Full Chapter Embedded System Design Embedded Systems Foundations of Cyber Physical Systems and The Internet of Things 4Th Edition Peter Marwedel PDF
Full Chapter Embedded System Design Embedded Systems Foundations of Cyber Physical Systems and The Internet of Things 4Th Edition Peter Marwedel PDF
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Systems Foundations of
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Embedded Systems
Peter Marwedel
Embedded
System
Design
Embedded Systems Foundations
of Cyber-Physical Systems, and
the Internet of Things
Fourth Edition
Embedded Systems
Series editors
Nikil D. Dutt, Irvine, CA, USA
Grant Martin, Santa Clara, CA, USA
Peter Marwedel, Dortmund, Germany
This Series addresses current and future challenges pertaining to embedded hard-
ware, software, specifications and techniques. Titles in the Series cover a focused
set of embedded topics relating to traditional computing devices as well as high-
tech appliances used in newer, personal devices, and related topics. The material
will vary by topic but in general most volumes will include fundamental material
(when appropriate), methods, designs, and techniques.
Fourth Edition
123
Peter Marwedel
TU Dortmund
Dortmund, Germany
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to my family members
Veronika, Malte, Gesine, and Ronja.
Preface
While this book was written, i.e., in the year 2020, the so-called smart and intelligent
systems were becoming available in increasing numbers. Such systems use comput-
ers and other forms of information and communication technology (ICT) to provide
services to humans, partially employing various kinds of artificial intelligence
(AI). For example, recently introduced cars are increasingly capable of driving
autonomously. In avionics and rail-based transportation, driver-less transportation
is already available or on the horizon. The power grid is becoming smarter and the
same applies to buildings. All these systems are based on a combination of ICT
and physical systems called cyber-physical systems (CPS). Such systems can be
defined as “engineered systems that are built from and depend upon the synergy of
computational and physical components” [412]. Due to the direct interface between
the physical and the cyber-world, cyber-physical systems have to be dependable.
The physical world also plays a key role in the definition of the related
term “Internet of Things” (IoT), referring to the physical world as “things.” IoT
“describes . . . a variety of devices . . . able to interact and cooperate with each
other to reach common goals” [185]. Examples of IoT applications include sensor
networks or E-bikes that can be recollected due to available GPS information.
Both terms, CPS and IoT, are generalizing and extending the earlier term
“embedded systems” (ES). Embedded systems are information processing systems
that are embedded into an enclosing product [371]. Compared to the term “embed-
ded systems,” the terms CPS and IoT place more emphasis on physical objects, e.g.,
cars, airplanes, or smart devices.
The steep rise in the availability of embedded and, correspondingly, also cyber-
physical systems was already predicted in 2001: “Information technology (IT) is
on the verge of another revolution. . . . networked systems of embedded computers
. . . have the potential to change radically the way people interact with their
environment by linking together a range of devices and sensors that will allow
information to be collected, shared, and processed in unprecedented ways. . . . The
vii
viii Preface
use . . . throughout society could well dwarf previous milestones in the information
revolution.” This citation from a report of the National Research Council in the
USA [410] describes very nicely the dramatic impact of information technology
in embedded systems. This revolution has already had a major impact and is still
continuing.
Terms like pervasive and ubiquitous computing, ambient intelligence, and
“Industry 4.0” are also referring to the dramatic impact of changes caused by
information technology.
This importance of embedded/cyber-physical systems and IoT is so far not
well reflected in many of the current curricula. However, designing the mentioned
systems requires interdisciplinary knowledge and skills beyond the traditional
boundaries of disciplines. Obtaining an overview of such broad knowledge is very
difficult, due to the wide range of relevant areas. This book aims at facilitating the
acquisition of knowledge from a kernel of relevant areas. It is already a challenge
to identify the kernel of this knowledge. The book aims at being a remedy in this
situation. It provides material for a first course on such systems and includes an
overview of key concepts for the integration of ICT with physical objects. It covers
hardware as well as software aspects. This is in-line with the ARTIST1 guidelines
for curricula of embedded systems: “The development of embedded systems cannot
ignore the underlying hardware characteristics. Timing, memory usage, power
consumption, and physical failures are important” [85].
This book has been designed as a textbook. However, the book provides more
references than typical textbooks do and also helps to structure the area. Hence,
this book should also be useful for faculty members and engineers. For students,
the inclusion of a rich set of references facilitates access to relevant sources of
information.
The book focuses on the fundamental bases of software and hardware. Specific
products and tools are mentioned only if they have outstanding characteristics.
Again, this is in-line with the ARTIST guidelines: “It seems that fundamental bases
are really difficult to acquire during continuous training if they haven’t been initially
learned, and we must focus on them” [85]. As a consequence, this book goes beyond
teaching embedded system design by programming micro-controllers. The book
presents the fundamentals of embedded systems design, which are needed for
the design of CPS and IoT systems. With this approach, we would like to make
sure that the material taught would not be outdated too soon. The concepts covered
in this book should be relevant for a number of years to come.
The proposed positioning of the current textbook in engineering curricula related
to ICT is explained in a paper [372]. We want to relate the most important topics
in this area to each other. This way, we avoid a problem mentioned in the ARTIST
guidelines: “The lack of maturity of the domain results in a large variety of industrial
practices, often due to cultural habits. . . . curricula . . . concentrate on one technique
1 ARTIST is the acronym of an European network of excellence for embedded systems (see http://
www.artist-embedded.org and http://www.emsig.net).
Preface ix
and do not present a sufficiently wide perspective... As a result, industry has difficulty
finding adequately trained engineers, fully aware of design choices” [85].
The book should also help to bridge the gap between practical experiences with
programming micro-controllers and more theoretical issues. Furthermore, it should
help to motivate students and teachers to look at more details. While the book covers
a number of topics in detail, others are covered only briefly. These brief sections
have been included in order to put a number of related issues into perspective.
Furthermore, this approach allows lecturers to have appropriate links in the book for
adding complementary material of their choice. Due to the rich set of references, the
book can also be used as a comprehensive tutorial, providing pointers for additional
reading. Such references can also stimulate taking benefit of the book during labs,
projects, and independent studies as well as a starting point for research.
The scope of this book includes specification techniques, system software,
application mapping, evaluation and validation, hardware components, and the
interface between the cyber- and the physical world (the cyphy-interface) as well
as exemplary optimizations and test methods. The book covers embedded systems
and their interface to the physical environment from a wide perspective but cannot
cover every related area. Legal and socio-economic aspects, human interfaces, data
analysis, application-specific aspects, and a detailed presentation of physics and
communication are beyond the scope of this book. The coverage of the Internet
of Things is limited to areas linked to embedded systems.
2 This is consistent with the curriculum described by T. Abdelzaher in a report on CPS education
[411].
x Preface
• Engineers who have so far worked on system’s hardware and who have to move
more toward software of embedded systems. This book should provide enough
background to understand the relevant technical publications.
• PhD students who would like to get a quick, broad overview of key concepts in
embedded system technology before focusing on a specific research area.
• Professors designing a new curriculum for the mentioned areas.
The first edition of this book was published in 2003. The field of embedded systems
is moving fast, and many new results became available. Also, there are areas for
which the emphasis shifted. In some cases, a more detailed treatment of the topic
became desirable. These changes were considered when the first German edition of
the book was published in 2007. Corresponding updates were also incorporated into
the second English edition published in the late 2010/early 2011.
In the last decade, more technological changes occurred. There was a clear shift
from single core systems toward multi-core systems. Cyber-physical systems (CPS)
and the Internet of Things (IoT) gained more attention. Power consumption, thermal
issues, safety, and security became more important. Overall, it became necessary to
publish a third edition of this textbook. The changes just described had a major
impact on several chapters of the third edition. This edition included and linked
those aspects of embedded systems that provide foundations for the design of
CPS and IoT systems. The preface and the introduction were rewritten to reflect
these changes. Partial differential equations and transaction-level modeling (TLM)
were added to the chapter on specifications and modeling. The use of this book
in flipped classroom-based teaching led to the consideration of more details, in
particular of specification techniques. For the third edition, the chapter on embedded
system hardware includes multi-cores, a rewritten section on memories, and more
information on the cyphy-interface (including pulse-width modulation [PWM]).
Descriptions of field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) were updated and a brief
section on security issues in embedded systems included. The chapter on system
software was extended by a section on Linux in embedded systems and more
information on resource access protocols. In the context of system evaluation, new
subsections on quality metrics, safety/security, energy models, and thermal issues
were included. For this edition, the chapter on mapping to execution platforms
was restructured: a standard classification of scheduling problems was introduced,
and multi-core scheduling algorithms were added. The description of hardware–
software codesign was dropped. The chapter on optimizations was updated and
graphics were improved. Assignments (problems) and a clearer distinction between
definitions, theorems, proofs, code, and examples were added.
The current fourth edition is the first edition, which is available under an
Open Access license. This change reflects the increasing importance of access to
knowledge via the Internet. A key benefit is that this textbook becomes available to
Preface xi
students free of charge. During the preparation of this fourth edition, all chapters
of the third edition have been carefully reviewed and updated if required. Errors
found in the third edition have been corrected. The description of the bouncing ball
experiment has been extended. The presentation of safety and security aspects has
been restructured. More links to data analysis and artificial intelligence have been
added. References have been updated. The distinction between jobs, tasks, threads,
and processes has been clarified as much as possible. For this edition, it is typically
not feasible to cover the complete book in a single course for undergraduates and
lecturers can select a subset that fits the local needs and preferences.
Publication of this book under an Open Access license has been supported by
• Informatik Centrum Dortmund (ICD) e.V.
Michael Engel and Heiko Falk proofread the current edition. Michael Engel
provided invaluable help during various iterations of our course, including the
generation of videos, which are now available on YouTube.
This book includes the results from many funded research projects. In particular,
the author acknowledges the support of the Collaborative Research Center 876 by
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), of research grant Ma 943/10 (FEHLER),
and earlier grants by the same organization, as well as the funding of projects
MORE, Artist2, ArtistDesign, Hipeac(2), PREDATOR, MNEMEE, and MADNESS
by the European Commission. These projects provided an excellent context for
writing the third and fourth editions of this book. Synopsys® Inc. provided access
to their Virtualizer™ virtual platform.
The author is thankful for hints and material provided by the following col-
leagues: R. Dömer, D. Gajski, N. Dutt (UC Irvine), A. B. Kahng, R. Gupta (UC
San Diego), W. Kluge, R. von Hanxleden (U. Kiel), P. Buchholz, M. Engel, H.
Krumm, O. Spinczyk (TU Dortmund), W. Müller, F. Rammig (U. Paderborn), W.
Rosenstiel (U. Tübingen), L. Thiele (ETH Zürich), R. Wilhelm (U. des Saarlandes),
G. C. Buttazzo (U. Pisa), H. Kopetz (TU Vienna), J. P. Hayes (U. Michigan), and H.
Takada (U. Nagoya). Corrections and contributions were also provided by my PhD
students and by David Hec, Thomas Wiederkehr, Thorsten Wilmer, and Henning
Garu. Of course, the author is responsible for all errors and mistakes contained in
the final manuscript.
The book has been produced using the LATEX type setting system from the
TeXnicCenter user interface. Graphics were generated with GNU Octave, with a
variant of the xfig graphical editor, and with PowerPoint® . Program code is using
font package Inconsolata zi4(varl,varqu) designed by Raph Levien, Kirill Tkachev,
Michael Sharpe, and mirabilos. The author would like to thank the authors of this
software for their contribution to this work.
xiii
xiv Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments also go to all those who have patiently accepted the author’s
additional workload during the writing of this book and his resulting reduced
availability.
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Specifications and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Embedded System Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4 System Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5 Evaluation and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
6 Application Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
7 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8 Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
xv
About the Author
3 See http://www.sfb876.tu-dortmund.de.
xvii
xviii About the Author
E-mail: [email protected]
Web sites: http://ls12-www.cs.tu-dortmund.de/
∼marwedel,
https://www.marwedel.eu/peter
Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols
Due to covering many areas in this book, there is a high risk of using the same
symbol for different purposes. Therefore, symbols have been selected such that the
risk of confusion is low. This table is supposed to help maintaining a consistent
notation.
a Weight
a Allocation
A Availability (→ reliability)
A Area
A Ampere
b.. Communication bandwidth
B Communication bandwidth
cR Characteristic vector for Petri net
cp Specific thermal capacitance
cv Volumetric heat capacity
Ci Execution time
C Capacitance
C Set of Petri net conditions
Cth Thermal capacity
◦C Degree Celsius
di Absolute deadline
Di Relative deadline
e(t) Input signal
e Euler’s number (≈2.71828)
E Energy
E Graph edge
f Frequency
f () General function
f Probability density
fi Finishing time of task/job i
F Probability distribution
xix
xx Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols
s Restitution
sj Starting time of task/job j
s Second
S State
S Semaphore
S Schedule
Sj Size of memory j
t Time
ti Transition i of Petri net
T Period
Ti Period of task τi
ui Utilization of task τi
U.. Utilization
Umax Maximum utilization
v Velocity
V Graph nodes
V Voltage
V Volt
Vt Threshold voltage
V (S) Semaphore operation
V Volume
w(t) Signal
W (p, t) Weight in Petri net
W Watt
x Input variable
x(t) Signal
X.. Decision variable
y(t) Signal
Y.. Decision variable
z(t) Signal
Z Timer
Z High impedance
Z Integer numbers
α .. Arrival curve in real-time calculus
α Switching activity
α First component in Pinedo’s triplet
β .. Service function in real-time calculus
β Second component in Pinedo’s triplet
β Reciprocal of max. utilization
γ .. Work load in real-time calculus
γ Third component in Pinedo’s triplet
Time interval
θ Temperature
κ Thermal conductivity
λ Failure rate
xxii Frequently Used Mathematical Symbols
π Number pi (≈3.1415926)
π Set of processors
πi Processor i
ρ Mass density
τi Task τi
τ Set of tasks
ξ Threshold for RM-US scheduling
Chapter 1
Introduction
This chapter presents terms used in the context of embedded systems together with
their history as well as opportunities, challenges, and common characteristics of
embedded and cyber-physical systems. Furthermore, educational aspects, design
flows, and the structure of this book are introduced.
Until the late 1980s, information processing was associated with large mainframe
computers and huge tape drives. Later, miniaturization allowed information process-
ing with personal computers (PCs). Office applications were dominating, but some
computers were also controlling the physical environment, typically in the form of
some feedback loop.
Later, Mark Weiser created the term “ubiquitous computing” [573]. This term
reflects Weiser’s prediction to have computing (and information) anytime, any-
where. Weiser also predicted that computers are going to be integrated into
products such that they will become invisible. Hence, he created the term “invisible
computer.” With a similar vision, the predicted penetration of our day-to-day life
with computing devices led to the terms “pervasive computing” and “ambient
intelligence.” These three terms focus on only slightly different aspects of future
information technology. Ubiquitous computing focuses more on the long-term goal
of providing information anytime, anywhere, whereas pervasive computing focuses
more on practical aspects and the exploitation of already available technology.
For ambient intelligence, there is some emphasis on communication technology
in future homes and smart buildings. Due to the widespread use of small devices
in combination with the mobile Internet, some of the visions about the future have
already become a common practice. This widespread use is pervasive in the sense
that it already had an impact on many areas of our life. Furthermore, artificial
intelligence is influencing our life as well.
Miniaturization also enabled the integration of information processing and the
environment using computers. This type of information processing has been called
an “embedded system”:
Definition 1.1 (Marwedel [371]) “Embedded systems are information processing
systems embedded into enclosing products.”
Examples include embedded systems in cars, trains, planes, and telecommuni-
cation or fabrication equipment. Embedded system products such as self-driving
cars and trains are already available or have been announced. Consequently, we
can expect miniaturization to have an impact on embedded systems comparable
to the one it had on the availability of mobile devices. Embedded systems come
with a large number of common characteristics, including real-time constraints,
and dependability as well as efficiency requirements. For such systems, the link
to physical systems is rather important. This link is emphasized in the following
citation [331]:
“Embedded software is software integrated with physical processes. The techni-
cal problem is managing time and concurrency in computational systems.”
This citation could be used as a definition of the term “embedded software” and
could be extended into a definition of “embedded systems” by just replacing
“software” by “system.”
However, the strong link to physical systems has recently been stressed even
more by the introduction of the term “cyber-physical systems” (CPS for short). CPS
can be defined as follows:
Definition 1.2 (Lee [332]) “Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are integrations of
computation and physical processes.”
The new term emphasizes the link to physical processes and the corresponding
physical environment. Emphasizing this link makes sense, since it is frequently
ignored in a world of applications running on servers, PCs, and mobile phones.
For CPS, models should include models of the physical environment as well. The
term CPS comprises an embedded system (the information processing part) and a
(dynamic) physical environment or CPS = ES + (dynamic) physical environment.
This is also reflected in Fig. 1.1.
In their call for proposals, the National Science Foundation in the USA mentions
also communication [412]: “Emerging CPS will be coordinated, distributed, and
connected and must be robust and responsive.”
1.1 History of Terms 3
Pervasive/
Ubiquitous Computing
- information
anytime, anywhere
This is also done in the acatech report on CPS [6]: CPS . . . “represent networked,
software-intensive embedded systems in a control loop, provide networked and
distributed services.”
Interconnection and collaboration are also explicitly mentioned in a call for
proposals by the European Commission [155]: “Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) refer
to next generation embedded ICT systems that are interconnected and collaborating
including through the Internet of Things, and providing citizens and businesses with
a wide range of innovative applications and services.”
The importance of communication was visualized by the European Commission
earlier, as shown in Fig. 1.2.
From these citations, it is clear that the authors do not only associate the
integration of the cyber- and the physical world with the term CPS. Rather, there
is also a strong communication aspect. Actually, the term CPS is not always used
consistently. Some authors emphasize the integration with the physical environment,
others emphasize communication.
Communication is more explicit in the term “Internet of Things” (IoT), which
can be defined as follows:
Definition 1.3 ([185]) The term Internet of Things “describes the pervasive pres-
ence of a variety of devices — such as sensors, actuators, and mobile phones —
which, through unique addressing schemes, are able to interact and cooperate with
each other to reach common goals.”
This term is linking sensors (such that sensed information is available on the
Internet) and actuators (such that things can be controlled from the Internet). The
Internet of Things is expected to allow the communication between trillions of
devices in the world. This vision affects a large amount of businesses.
The exploitation of IoT-technology for production has been called “Industry 4.0”
[68]. Industry 4.0 targets a more flexible production for which the entire life cycle
from the design phase onward is supported by the IoT.
4 1 Introduction
1.2 Opportunities
empty rooms, and the lighting can be automatically reduced. Air-condition noise
can be reduced to a level required for the actual operating conditions. Intelligent
usage of blinds can also optimize lighting and air-conditioning. Available rooms
can be displayed at appropriate places, simplifying ad hoc meetings and cleaning.
Lists of non-empty rooms can be displayed at the entrance of the building
in emergency situations (provided the required power is still available). This
way, energy can be saved on cooling, heating, and lighting. Also safety can
be improved. Initially, such systems might mostly be present in high-tech office
buildings, but the trend toward energy-efficient buildings also affects the design
of private homes. One of the goals is to design so-called zero-energy-buildings
(buildings which produce as much energy as they consume) [426]. Such a design
would be one contribution toward a reduction of the global carbon-dioxide
footprint and global warming.
• Agricultural engineering: There are many agricultural applications. For exam-
ple, the “regulations for traceability3 of agricultural animals and their move-
ments require the use of technologies like IoT, making possible the real time
detection of animals, for example, during outbreaks of (a) contagious disease”
[516].
• Health sector and medical engineering: The importance of healthcare products
is increasing, in particular in aging societies. Opportunities start with new sen-
sors, detecting diseases faster and more reliably. New data analysis techniques
(e.g., based on machine learning) can be used to detect increased risks and
improve chances for healing. Therapies can be supported with personalized
medication based on artificial intelligence methods. New devices can be designed
to help patients, e.g., handicapped patients. Also, surgery can be supported
with new devices. Embedded system technologies also allow for a significantly
improved result monitoring, giving doctors much better means for checking
whether or not a certain treatment has a positive impact. This monitoring also
applies to remotely located patients. Available information can be stored in
patient information systems. Lists of projects in this area can be found, for
example, at http://cps-vo.org/group/medical-cps and at http://www.nano-tera.ch/
program/health.html.
• Scientific experiments: Many contemporary experiments in sciences, in partic-
ular in physics, require the observation of experiment outcomes with IT devices.
The combination of physical experiments and IT devices can be seen as a special
case of CPS.
• Public safety: The interest in various kinds of safety is also increasing. Embed-
ded and cyber-physical systems and the Internet of Things can be used to improve
safety in many ways. This includes public health in times of pandemics and the
identification/authentication of people, for example, with fingerprint sensors or
face recognition systems.
1.3 Challenges
Unfortunately, the design of embedded systems and their integration in CPS and
IoT systems comes with a large number of difficult design issues. Commonly found
issues include the following:
1.3 Challenges 9
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