6b

1. Mitosis

1.1. Behavior of chromosomes at each stage including labelled images.

In the prophase the chromatin condenses into hidden chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks down
the spindles form at opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic process begins genuinely with prophase.
During prophase of mitosis modifications take place e.g., the coiling of chromatin fibers into
chromosomes. The 2 centriole nucelli spread out towards the opposite end of the cell. Polar fibers

connect each cell pole to the equator.

In metaphase, the spindle reaches maturity, and the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Numerous changes take place during this phase, incl the disappearance of the nuclear membrane and
the continuation of the polar fibers from the cells poles to its center. Chromosomes with centromeres
move erratically until they connect spindle fibers to polar fibers from both sides. The chromosomes then
position themselves on the metaphase late at a right angle to the spindle poles.

In anaphase the paired chromosomes split apart and start travelling to the cells opposite ends. The cell
lengthens and elongates due to spindle fibers that are not attached to chromatids. Each poles anaphase
is the conclusion. An entire collection of chromosomes can be found in anaphase. The paired
centromeres on each chromosome separate during anaphase. The paired sister chromatids are regarded
as complete chromosomes once they have separated from one another. The result of this is they are
known as daughter chromosomes. As the chromosomes get closer to a pole, the daughter chromosomes
migrate centromere first and the fibers get snorter as the chromosomes near a pole. Each pole has a
conclusion of anaphase.
The chromosomes in telophase are coroneted into unique new nuclei in the developing daughter cells.
The nuclei start to develop at the opposite poles as the polar fibers continue to stretch. Likewise,
nucleoli reappear. Also, these nucleic nuclear envelopes develop from the parents' cells nuclear
envelope to become components of the endomembrane system.

The division of a cell's cytoplasm aka cytokinesis starts during anaphase just before mitosis ends and is
finished during telophase. 2 genetically identical daughter cells are created at the conclusion of
cytokinesis. These cells are diploid meaning they have a full set of chromosomes
1.2 what is mitosis and why is it important?

Common tissue growth occurs during the process of mitosis, a form of cell division that produces 2
daughter cells with the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

Mitosis is a process that creates cells that share the same genetic makeup as their parent cells. In
addition to being crucial for the growth and development of human bodies, it also plays a crucial role in
the development of embryos. In mitosis, new cells are created. and swaps out ageing cells. missing or
harmed.

1.3. make comparisons between mitosis in animal and plant cells inc images

In the cell duplication process known as mitosis, one cell divides into two genetically identical daughter
cells. The cells' chromosomes are copied throughout each step of mitosis and then equally divided
between the two new nuclei of the daughter cells. Animal cells undergo cytokinesis by creating a furrow
in the plasma membrane, whereas in plant cells, cytokinesis occurs through a different mechanism. This
difference explains why plant and animal cells undergo different types of mitosis. A cell wall is formed
during the process of cytokinesis. Because plant cells have a cell wall and are too rigid, they cannot be
separated in this manner. In its place, a structure known as the cell plate develops down the center of
the cell. dividing it into two daughter cells separated by a new wall. When the division is finished. There
are two daughter cells produced. The chromosomes, which have already doubled their DNA and are
oriented across the center of the cell, are attached by microtubules as mitosis progresses. The spindle
tubes then become shorter and migrate in the direction of the cell's poles. To the opposing poles of the
cell, they drag one copy of each chromosome along with them as they migrate.

2. MEIOSIS

2.1- Behavior of chromosomes at each stage inc labelled images.

Meiosis takes place in 2 stages. Meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. In meiosis 1, the number of chromosomes
is reduced by one-half and for this reason, it is called reduction division. Meiosis 2 results in
separation of the sister chromatids and for this reason, it is known as equatorial division. Each
of the two meiotic divisions is divided into interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
During prophase I, the two members of each homolog pair in a sex cell become linked to one
another along the entire length of the chromosome. This process of association is referred to as
synapsing and through this process, the homologous pairs form a larger structure referred to as
a tetrad.
During metaphase one, the tetrads of the cell congregate on the metaphase plate located
halfway between the opposing ends of the cell. After this, the spindle fibers attach themselves
to the chromosomes by grabbing onto the centromeres of each chromosome.
In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the cell.
The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached to one another and
don’t come apart.
During telophase I, the chromosomes are enclosed in nuclei. The cell now undergoes a process
called cytokinesis that divides the cytoplasm of the original cell into two daughter cells.
in prophase II, the nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear. The chromatids become short
and thick. The centromeres move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibres for the second
meiotic division.

During metaphase II, just like in metaphase I, the chromosomes captured by the meiotic spindle
are taken from the poles of the cell and lined up along the metaphase plate, the axis along
which each daughter nuclei will split.

Anaphase II marks the point where the captures sister chromatids are pulled apart by the
meiotic spindle and moved towards the poles of their respective cells. and the nuclear
membrane elongates to prepare for separation. Telophase II Telophase II, like telophase I, is the
last stage of the meiotic phase.
During telophase II, the fourth step of meiosis II, the chromosomes reach opposite poles,
cytokinesis occurs, the two cells produced by meiosis I divide to form four haploid daughter
cells, and nuclear envelopes form.
Cytokinesis- part of cell division process where the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides
into 2 daughter cells, this happens after or during the late stages of nuclear division in both
mitosis and meiosis.

2.2 make comparison between meiosis in animal and plant inc images.
Meiosis takes place in the testes of males and ovaries of females in animals, whereas in plants,
this process occurs in the anthers of male and in ovary of females. Meiosis in animals produce
the gametes (sperms and eggs), whereas meiosis in plants produce spores.
Meiosis include 2 cells fusing together to become a new zygote. if the number of alleles of each gene is
not reduced to 1 in the gametes that produce the zygote, there will be 4 copies of each gene in the
offspring. In most animals this would lead to many developmental issues. Chromosome numbers are
decreased during the cell division process known as meiosis. In both plants and animals, the mechanism
is remarkably similar. Animals, on the other hand, experience the development of gametes, which are
reproductive or sex cells. However, it creates spores in plants, which develop into gametophytes. rather
than meiosis, mitosis is used in plants to create gametes, which subsequently combine to create zygotes
and sporophytes.

Meiosis- reproductive cell division, produces 4 gametes

Animal- animals produce gametes in the testes of a male and occurs in the ovaries of a female.

Plants- plants produce spores. This occurs in the anthers of a male and occurs in the ovary for females.
2.3. What is meiosis and why is it important?

Meiosis is important because it creates genetic diversity in the population. Meiosis is a process of
gamete formation in which diploid germ-line cells, for example, the cells that are set aside early in
animal development for sexual reproduction, produce four genetically different haploid cells. It occurs
only in sex cells, which are eggs and sperms.

3.

In eukaryotic cells, the cell cycle phases are split into two significant phases – interphase and the mitotic
phase. While in interphase, the cell significantly grows and replicates a DNA copy, in the mitotic phase or the
M phase, the cell splits its DNA into two sets and hence the division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter
cells.

G1 (Gap 1) Phase-
This is the primary stage of the interphase, known as the G1 or first gap phase as diminutive changes are
observed due to the hyperactivity of the cell at the biochemical degree
This phase is characterized by changes in the chromosomes from the condensed to the extended state
in addition to a range of metabolic activities leading to the initiation of replication of DNA.

Synthesis (S) phase-

Here the chromosomes replicate, enabled by linked proteins and DNA replication. Most of the histone
protein synthesis occurs in this phase, though some of it occurs in G1 phase

An identical pair of DNA molecules are formed as the process of DNA replication is discontinuous and
semi-conservative

Even after the chromosomes have doubled, the sister chromatids are securely attached to the
centromeric region. The chromosome count of the cell remains the same

Centrosomes of animal cells at the center of each animal cell are linked with centrioles positioned
perpendicular to each other. The centrioles are functional in organizing the cell division process

During this phase, the centrosome is duplicated, producing the mitotic spindle, the apparatus which
liaises chromosomal movement while mitosis is taking place.

G2 (Gap 2) Phase-
This phase is succeeded by the S phase. Here the chromosomes comprise two chromatids thus
cell has double the quantity of DNA
Here, the cell restores its energy, producing proteins essential for chromosomes to manipulate
Few of the cell organelles are replicated. Cytoskeleton dismantles to render resources for
mitosis
Additional growth of cell may be observed. Before the cell enters the first phase of mitosis, the
concluding preparations of the mitotic phase must be done.

M (Mitotic) Phase-
This phase is succeeded by the G2 phase. Here the cell divides into two daughter cells along
with equal distribution of chromosomes between the daughter cells. Once the M phase steps
into the G1 phase, the next cell cycle is initiated to be repeated. Some cells, however, do not
enter the G1 phase. These are referred to as G0 cells
It comprises the following sub-phases –
Prophase – in this stage, the nucleus disappears, spindle fibers are formed, DNA condenses into
sister chromatids
Metaphase – the sister chromatids orient alongside the cell-equator by linking their
centromeres to the spindle fibres
Anaphase – separation of sister chromatids at the centromere, being pulled towards the
opposite poles of the cell by mitotic spindle
Telophase – At the opposite poles, the chromosomes arrive to unwind into fine DNA strands.
Spindle fibres vanish. Nuclear membrane resurfaces
Cytokinesis – cell membrane splits, animal cells drift away. Plant cells form a cell plate which
turns into a new cell wall
Cells arriving at the G0 phase, which is the inactive phase once they exit the cell cycle when
they are not preparing actively to divide. Few of these cells tend to remain in this stage
permanently.

Reference- (Cell Cycle Phase - Definition, Fours phases of Cell cycle Division
(byjus.com))
Cell Cycle Phase - Definition, Fours phases of Cell cycle Division (byjus.com)

4-
Mitosis and meiosis are both part of the cell division cycle in which the genetic material is
divided in a process known as nuclear division. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm,
which follows the copying (interphase) and splitting of the genetic material (mitosis or meiosis),
so that each new daughter cell has the appropriate number of chromosomes.
Mitosis produces body cells that can be used for growth, replacing old cells and asexual
reproduction.
Meiosis produces sex cells or gametes that are used in sexual reproduction.
During mitosis two diploid (2n) daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell are
produced.
During meiosis four haploid (n) daughter cells that are genetically different from the parent cell
are produced.

Mitosis and meiosis are processes of cell division.

4.1-
The differences in characteristics between individuals of the same species is called variation.
Some variation is passed on from parents to offspring, via genes during reproduction. This is
inherited variation. Mutations are random changes in the number of chromosomes or the
structure of a gene. Independent assortment during meiosis increases variation as it results in
genetically different gametes. Variation is also the difference in genotypes between organisms
of the same group. Some variation is the result of differences in the surroundings, or what an
individual does. This is called environmental variation. Independent assortment is a genetic
term that refers to the variation of chromosomes, or genetic information, during sex cell
division. This variation allows for genetic differentiation in offspring. Crossing over refers to the
exchange of DNA between paired homologous chromosomes that occurs during the
development of the egg and sperm cells. Environment- characteristics of animal and plant
species can be affected by factors for example, diet, climate, culture etc.

Random fertilization- any unique genetic sperm generated by a male may fertilize the unique
egg produced by the female. 2 gametes unite to produce offspring.
Random mating- often have a high degree of genotyping diversity. If the gene diversity levels
are low, this could indicate that the genotypic diversity may be low even if the population is
randomly mating.
Recombination between homologous chromosomes during meiosis-
Homologous recombination is a type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences
are exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA. Also, the cell's homologous
chromosomes line up extremely close to one another. Then, the DNA strand within each
chromosome breaks in the exact same location, leaving two free ends. Each end then crosses
over into the other chromosome and forms a connection called a chiasma.
Chromosomal behavior- Chromosomal behavior is just the normal movement of chromosomes
during cell division. During mitosis, replicated chromosomes align themselves along the equator
of the cell forming a metaphase plate, and then sister chromatids are pulled apart towards
opposite poles of the cell. (A level Biology). Independent assortment produces new
combinations of alleles. An advantage for this is they produce new combinations of alleles and a
disadvantage is they don’t hold true for the linked genes that are usually inherited together.
Crossing over is a cellular process that happens during meiosis when chromosomes of the same
type are lined up. A negative thing about crossing over is it ends up in deletion in one of the
participant chromatids and the insertion of a different one. This could lead to generic disease.

Environmental causes of variation include characteristics of plant and animal species. These
could be affected by natural selection e.g. climate, diet, culture etc. However the mutation pops
up as the result of exposure to environmental factors e.g. alcohol, smoking. Cells recognize
when any mutations could potentially cause damage, so they can try to repair it before it
transitions into a fixed mutation.
Variation in plants have 3 fundamental types. These include, development, environmental and
genetic.

Plant development- Plant development is a continuous process starting with embryogenesis

and the formation of the primary plant body (embryonic root and embryonic shoot) and
continuing post germination with the regular production of new organs (roots, leaves,
branches, and flowers). (science direct).
Environmental factors that affect plant growth include light, temperature, water, humidity and
nutrition. These factors dictate whether the plant will grow quickly or slowly.

Overall, as seen above there are many ways for variation to occur. But in my opinion, I think
chromosomal behavior can be the most important as key steps happen during or around this.
This then leads to the exchange of DNA during the development of the egg and sperm cells to
make sure the daughter cells have the correct number of chromosomes. The genes are then
later independently separated from each other and fixed into gametes for when the
reproductive cell develops.
Plant genetics- Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in
plants. Plant genetics differs from animal genetics in several ways: somatic mutations can
contribute to the germ line more easily as flowers develop at the end of branches composed of
somatic cells; polyploidy is more common; and plants additionally contain chloroplast DNA.

Chromosomes
5- Autosomes or Sex chromosomes

There are types of chromosomes for example, Sex chromosomes and Autosomes. Sex
chromosomes are A sex chromosome is a type of chromosome involved in sex determination.
Humans and most other mammals have two sex chromosomes, X and Y, that in combination
determine the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in their cells, while males
have one X and one Y.
An autosome is one of the numbered chromosome's and they have 23 pairs. Autosomes differ
from sex chromosomes, which make up the 23rd pair of chromosomes in all normal human
cells and come in two forms, called X and Y. Autosomes control the inheritance of all an
organism's characteristics except the sex-linked ones, which are controlled by the sex
chromosomes.

6- karyotype in images of males/females

A karyotype is an individual’s complete set of chromosomes. The term also refers to a
laboratory-produced image of a person’s chromosomes isolated from an individual cell and
arranged in numerical order. A karyotype may be used to look for abnormalities in chromosome
numbers or structure.
7-

7.1- Histones

Histone is a protein that provides structural support for a chromosome. Each chromosome contains a
long molecule of DNA, which must fit into the cell nucleus. To do that, the DNA wraps around complexes
of histone proteins, giving the chromosome a more compact shape. Histones also play a role in the
regulation of gene expression. Histones are the main protein in chromatin. Chromatin is a combo of DNA
and protein which makes up the contents of a cell's nucleus.
7.2- chromatin

Chromatin is a mass of genetic material composed of DNA and proteins that condenses to form
chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division. Chromatin is in the nucleus of our cells. The primary
function of chromatin is to compress the DNA into a compact unit that will be less voluminous and can
fit within the nucleus. Chromatin is the form of DNA in the interphase, whereas chromosomes only
appear during the mitosis process. Chromatin and chromosome are 2 types of DNA present in different
stages of the cell of the human body. Each chromatin contains DNA, RNA, and histone proteins.
Chromatin is a complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells. Nuclear DNA does not appear in free linear strands; it is highly condensed and wrapped around
nuclear proteins in order to fit inside the nucleus.
Genes- DNA is made up of a double-stranded helix held together by weak hydrogen bonds between
purine-pyrimidine nucleotide base pairs: adenine (A) paired with thymine (T), and guanine (G) paired
with cytosine (C). Also called deoxyribonucleic acid. The molecule inside cells that contains the genetic
information responsible for the development and function of an organism. DNA molecules allow this
information to be passed from one generation to the next.

Haploid cells are cells that contain a single set of chromosomes. Haploids are created for reproduction.
When reducing the genome to one copy, different copies can be rearranged when creating a zygote. By
cutting down the DNA material in the gametes to haploid, several new combinations are possible within
the offspring. Haploid cells contain a single set of chromosomes. Gametes are an example of haploid
cells produced as a result of meiosis. Examples of gametes are the male and female reproductive cells,
the sperm and egg cell respectively.

Diploid-

A cell containing two copies of each chromosome is referred to as a ‘diploid cell’; human somatic cells
are diploid: they contain 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. (NHS).

Allele- An allele is one of two or more versions of DNA sequence (a single base or a segment of bases) at
a given genomic location. An individual inherits two alleles, one from each parent, for any given genomic
location where such variation exists. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for
that allele. If the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous. (Genome.gov). When the copies of
a gene differ from each other, they are also known as alleles. in plants an example of an allele is the
dominant purple and recessive white alleles are responsible for flower color in pea plants. In humans an
example is black, blue, green, and brown eye color alleles.
In mature humans, eggs are produced by meiosis in the ovary of a woman, or sperm are produced by
meiosis in the testes of a woman. In human females, the process that produces mature eggs is called
oogenesis. Just one egg is produced from the four haploid cells that result from meiosis. The single egg is
a very large cell, as you can see from the human egg in the Figure below. Human sperm is a tiny cell with
a tail.

Alelle- An allele is a variant form of a gene. Humans are called diploid organisms because they have two
alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele inherited from each parent. Some genes have a variety of
different forms, which are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome. In a diploid
organism, there are three different alleles for a particular gene.

Dominant- Dominant refers to the relationship between two versions of a gene. Individuals receive two
versions of each gene, known as alleles, from each parent. If the alleles of a gene are different, one allele
will be expressed; it is the dominant gene.

Recessive- A type of allele that when present on its own will not affect the individual. Two copies of the
allele need to be present for the phenotype to be expressed. Except for genes on the sex chromosomes,
individuals have two copies of each gene, and both can contribute to an individual’s phenotype. For
recessive alleles both copies must be the same before they are expressed.

Homozygous- The presence of two identical alleles at a particular gene locus. A homozygous genotype
may include two normal alleles or two alleles that have the same variant. An organism can be either
homozygous dominant ( TT ) or homozygous recessive ( tt ).

A chromosome is a structure found inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is made up of proteins
and DNA organized into genes. Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Humans have 22
pairs of numbered chromosomes (autosomes) and one pair of sex chromosomes (XX or XY), for a total of
46. Each pair contains two chromosomes, one coming from each parent, which means that children
inherit half of their chromosomes from their mother and half from their father.
After replication, the cell duplicates the chromosomal DNA through a process called DNA replication.
DNA replication is the process by which the genome's DNA is copied in cells. Before a cell divides, it must
first copy (or replicate) its entire genome so that each resulting daughter cell ends up with its own

complete genome.

A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the DNA replication of a
chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere.

The centromere appears as a constricted region of a chromosome and plays a key role in helping the
cell divide up its DNA during division (mitosis and meiosis). Specifically, it is the region where the cell's
spindle fibers attach.
Homologous pairs are 2 chromosomes within diploid organism which carry the same gene. Two
chromosomes in a pair – normally one inherited from the mother and one from the father. For example,
the two copies of Chromosome 1 in a cell would be referred to as homologous chromosomes.

Non-homologous chromosomes are those with separate pairings of chromosomes. They also are
chromosomes that contain alleles for different types of genes.