emergence of CALL in 50s was coincidental with the dominancy of
one of the giants of psychology, behaviorism, and for almost two decades
the activities for machine-based learning were being designed based on
mimicry-memorization and rote learning models. Unfortunately, these types
of activities are still most common in many software packages.
The history of CALL can be divided into three main stages (Warschauer,
2000), that is, Structural/Behaviorist CALL, Communicative CALL, and
Integrative CALL. Each stage corresponds to certain levels of technology
advancement and pedagogical and psychological approaches.
Structural/Behaviorist CALL
5
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
6
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Figure 2. PLATO
7
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Communicative CALL
8
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
• Does not judge and evaluate everything the students say nor reward
them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;
• Avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of
student responses;
• Uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in
which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the
screen; and
• Will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well (Underwood,
1984).
9
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Integrative CALL
10
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
11
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
CALL Approaches
Bax (2003) has reviewed the history of CALL from another perspective.
Based on Bax, Warschaure’s three phases of CALL need clarification in a
number of areas:
12
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
13
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
14
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Blogs by their nature and page structure encourage feedback and represent
both a reading and a writing activity. In the best of cases, this kind of
online writing stimulates debate, furthers critical analysis, and encourages
articulation of ideas and opinions. (Godwin-Jones, 2006, pp. 10-11)
Wikis also have been found to enable students to share their writing with
others and let them make changes to the content (Mazlum & Talebzadeh,
2010). The difference between a wiki and a traditional website is shown in
Figure 8.
Scholars have specified the advantages of wikis as:
16
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
17
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
18
A Short History of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Many technological tools (such as mobile phones and MP3 players) can
be used in the classroom for teaching and practicing listening comprehension
and improving students’ listening skill using podcasts (Valk, Rashid, & Elder,
2010).
In the modern era, the advancement of ICT tools and the development of 3D
graphics and educational computer games have modified language teaching
19
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
PLATE II.
[Photo by W. Cottrell
Hightown, Manchester.]
EXTERNAL CHIMNEY SCAFFOLD.
Erected for the Willesden Electric Lighting Works, under the supervision of E.
Willis, Esq., a.m.i.c.e., etc.
When the chimney is to be erected by external scaffolding the
ordinary mason’s or bricklayer’s scaffold is used. Owing to the small
area of the erection the outside frames of the scaffold have a quick
return. This makes it practically impossible for the scaffold to fail by
breaking away from the building under the influence of the loads it
may carry. Shoring or tying is therefore not so important. Wind
pressures have, however, a greater effect, especially when the
direction is not at right angles to one of the faces of the scaffold. If in
that direction, the tied putlogs would offer resistance. Braces are
therefore imperative, and they should be fixed at right angles to each
other, each pair thus bracing a portion of the height of the scaffold
equal to its width. (See plate 2.)
For the repair of chimney shafts without scaffolding from the
ground level, means have to be taken to bring, first the mechanic,
and afterwards his material, within reach of the work.
Fig. 27
The preliminary process of kite-flying is now rarely seen, except
for square-topped chimneys, and even in these cases the delay that
may arise while waiting for a suitable steady wind is a drawback to
its practice. The kites used are about 10 feet long and 8 feet wide.
They are held at four points by cords which continue for a distance of
about 16 feet, and then unite into one. Near this point on the single
rope another cord is attached, which serves to manipulate the kite
into position.
Stronger ropes or chains are then pulled over the shaft, after
which a workman ascends, and the necessary pulley wheels and
timbers to form a regular means of ascent are sent up after him.
A light line carried up in the interior of the shaft by a hot-air balloon
is another means of communication.
The most certain and safest method of ascent is to raise on the
exterior of the shaft a series of light ladders, which are lashed to
each other and firmly fixed to the chimney as they ascend.
The ladders have parallel sides, and are used up to 22 feet in
length.
One method of fixing is as follows:—
A ladder is placed against the shaft on its soundest side. It rests at
its top end against a block of wood slightly longer than the width of
the ladder, and which keeps it from 7 to 9 inches away from the wall.
This space allows room for the workmen’s feet when climbing. The
ladder is then fixed by two hooks of round steel driven into the wall,
one on each side immediately under the blocks, the hooks turning in
and clipping the sides of the ladder (fig. 28). The hooks, which have
straight shanks of 7⁄8-inch diameter with wedge-shaped points, are
driven well home, as the stability of the erection depends upon their
holding firmly.
Above the top end of the ladder a steel hook is driven into the wall
on which a pulley block can be hung, or instead, a pin with a ring in
its head can be so fixed. A rope from the ground level is passed
through this block or ring, and reaches downward again for
connection to the ladder next required. The connection is made by
lashing the rope to the top rung and tying the end to the seventh or
eighth rung from the bottom; this causes the ladder to rise
perpendicularly. The steeplejack who is standing on the already fixed
ladder cuts the top lashing as the hoisted ladder reaches him, and
guides it into its place as it rises. When the rung to which the rope is
tied reaches the pulley block, the ladders should overlap about 5
feet. They are at once lashed together at the sides, not round the
rungs.
Fig. 28
The workmen can now climb higher, driving in hooks round the
sides, and under the rungs of the ladder alternately, lashings being
made at each point. A wooden block is placed under the top end of
the last ladder and fixed as before. The hoisting rope, which has
been kept taut meanwhile, is now loosened and the process
repeated.
The ladders rise in this manner until the coping of the shaft is
reached. Here, owing to the projection of the cap which throws the
ladders out of line, it is impossible to lash the top ladder to the lower.
To overcome the difficulty, the wall is drilled in two places
immediately over the topmost fixed ladder, and expansion bolts are
fitted therein. To these bolts the lower end of the top ladder is tied.
The hoisting rope is then tightened sufficiently to hold the ladder, and
by this means the workmen are enabled to reach the top of the shaft.
A variation of this method of climbing is to replace the wooden
blocks by iron dogs with 9-inch spikes, which should be driven well
into the wall. Short ladders of about 10 feet in length are then used,
these being lashed to the dogs as they rise.
Another method of fixing the ladders is shown in fig. 29.
Fig. 29
In this case eye-bolts are driven horizontally into the wall in pairs,
rather wider apart than the width of the ladders.
Iron rods hook into these and are fastened to the ladder sides by
thumb screws.
The ladders rise above each other and are connected by 3-inch
sockets.
When fixed, they stand about 18 inches from the wall. This is an
advantage, as it enables the workmen to climb on the inside of the
ladders, thus lessening the strain on the eye-bolts, and the ladder
can more easily pass a projecting chimney cap.
On the other hand, the whole weight of the ladders rests upon the
bottom length, so that if through any cause it gave way, for instance
under accidental concussion, the entire length would most certainly
collapse.
This danger could be avoided if the ladders were supported on
brackets as fig. 30. No reliance should be placed upon the thumb
screws, as they may work loose under vibration. Danger from this
source would be avoided if the slot in which the ladder peg moved
was made as shown in fig. 30.
Fig. 30
The necessary repairs can be carried out by means of boats,
cradles, or scaffolding.
Cradles and boats are swung from balk timbers laid across the top
of the shaft, or from hooks where the design of the chimney permits,
as shown in fig. 31.
The common method of fixing light scaffolds round a chimney or
steeple is shown in fig. 32. They are most easily fixed to square or
other flat-sided erections. The scaffolder having by means of ladders
or boats reached the desired height, fixes a putlog by means of
holdfasts to one of the walls. Another putlog is then fixed on the
opposite side of the building at the same level. The two are next
bolted together by 1-inch iron bolts of the required length. The bolts
are kept as near to the wall as possible. The process is repeated
again about 6 feet higher on the building. The boards for the
platforms are next laid. The first are placed at right angles to the
putlogs and project sufficiently to carry the boards which are laid
parallel to the putlogs. To prevent the boards rising when weight is
applied at one side of the scaffold, iron plates bolted together (fig.
33) are fixed at the corners, and clips (fig. 34) connect them to the
putlogs.
Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Fig. 33
The stability of these scaffolds depends upon fixing at least two
sets of putlogs, connected by means of stays as shown in fig. 32.
Bracing is unnecessary if the putlogs and bolts tightly grip the
building. When these scaffolds are used on circular chimneys,
chucks have to be fitted on the inside of the putlogs to prevent them
being drawn by the bolts to a curve. The chucks (fig. 35) can be
fastened to the putlogs before they are fixed, if the curve of the
building is accurately known. When this is not the case, the putlogs
are fixed by a holdfast at their centre. The chucks are then placed in
position, and clamped to the putlogs as shown in fig. 36.
Additional holdfasts are then driven into the wall immediately
under the chucks, so that the putlogs are kept level.
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
The putlogs are fixed on edge, and when not exceeding 16 feet in
length are 7 in. by 3 in. Above that length they are 9 in. by 3 in. The
stays should be 4 in. by 2 in., and connected to the putlogs by 5⁄8-
inch iron bolts. The platform is usually of three boards 11 in. by 2 in.
Fig. 36
Fig. 37
Hollow towers are erected or repaired in the same manner as
chimney shafts, except that climbing ladders are not often required.
External or internal scaffolds may be erected. Towers being usually
of larger area than chimney shafts, the putlogs for internal
scaffolding are often of short poles from 6 to 8 inches diameter. Even
these may require extra support. This is gained by carrying
standards from the ground level or other solid foundation and tying to
the putlogs. If of great height the standards may be unable to carry
their own weight. For the cases where danger might be apprehended
from this cause, fig. 37 shows a system of framing, which, being
supported by the set-back in the thickness of the wall, will carry the
upper standards.
Steeples are generally built by the aid of external scaffolds, which,
as in the case of chimney shafts, should be well braced. The lower
portion may also be repaired in this way, the standards rising from
the ground level, or, if so designed, from the top of the tower. A
series of needles could be arranged for the higher portions.
Fig. 38
Fig. 39
The boats are fitted with guard boards and rails, and their safety,
providing the jibs are well fixed by balancing weights, is in their
favour. They are not self-supporting, and there is a distinct danger of
their running down if the sustaining ropes are not securely fastened
off. The wind causes them to sway considerably, and their use is
confined chiefly to façade work. An improved cradle is now in
general use, which is slung by head blocks from a wire cable running
between two jibs (see fig. 40). By the aid of guy lines movement in
this case can be also obtained horizontally, which removes the
necessity of shifting the jibs or employing a greater number of boats
as in the older method.
Fig. 40
Fig. 41
Another cradle as shown in fig. 41 has advantages which cannot
be ignored. It has steel cables with a breaking weight of 15 cwt.
instead of fibre ropes, and the cradle is raised and lowered by
means of gearing and a drum fixed in the gear case A. It is self-
supporting, and therefore safer than the cradle mentioned above.
The lower ends of the cable are fastened to the drum, and the
gearing gives sufficient mechanical advantage for one man to raise
the scaffold by turning the handle B. The uprights and rails are of
angle steel or barrel and will take apart and fold.
Fig. 42
The boatswain’s boat (see fig. 42) is useful under some
circumstances, especially for making examinations of buildings for
possible damage. It is dangerous and awkward to work from, and is
also acted upon considerably by the wind.
The boat is slung from a single needle. The workman has no
control over its movement, as he has to be raised or lowered as
required by men having charge of the other end of the fall.