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How to Write about
Economics and Public
Policy
FIRST EDITION
Katerina Petchko
National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, Tokyo,
Japan
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Target Audience for This Book
Special Features
A Focus on Disciplinary Writing
Acknowledgments
Disclaimer
Possible Topics
Scholarly Literature
Policy Literature
Popular Literature
Hypotheses
Purpose Statements
Common Problems
Sample Proposals
Research Gap
Components of a Theory
Common Problems
Data
Writing a Conclusion
Describing Methodology
Describing Results
How to Quote
How to Summarize
Paragraph Writing
Punctuation
Common Collocations
References
References for Academic Writing and Research
Published Studies
Student Papers
Index
Copyright
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are
constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in
research methods, professional practices, or
medical treatment may become necessary.
Special Features
The following features make this book unique
among books that teach academic writing.
A Focus on Disciplinary
Writing
Academic discourse refers to the ways in which
language is used in the academy. Until recently—
and in many writing programs even today—
academic discourse has been treated as a
homogeneous set of skills and steps, which, once
mastered, would transfer across disciplines and
genres. Yet, recent research in disciplinary writing
has shown that disciplines differ greatly in how they
approach knowledge construction and in how they
represent the constructed knowledge in writing.
Contrary to what many students and teachers
believe, the ideas we put down on paper when we
write are not entirely “ours”—they are influenced
greatly, and to a large extent implicitly, by the
expectations, assumptions, and beliefs of our
readers. Discourse in an academic discipline,
therefore, can best be understood as a collection of
specific rhetorical and linguistic practices that
members of that discipline use to formulate
problems, frame questions, and present knowledge
claims in ways that colleagues find persuasive.
Disciplines differ considerably on what their
members see as persuasive writing. One way to
understand what makes writing persuasive in a
particular discipline is to engage in rhetorical and
linguistic analysis of academic texts and to relate
their features—their structure, organization, and the
specific language forms used—to both the logic
behind the research approach used by the authors
and the authors’ communicative purposes. This is
what I have done in the preparation of this book. My
intention here is to show what makes writing in
economics and public policy persuasive by
demystifying the relationship between academic
language and scientific content and by showing how
texts in economics and public policy are constructed
and how they work.
To achieve this goal, I present academic discourse
in economics and public policy in three different
ways: as an outgrowth of the process of scientific
inquiry, with its own favored methods, approaches,
and tools; as a product of knowledge construction,
with its own preferred modes of argumentation; and
as a dialogue in which writers engage with their
readers as they attempt to persuade them to accept
their knowledge claims. Using a genre-based
approach to writing—an approach that relates the
communicative purposes of the writer, the existing
conventions of the discipline, and the language,
structure, and organization of the text—I also show
how texts can be analyzed for organizational
patterns, rhetorical strategies, and language use and
how that analysis can help novice writers improve
their writing.
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in Four or God in Tetrad, and the derivation is approved by
Hort (Dict. of Christian Biog. s.h.n.). It appears more likely,
however, that it is to be referred to the Hebrew root בבל
“Babel” or confusion, a derivation which Hort also mentions. In
Irenaeus’ Greek text the name is spelt βαρβηλὼ, in the Latin
“Barbelo” with an accusative “Barbelon,” and in Epiphanius
βαρβηλὼ and βαρβήρω. If we might alter this last into
βαρβαριωθ, we might see it in a great: number of magic spells
of the period. Cf. Wessely, Ephesia Grammata, Wien, 1886,
pp. 26, 28, 33, 34.
472. Pistis Sophia, p. 16, Copt. The five words are zama, zama,
ôzza, rachama, ôzai. Whatever they may mean, we may be
quite sure that they can never contain with their few letters the
three pages or so of text which are given as their
interpretation. It is possible that the letters are used
acrostically like the A G L A, i.e. ?( ניבר לעולם אדניAhih ? )אהיה
אתהAte Gibor Lailam Adonai, “The mighty Adonai for ever”
(or “thou art the mighty and eternal Lord”) commonly met with
in mediaeval magic. Cf. Peter de Abano, Heptameron, seu
Elementa Magica, Paris, 1567, p. 563; or, for other examples,
F. Barrett, The Magus, 1801, Bk II. pp. 39, 40. The notable
feature in these mysterious words is the quantity of Zetas or
ζ’s that they contain which points to the use of some sort of
table like that called by Cabalists ziruph, or a cryptogram of
the aaaaa, aaaab, kind. It should be noticed that Coptic
scribes were often afflicted with what has been called
Betacism or the avoidance of the letter Beta or β by every
means, which frequently led to the substitution for it of ζ as in
the case of Jaldabaoth = Ιαλδαζαω given above (Chap. VIII, n.
3, p. 46 supra).
480. We hear nothing more definite of these Five Trees, but they
appear again in Manichaeism, and are mentioned in the
Chinese treatise from Tun-huang, for which see Chap. XIII
infra.
486. That [i.e. the First] mystery knoweth why there emanated all
the places which are in the receptacle of the Ineffable One
and also all which is in them, and why they went forth from the
last limb of the Ineffable One.... These things I will tell you in
the emanation of the universe. Pist. Soph. p. 225, Copt.
491. p. 203, Copt. Why there should be 24, when the dodecad or
group of Aeons in the world above was only 12, it is difficult to
say. But Hippolytus supplies a sort of explanation when he
says (op. cit. Bk VI. c. 33, p. 292, Cruice): Ταῦτά ἐστιν ἃ
λέγουσιν· ἔτι [δὲ] πρὸς τούτοις, ἀριθμητικὴν ποιούμενοι τὴν
πᾶσαν αὐτῶν διδασκαλίαν, ὡς προεῖπον [τοὺς] ἐντὸς
Πληρώματος Αἰῶνας τριάκοντα πάλιν ἐπιπροβεβληκέναι
αὐτοῖς κατὰ ἀναλογίαν Αἰῶνας ἄλλους, ἵν’ ᾖ τὸ Πλήρωμα ἐν
ἀριθμῷ τελείῳ συνηθροισμένον. Ὡς γὰρ οἱ Πυθαγορικοὶ
διεῖλον εἰς δώδεκα καὶ τριάκοντα καὶ ἑξήκοντα, καὶ λεπτὰ
λεπτῶν εἰσὶν ἐκείνοις, δεδήλωται· οὕτως οὗ τοι τὰ ἐντὸς
Πληρώματος ὑποδιαιροῦσιν. “This is what they say. But
besides this, they make their whole teaching arithmetical,
since they say that the thirty Aeons within the Pleroma again
projected by analogy other Aeons, so that thereby the
Pleroma may be gathered together in a perfect number. For
the manner in which the Pythagoreans divide [the cosmos]
into 12, 30, and 60 parts, and each of these into yet more
minute ones, has been made plain” [see op. cit. Bk VI. c. 28, p.
279, where Hippolytus tells us how Pythagoras divided each
Sign of the Zodiac into 30 parts “which are days of the month,
these last into 60 λεπτὰ, and so on”]. “In this way do they [the
Valentinians] divide the things within the Pleroma.” Cf. Μέρος
τευχῶν Σωτῆρος p. 364, Copt. In another book of the
Philosophumena (Bk IV. c. 7 Περὶ τῆς ἀριθμετικῆς τέχνης) he
explains how the Pythagoreans derived infinity from a single
principle by a succession of odd and even or male and female
numbers, in connection with which he quotes Simon Magus
(op. cit. p. 132, Cruice). The way this was applied to names
he shows in the chapter Περὶ μαθηματικῶν (op. cit. Βk IV. c.
11, pp. 77 sqq., Cruice) which is in fact a description of what
in the Middle Ages was called Arithmomancy, or divination by
numbers.
492. p. 224, Copt. See also p. 241, Copt.—a very curious passage
where the Ineffable One is called “the God of Truth without
foot” (cf. Osiris as a mummy) and is said to live apart from his
“members.”
493. In the beginning of the Μέρος τευχῶν Σωτῆρος (p. 252, Copt.)
it is said of the Ineffable that “there are many members, but
one body.” But this statement is immediately followed by
another that this is only said “as a pattern (παράδειγμα) and a
likeness and a resemblance, but not in truth of shape” (p. 253,
Copt.).
494. What he does say is that the Ineffable One has two χωρήματα
or receptacles and that the second of these is the χώρημα of
the First Mystery. It is, I think, probable that an attempt to
describe both these χωρήματα is made in one of the
documents of the Bruce Papyrus. See pp. 191, 192 infra.
497. See nn. 1 and 3, p. 141 supra. As has been said, it is difficult
not to see in this “1st Precept” a personification of the Torah
or Jewish Law.
504. He is said to have emanated from the 2nd Tree (p. 193, Copt.)
and is nowhere distinctly named. But one may perhaps guess
from the order in which he occurs in the 2nd part of the Μέρος
τευχῶν Σωτῆρος that his name was Zarazaz, evidently a
cryptogram like those mentioned in n. 1, p. 139 supra. It is
also said that the Rulers call him “Maskelli after the name of a
strong (i.e. male) ruler of their own place (p. 370, Copt.).” This
name of Maskelli, sometimes written Maskelli-maskellô, is
frequently met with in the Magic Papyri. Cf. Wessely, Ephesia
Grammata, p. 28.
505. They are said to have emanated from the 3rd and 4th Tree
respectively (p. 193, Copt.).
507. p. 12, Copt., where he is oddly enough called the Little Iao the
Good, I think by a clerical error. Later he is said to be “the
great leader of the middle whom the Rulers call the Great Iao
after the name of a great ruler in their own place” (p. 194,
Copt.). He is described in the same way in the second part of
the Μέρος τευχῶν Σωτῆρος (p. 371, Copt.).
513. The likeness of Mary the Mother and Mary Magdalene to the
seven Virgins appears in the translation of Amélineau (Pistis
Sophia, Paris, 1895, p. 60). Schwartze (p. 75, Lat.) puts it
rather differently. See also Schmidt, K.-G.S. bd. 1, p. 75. The
“receivers” of the Virgin of Light are mentioned on p. 292,
Copt.
515. pp. 340, 341, Copt. As ⲒⲞϨ (ioh) is Coptic for the Moon, it is
just possible that there may be a kind of pun here on this word
and the name Iao. Osiris, whose name was often equated by
the Alexandrian Jews with their own divine name Jaho or Jah,
as in the Manethonian story of Osarsiph = Joseph, was also
considered a Moon-god. Cf. the “Hymn of the Mysteries”
given in Chap. VIII, where he is called “the holy horned moon
of heaven.”
521. There have been many attempts to make this name mean
something else than merely “Faith-Wisdom.” Dulaurier and
Renan both tried to read it “πιστὴ Σοφία” “the faithful Wisdom”
or “La fidèle Sagesse.” If we had more documents of the style
of Simon’s Apophasis, we should probably find that this
apposition of two or more nouns in a name was not
infrequent, and the case of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris will occur to
every Egyptologist. The fact that the name includes the first
and last female member of the Dodecad of Valentinus (see p.
101 supra) is really its most plausible explanation.
524. But curiously enough, not the “souls” of fish. So in the Middle
Ages, the Manichaeans of Languedoc did not allow their
“Perfects” to partake of animal food nor even of eggs, but
allowed them fish, because they said these creatures were
not begotten by copulation. See Schmidt, Hist. des Cathares,
Paris, 1843. Is this one of the reasons why Jesus is called
Ἰχθύς?
525. This idea of man being made from the tears of the eyes of the
heavenly powers is an old one in Egypt. So Maspero explains
the well-known sign of the utchat or Eye of Horus as that “qui
exprime la matière, le corps du soleil, d’où tous les êtres
découlent sous forme de pleurs,” “Les Hypogées Royaux de
Thébes,” Ét. Égyptol. II. p. 130. Moret, “Le verbe créateur et
révélateur en Égypte,” R. H. R. Mai-Juin, 1909, p. 386, gives
many instances from hymns and other ritual documents. It
was known to Proclus who transfers it after his manner to
Orpheus and makes it into hexameters:
527. This is, perhaps, to be gathered from the Pistis Sophia, p. 36,
Copt. Cf. Μέρος τευχῶν Σωτῆρος, pp. 337-338. In another
part of the last-named document, the Moon-ship is described
as steered by a male and female dragon (the caduceus of
Hermes?) who snatch away the light of the Rulers (p. 360,
Copt.).
531. pp. 39, 40, Copt. The reference is apparently to the Book of
Enoch, c. LXXX. (see Charles, Book of Enoch, pp. 212, 213,
and the Epistle of Barnabas, N.T. extra can., c. IV. p. 9,
Hilgenfeld). In the Latin version of the last-quoted book, it is
assigned to Daniel, which shows perhaps the connection of
Enoch with all this quasi-prophetic or apocalyptic literature.
533. See Chap. VIII supra. Here he occupies a far inferior position
to that assigned him by the Ophites. In the Μέρος τευχῶν
Σωτῆρος he sinks lower still and becomes merely one of the
torturers in hell (p. 382, Copt., κ.τ.λ.). Thus, as is usual in
matters of religion, the gods of one age become the fiends of
the next. In the Bruce Papyrus (Amélineau, p. 212) he
appears as one of the chiefs of the Third Aeon. It is curious,
however, to observe how familiar the name must have been to
what Origen calls “a certain secret theology,” so that it was
necessary to give him some place in every system of
Gnosticism. His bipartite appearance may be taken from
Ezekiel viii. 2.
534. Probably the latter. See what is said about the Outer
Darkness in the Μέρος τευχῶν Σωτῆρος, p. 319, Copt. where
it is described as “a great dragon whose tail is in his mouth
who is without the whole κόσμος and surrounds it.”
538. These “three times” are not years. As the Pistis Sophia opens
with the announcement that Jesus spent 12 years on earth
after the Resurrection, we may suppose that He was then—if
the author accepted the traditional view that He suffered at 33
—exactly 45 years old, and the “time” would then be a period
of 15 years, as was probably the indiction. The descent of the
“two vestures” upon Jesus is said (p. 4, Copt.) to have taken
place “on the 15th day of the month Tybi” which is the day
Clement of Alexandria (Strom. Bk I. c. 21) gives for the birth of
Jesus. He says the followers of Basilides gave the same day
as that of His baptism.
540. This doctrine of ἑρμηνεία occurs all through the book. The
author is trying to make out that well-known passages of both
the Old and New Testaments were in fact prophetic
utterances showing forth in advance the marvels he narrates.
While the Psalms of David quoted by him are Canonical, the
Odes of Solomon are the Apocrypha known under that name
and quoted by Lactantius (Div. Inst. Bk IV. c. 12). For some
time the Pistis Sophia was the only authority for their
contents, but in 1909 Dr Rendel Harris found nearly the whole
collection in a Syriac MS. of the 16th century. A translation
has since been published in Cambridge Texts and Studies,
vol. VIII. No. 3, Cambridge, 1912, by the Bishop of Ossory,
who shows, as it seems conclusively, that they were the
hymns sung by the newly-baptized in the Primitive Church.
546. It is said (p. 9, Copt.) that it is by him that the universe was
created and that it is he who causes the sun to rise.
551. See last note. The Authades or Proud God of the Pistis
Sophia seems to have all the characteristics with which
Valentinus endows his Demiurge.
552. So Pistis Sophia sings in her second hymn of praise after her
deliverance from Chaos (p. 160, Copt.) “I am become pure
light,” which she certainly was not before that event. Jesus
also promises her later (p. 168, Copt.) that when the three
times are fulfilled and the Authades is again wroth with her
and tries to stir up Jaldabaoth and Adamas against her “I will
take away their powers from them and give them to thee.”
That this promise was supposed to be fulfilled seems evident
from the low positions which Jaldabaoth and Adamas occupy
in the Μέρος τευχῶν Σωτῆρος, while Pistis Sophia is said to
furnish the “power” for the planet Venus.
554. All the revelations in the Pistis Sophia are in fact made in
anticipation of the time “when the universe shall be caught
up,” and the disciples be set to reign with Jesus in the Last
Parastates. Cf. especially pp. 193-206 Copt.
555. The idea may not have been peculiar to Valentinus and his
followers. So in the Ascensio Isaiae (x. 8-13) the “Most High
the Father of my Lord” says to “my Lord Christ who will be
called Jesus”: “And none of the angels of that world shall
know that thou art Lord with Me of the seven heavens and of
their angels. And they shall not know that Thou art with Me till
with a loud voice I have called to the heavens, and their
angels, and their lights, even unto the sixth heaven, in order
that you may judge and destroy the princes and angels and
gods of that world, and the world that is dominated by them.”
Charles, Ascension of Isaiah, pp. 70-71.