Textbook Instability in Flow Boiling in Microchannels 1St Edition Sujoy Kumar Saha Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Instability in Flow Boiling in Microchannels 1St Edition Sujoy Kumar Saha Ebook All Chapter PDF
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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
THERMAL ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCE
Instability in
Flow Boiling in
Microchannels
123
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology
Series editor
Francis A. Kulacki, Minneapolis, MN, USA
1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Instability Types.................................................................................... 2
1.3 Differentiating Macro- and Microscale Flow Boiling.......................... 4
References...................................................................................................... 6
2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities.................................................... 9
References...................................................................................................... 31
3 Instability Initiation Criterion.................................................................... 33
References...................................................................................................... 39
4 Methods of Controlling Instabilities........................................................... 41
References...................................................................................................... 53
5 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 55
v
Nomenclature
A Area (m2)
Bo Boiling number (=q/Ghfg) (dimensionless)
C pl Specific heat of liquid at constant pressure (J/kg K)
D Diameter (m)
F Force (Nm−2)
G Mass flux (kg/s m2)
h Enthalpy (J/kg)
K Loss coefficient (dimensionless)
LHS length of the heated section (m)
N Number of orifices (dimensionless)
P Pressure (Nm−2)
ΔP Pressure drop (Nm−2)
q″, q″eff, q Heat flux (Wm−2)
Re Reynolds number (dimensionless)
T Temperature (K)
ΔTsub Liquid subcooling temperature (K)
x Dryness fraction (dimensionless)
Greek Symbols
vii
viii Nomenclature
Subscripts
e Exit
f Fluid
g Gas/vapor
i Inlet
o Outlet
W Pertaining to wall
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Moreover, high wall temperature promotes oxidation and leads to corrosion problem.
Hence, in the purview of potential problems induced by two-phase instabilities,
there is an urgent need to understand the potential causes and to formulate criterion
for predicting instability. The range of operating parameters such as flow rate, pres-
sure, wall temperatures, and exit mixture quality must be predicted by the heat
exchanger designer so that the device may be operated safely and without losing its
prime purpose, i.e., high heat flux dissipation with low pumping cost.
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ∆p
External characteristic
B Internal (channel) characteristic
at constant heat input
∆p ∆p
FLOW RATE
The most common way to deprive the Ledinegg instability is to make the slope of
the external characteristic curve steeper than that of the internal.
A boiling crisis is a static instability which occurs due to ineffective heat dissipa-
tion from the heated surface. High heat flux boundary condition is one of the poten-
tial causes which accelerates the vaporization, and this in turn forms an insulating
layer of vapor/gases near the wall. Drastic reduction in heat transfer coefficient is
observed, and dry-out condition is soon reached while setting up wall temperature
oscillations. In many literatures boiling crisis or critical heat flux conditions are
identified when sudden abnormally high temperatures are recorded. Identifying
onset of boiling crisis is one of the burning issues and challenges to the research
community. Different flow regimes have been identified and reported in the litera-
tures. Flow transition instabilities refer to those instabilities that arise as the transi-
tion from one regime to another regime takes place, and if the two-phase pressure
drop across the microchannel is predominant in the system, this transition can cause
cyclic fluctuations in the flow [13, 14]. It is observed that though this phenomenon
can produce a flow excursion, the amplitude in this case is typically smaller than the
amplitude of the Ledinegg flow excursion in the same system. Geysering instability
phenomenon has been evidenced in vertical boilers for natural and forced convec-
tion systems and in single and parallel channels. Ozawa et al. [15] concluded that
geysering phenomenon involved three aspects, namely, boiling delay, condensation,
and liquid returning. Here boiling delay is the time consumed by the subcooled
liquid to become saturated liquid and can be expressed as
r lC pl DTsub Axs LHS
t bd = , (1.1)
q²
where ρl is the density of the subcooled liquid, C pl the heat capacity, ΔTsub the
liquid subcooling temperature, Axs the cross section, LHS the length of the heated
section, and q" the heat flux.
4 1 Introduction
Further several studies on geysering instability have shown that the period of
flow oscillation is proportional to the boiling delay time because condensation and
liquid return time was very much short compared to the boiling delay time.
Now regarding dynamic instabilities, these instabilities are generally expressed
in terms of oscillatory behavior of flow parameters such as pressure, mass flux, and
temperature. In order to describe the behavior of dynamic instabilities, it is necessary
to take into account different dynamic effects, such as compressibility, the propaga-
tion time, the inertia, etc. Density wave oscillations are the most common instabili-
ties encountered in two-phase flow systems. In fact when flow boiling in a heated
channel takes place, a decreasing flow rate induces a rise of the enthalpy rate and
consequently the fluid density. This density variation affects the heat transfer and the
channel pressure drop, and therefore fluid waves of mixtures of alternately higher
and lower density travel along the system, and self-sustained oscillations are set up.
In density wave oscillations, the oscillation amplitudes and periods of pressure, mass
flux, and wall temperature are generally small [16]. Bergles et al. [1] reported that
pressure drop oscillation phenomenon is induced in boiling two-phase flow systems
where the amount of upstream compressible volume is significant, and this can exist
naturally in long test sections (L/d > 150 [17]), or it can be artificially introduced by
connecting a surge tank upstream of the heated test section [18]. Considering the
dynamic interactions between a compressible volume and the heated channels, the
mass flow rate, pressure drop, and wall temperatures oscillate with a long period and
large amplitude, while pressure and mass flux are out of phase.
Acoustic oscillations involve the propagation of pressure waves with the speed
of sound in the two-phase mixture. Thurston et al. [19] and Bergles et al. [20]
reported acoustic oscillations under specific conditions such as film boiling, sub-
cooled boiling, and cryogenic systems. They attributed film thickness variation and
bubble collapse that induced a change in pressure, and consequently acoustic waves
were set up. The amplitude of the acoustic oscillations is generally small with fre-
quencies varying in the range 10–100 Hz.
Thermal oscillations are related to the instability of the liquid film adjacent to the
heated tube wall, and these oscillations are characterized by large amplitude fluctua-
tions, while the amplitudes and periods of pressure and mass flux oscillations are
very small. Further, it has also been reported that density wave oscillations are
required to trigger the thermal oscillations. Finally, parallel channel instabilities are
reported as the result of density wave oscillations within each channel and feedback
interactions between channels. Often moderate flow oscillations are associated with
parallel channel instabilities.
It must be noted that most of the studies did not identify the observed instabilities
according to the classifications mentioned; rather, they recorded amplitude and fre-
quency of oscillations to explain instability phenomenon in their work.
1.3 Differentiating Macro- and Microscale Flow Boiling 5
no confinement effect is present during the macroscale flow boiling. On the other
hand, in microchannel the bubble detachment diameter being larger than the diam-
eter of the duct, bubble growth is influenced by the proximity of the wall, and under
the condition of rapid bubble expansion, inside microchannel results in temporal
blockage of the channel and high pressure around the bubble interfaces. This results
in a significant drag force and shear stress acting on the bubble.
Hence, it is observed that microchannels are more prone to flow instabilities due
to confinement effect. Rapid growth and collapse in confined space result in
significant pressure fluctuations which in turn can lead to several undesirable effects
such as premature critical heat flux, thermal stress, and mechanical vibration in the
microchannels.
Fritz [22] suggested an equation given as
s
Dbubble = 0.0208 q , (1.2)
g ( r L - rg )
References
1. A.E. Bergles, J.H. Lienhard, G.E. Kendall, P. Griffith, Boiling and evaporation in small diam-
eter channels. Heat Transf. Eng. 24, 1840 (2003)
2. M. Ozawa, H. Umekawa, K. Mishima et al., CHF in oscillatory flow boiling channels. Chem.
Eng. Res. Des. 79, 389–401 (2001)
3. S.V. Garimella, A.S. Fleischer, J.Y. Murthy et al., Thermal challenges in next generation elec-
tronic systems. IEEE Trans. Compon. Packaging Technol. 31, 801–815 (2008)
4. J.A. Bour, A.E. Bergles, L.S. Tong, Review of two-phase flow instability. Nucl. Eng. Des. 25,
165–192 (1973)
5. M. Ishii, Study of flow instabilities in two-phase mixtures, Argonne National Laboratory
Report, ANL-76-23, 1976
6. G. Yadigaroglu, Two-phase flow instabilities and propagation phenomena, in Thermohydraulics
of Two-Phase Systems for Industrial Design and Nuclear Engineering, ed. by M. Delhaye,
M. Giot, L.M. Rietmuler (Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 1981), pp. 353–403
References 7
7. A.E. Bergles, Review of instabilities in two-phase systems, in Two-Phase flow and Heat
Transfer, ed. by S. Kakac, F. Mayinger, vol. 2 (Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 1977),
pp. 382–422
8. M. Ledinegg, Instability of flow during natural and forced circulation. Die Warme 61, 891–898
(1938)
9. J. Yin, Modeling and analysis of multiphase flow instabilities, Ph.D. Thesis, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, 2004
10. T.J. Zhang, T. Tong, Y. Peles, R. Prasher et al., Ledinegg instability in microchannels. Int.
J. Heat Mass Transf. 52, 5661–5674 (2009)
11. J. Xu, J. Zhou, Y. Gan, Static and dynamic flow instability of a parallel microchannel heat sink
at high heat fluxes. Energy Convers. Manag. 46, 313–334 (2005)
12. S. Kakac, B. Bon, A review of two-phase flow dynamic instabilities in tube boiling systems.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 51, 399–433 (2008)
13. B.R. Fu, C. Pan, Flow pattern transition instability in a microchannel with CO2 bubbles
produced by chemical reactions. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 48, 4397–4409 (2005)
14. C. Huh, J. Kim, M.H. Kim, Flow pattern transition instability during flow boiling in a single
microchannel. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 50, 1049–1060 (2007)
15. M. Ozawa, S. Nakanishi, S. Ishigai, Y. Mizuta, H. Tarui, Flow instabilities in boiling channels:
Part 2. Bull. JSME 22(170), 1119–1126 (1979)
16. Y. Ding, S. Kaka, X.J. Chen, Dynamic instabilities of boiling two-phase flow in a single
horizontal channel. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 11, 327–342 (1995)
17. J.S. Maulbetsch, P. Griffith, System-induced instabilities in forced convection flow with
subcooled boiling. 3rd international heat transfer conference, Chicago, IL, vol. 4, p. 247, 1966
18. A.H. Stenning, T.N. Veziroglu, Flow oscillation modes in forced convection boiling, in
Proceedings of the 1965 Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics Institute, Stanford University
Press, p. 301, 1965
19. R.S. Thurston, J.D. Rogers, V.J. Skoglund, Pressure oscillations induced by forced convection
heating of dense hydrogen. Adv. Cryogen. Eng. 12(8), 438 (1966)
20. A.E. Bergles, P. Goldberg, J.S. Maulbetsch, Acoustic oscillations in a high pressure single
channel boiling system, in Proceedings of the Symposium Two phase Flow Dynamics,
Eindhoven, vol. 1, pp. 535–550, 1967
21. W. Li, Z. Wu, A general correlation for evaporative heat transfer in micro/minichannels. Int.
J. Heat Mass Transf. 53, 1778–1787 (2010)
22. W. Fritz, Maximum volume of vapor bubbles. Phys. Z 36, 379 (1935)
23. M.S. Plesset, S.A. Zwick, The growth of vapor bubbles in superheated liquids. J. Appl. Phys.
25(4), 493–500 (1954)
24. M.G. Cooper, The microlayer and bubble growth in nucleate pool boiling. Int. J. Heat Mass
Transf. 12(8), 915–933 (1969)
25. B.B. Mikic, W.M. Rohsenow, P. Griffith, On bubble growth rates. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 13,
657–666 (1970)
26. H.K. Forster, N. Zuber, Growth of a vapor bubble in a superheated liquid. J. Appl. Phys. 25(4),
474 (1954)
27. D.A. Pfund, A. Shekarriz, A. Popescu, J.R. Welty, Pressure drops measurements in microchan-
nels, in Proceedings of the MEMS, ASME DSC, vol. 66, pp. 193–198, 1998
Chapter 2
Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities
Keywords Unstable boiling • Bubbly flow • Annular flow • Pressure drop and mass
flux oscillations
a b
1.5 1.5
Tin = 30 ˚C Tin = 30 ˚C
G = 400 kg/m2s G = 400 kg/m2s
2
q"eff = 100.4 W/cm2 q"eff = 203.0 W/cm
1.4 Pin 1.4
Pin
1.3 1.3
P [bar]
P [bar]
1.2 1.2
Pout
1.1 1.1
Pout
Instability type: Instability type:
Pressure Drop Oscillation Parallel Channel Instability
1.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t [s] t [s]
Fig. 2.1 Temporal records of inlet and outlet pressures during (a) pressure drop oscillation and (b)
parallel channel instability [1]
Through flow visualization three kinds of unstable boiling modes were observed in
the microchannels. These were (1) the liquid/two-phase alternating flow (LTAF) at
low heat flux and high mass flux, (2) the continuous two-phase flow (CTF) at
medium heat flux and medium mass flux, and (3) the liquid/two-phase/vapor alter-
nating flow (LTVAF) at high heat flux and low mass flux.
During the experiment as the heat flux was gradually increased from low to high,
onset of nucleate boiling, accompanying small temporal variations of temperatures,
pressures, and mass flux, was observed, and as the heat flux was increased further,
the abovementioned three unstable boiling modes were observed. Figure 2.2a–c
presents temporal variations of temperatures, pressures, and mass flux during liq-
uid/two-phase alternating flow (LTAF) which was observed when the heat flux was
increased to 13.5 W/cm2 and the corresponding mass flux was reduced to 14.6 g/
cm2 s. This unstable LTAF mode started with liquid phase followed by bubbly flow
pattern, and then all of sudden boom ranged to liquid phase. Flow visualization
revealed that bubbly flow was the dominant flow pattern during the two-phase flow
period at this heat flux and mass flux. The outlet water temperature in this case was
almost constant at the saturation temperature of 100 °C, while inlet water tempera-
ture fluctuated between lowest 30 °C to the highest 91.1 °C.
Comparison of temporal variations of temperatures, pressures, and mass flux
revealed that oscillations of inlet water temperature and inlet pressure were nearly
in phase, but oscillations of inlet pressure and instantaneous mass flux were nearly
out of phase. Continuous two-phase flow (CTF) was observed when the heat flux
was further increased to 18.8 W/cm2. The corresponding average mass flux
decreased to 11.9 g/cm2 s due to pressure rise in the channel. This unstable flow had
peculiar bright vapor core moving in the middle of microchannels. In contrast to
LTAF, oscillations of pressure and mass flux in the CTF boiling mode were nearly
in phase. Liquid/two-phase/vapor alternating flow (LTVAF) was observed when
heat flux was further increased to 22.6 W/cm2. This unstable boiling mode started
2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities 11
Fig. 2.2 Oscillation of various measurements at q = 13.5 W/cm2 and m = 14.6 g/cm2 s [2]
with liquid phase followed by two-phase flow which in turn was followed by super-
heated vapor flow, and finally it terminated with two-phase flow. From this experi-
mental study, it was concluded that (1) LTVAF exhibited largest while CTF resulted
in smallest oscillation amplitudes and LTAF was having between the LTVAF and
CTF modes. (2) In the CTF boiling mode, small amplitude oscillations of pressure
and temperature were encountered because during this mode, pressure and mass
flux were nearly in phase while oscillations of pressures and mass flux in LTAF and
LTVAF boiling modes were nearly out of phase and hence resulted in large ampli-
tude oscillations of pressure and temperature.
Huh et al. [3] studied flow boiling instabilities in single rectangular microchannel
of hydraulic diameter of 103.5 μm and length of 40 mm. Deionized water was used as
a working fluid, and experiment was conducted for mass fluxes of 170 and 360 kg/m2 s
and heat fluxes of 200–530 KW/m2. The test section consisted of multiple microheat-
ers and a single horizontal rectangular microchannel, as shown in Fig. 2.3
12 2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities
They reported findings for two cases, one with a mass flux of 179.8 kg/m2 s and a
heat flux of 372.4 KW/m2 for each heater and another with a mass flux of 349.6 kg/m2 s
and a heat flux of 487.5 KW/m2. The pressure drop and mass flux fluctuations for a
mass flux of 179.8 kg/m2 s and a heat flux of 372.4 KW/m2 are shown in Fig. 2.4a, b
It was observed from the above experimental data plot that the fluctuation in
pressure drop having magnitude of 10 KPa prevailed with the period of about 400 s.
On the other hand the mass flux fluctuated periodically with the same period as the
pressure drop but with amplitude of 500 kg/m2 s. The flow reversal was reported, as
indicated in Fig. 2.4b by negative values of mass flux at the minima points. Further
at higher flow rate, i.e., for a mass flux of 349.6 kg/m2 s and a heat flux of 487.5 KW/
m2, similar pattern of pressure and mass fluctuations was observed with common
period of about 210 s while depicting amplitude of pressure drop oscillation as
5.2 KPa and amplitude of mass flux fluctuation of 400 kg/m2 s. In other words
higher flow rate resulted in reduced amplitude of pressure drop and mass flux oscil-
lations with reduced period of oscillation.
The effect of vapor quality on mass flux and pressure drop fluctuation was also
investigated, as shown in Fig. 2.5a, b by varying heat flux while keeping similar
flow rate.
Pressure drop fluctuation plot Fig. 2.5a revealed that as the heat flux is increased,
amplitude of pressure and mass flux increased, and period of oscillation also
depicted increasing trend with increasing heat flux. Hence, it was concluded that
2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities 13
a b
60 800
50
600
Pressure Drop [kPa]
30 400
20
200
10
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time [sec] Time [sec]
Fig. 2.4 Fluctuations of (a) pressure drop and (b) mass flux at G = 179.8 kg/m2 s and q″ = 372.4 kW/m2 [3]
a b
70 1000
2 2
G=355.7 kg/m s, q"=445.0 kW/m G=355.7 kg/m2s, q"=445.0 kW/m2
G=349.6 kg/m2s, q"=487.5 kW/m2 G=349.6 kg/m2s, q"=487.5 kW/m2
800
60 G=331.5 kg/m2s, q"=521.2 kW/m2 G=331.5 kg/m2s, q"=521.2 kW/m2
Pressure Drop [kPa]
600
50
400
40
200
30 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time [sec] Time [sec]
Fig. 2.5 Comparison of (a) pressure drop fluctuations and (b) mass flux fluctuations [3]
flow turned unstable with increase in heat flux and, since with increase in heat flux,
vapor quality increases; hence, unstable flow results in increase in vapor quality.
Wang et al. [4] carried out flow visualization and measurement studies in order
to investigate dynamic instabilities in flow boiling of water in parallel as well as
single microchannel. These microchannels had a length of 30 mm and were having
trapezoidal cross section with a hydraulic diameter of 186 μm. They identified three
boiling modes in parallel as well as in single microchannel. Flow boiling regime in
parallel microchannels was demonstrated, as shown in Fig. 2.6, for constant heat
flux conditions of q = 226.9, 305.7, 362.4, 417.8, and 497.8 kW/m2, respectively,
and it was observed that the boiling flow pattern was highly sensitive to heat-to-
mass flux ratio, q/G. Stable flow boiling with no periodic oscillation was reported
for q/G < 0.96 kJ/kg, and unstable flow boiling regime with long-period oscillation
(more than 1 s) existed for the span of 0.96 ≤ q/G ≤ 2.14 KJ/Kg, while unstable flow
boiling regime with short-period oscillation (less than 0.1 s) prevailed for
q/G > 2.14 kJ/kg.
14 2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities
600
Unstable Flow Boiling
Unstable Flow Boiling with Long-period Oscillation
550 with Short-period Oscillation (0.96kJ/kg< q/G < 2.14kJ/kg)
(q/G > 2.14kJ/kg)
500
450
Heat flux (kW/m2)
400
350
Stable Flow Boiling
with no Periodic Oscillation
300
(q/G<0.96kJ/kg)
250
Tin =35
200 Unstable flow
Stable flow
150
100 200 300 400 500 600
Mass flux (kg/m2s)
Fig. 2.6 Stable and unstable flow boiling regimes in parallel microchannels [4]
For the comparison purpose, flow boiling regime for single microchannel was
also presented in Fig. 2.7 for constant heat fluxes of q = 84.5, 157.0, 222.3, and
297.8 KW/m2, and it was observed that corresponding to q/G < 0.09 kJ/kg , stable
flow with no oscillation, while for q/G > 0.32 kJ/kg, unstable flow with short period
of oscillation (less than 0.1 s) was induced. Furthermore, comparison of flow boil-
ing regime in parallel and single microchannel corresponding to approximately
equal heat flux values 222.3 and 297.8 KW/m2 revealed that unstable flow boiling
regime with long-period oscillation in a single microchannel is smaller than that in
parallel microchannels. This was because in case of parallel microchannels, the fluid
was receiving disturbances being in communication with fluid of other channels.
Chang and Pan [5] investigated experimentally two-phase flow instability for
flow boiling in silicon-based, 15 parallel rectangular microchannels. The width,
depth, and hydraulic diameter for each channel were 99.4, 76.3, and 86.3 μm,
respectively. In order to comprehend the instability behavior, two-phase flow pat-
tern was visualized using a high-speed digital camera. Flow visualization analysis
revealed that stable flow was observed for mass flux G = 22 kg/m2 s and heat flux
q″ = 7.91 kW/m2, and when heat flux was increased twofold keeping same mass
flux, the two-phase flow turned unstable, and forward flow of two-phase mixture
towards the outlet chamber and reversed two-phase flow towards the inlet chamber
were clearly observed. The onset of flow instability with increase in heat flux mag-
nitude confirmed the strong bearing of heat flux on instability. Further large-magni-
tude pressure drop oscillations were observed for the cases of G = 44 kg/m2 s and
q″ = 78.6 and 87.7 kW/m2, as shown in Fig. 2.8. It was suggested that the magnitude
of pressure drop oscillations might be treated as an index to identify whether or
not an operation state is stable. Figure 2.9 demonstrates the variation of pressure
Unstable Flow Boiling
with Short-period Oscillation
350 (q/G > 0.32kJ/kg) Unstable Flow Boiling
with Long-period Oscillation
(0.09kJ/kg< q/G < 0.32kJ/kg)
300
250
Heat Flux (kW/m2)
200
Fig. 2.7 Stable and unstable flow boiling regimes in a single microchannel [4]
G=44kg/m2s, DH=86.3mm
2f, unstable, q"= 87.7 (kw/m2)
2f, unstable, q"= 78.6 (kw/m2)
2f, stable, q"= 17.2 (kw/m2)
40 1f, stable, q"= 7.68 (kw/m2)
DP(kPa)
20
0
5200 5600 6000 6400 6800
Time (s)
Fig. 2.8 Significant pressure drop oscillations under unstable conditions [5]
16 2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities
24
G=22 kg/m2,stable
22
G=22 kg/m2,unstable
20 G=44 kg/m2,stable
G=44 kg/m2,unstable
18 G=66 kg/m2,stable
G=66 kg/m2,unstable
16 G=88 kg/m2,stable
DPmax-DPmin(kPa)
G=88 kg/m2,unstable
14 G=110 kg/m2,stable
G=110 kg/m2,unstable
12
10
8 Unstable zone
6
Stable zone
4
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
q"(kW/m2)
Fig. 2.9 Maximum magnitude of pressure drop oscillations for various cases [5]
difference of instant maximum and minimum pressure drop with heat flux for
different mass fluxes. It was reported that when the pressure difference was smaller
than 6 KPa, moderate pressure oscillations were observed. Hence, below 6 KPa
pressure difference, flow was designated as stable flow, and when pressure differ-
ence was above 6 KPa, reversed two-phase flow with large-magnitude oscillations
appeared and the system became unstable.
Wang et al. [6] investigated the effects of inlet/outlet configurations on dynamic
instabilities in flow boiling of water in parallel microchannels, having a length of
30 mm and a hydraulic diameter of 186 μm.
Three types of inlet/outlet connections were considered. In the type A connec-
tion, inlet and outlet conduits were perpendicular to the parallel microchannels in
the test section. In the type B connection, fluid could flow into and exit from the
parallel microchannels without any restriction, and in the type C connection, fluid
entered each of the microchannels through an inlet restriction. These three connec-
tions are shown in Fig. 2.10.
Simultaneous visualization and measurement under similar conditions revealed
that in microchannels with the type A connection, the amplitudes of pressure and
temperature fluctuations and the strength of the reversed vapor flow were the h ighest
among the three types of connection. The comparison of temporal variations of
2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities 17
c
(i) (ii)
3000 mm
54.7º
162 mm
Fig. 2.10 Parallel microchannels with three different inlet/outlet connections [6]. (a) Type A con-
nections: flow entering to and exiting from parallel microchannels with restrictions because inlet/
outlet conduits are perpendicular to microchannels. (b) Type B connections: flow entering to and
exiting from microchannels freely without restrictions. (c) Type C connections: flow entering with
restrictions and exiting without restrictions in microchannels
temperatures (including fluid inlet and outlet temperature Tin and Tout and axial wall
temperature (Tw1–Tw5)) and inlet/outlet pressures in the microchannels with type A
and type B connections are presented in Fig. 2.11. It was observed that the micro-
channels with the type B connection experienced relatively lower temperature and
pressure oscillations compared to the microchannels with type A connection.
Microchannels with the type C connection exhibited steady flow boiling with no
oscillations of temperature and pressure, and during the experiment, no backflow of
vapor bubbles into the inlet plenum was observed.
Bogojevic et al. [7] conducted an experiment to investigate pressure and tem-
perature oscillations during the flow boiling instabilities under uniform heating,
using water as a cooling liquid. The study was performed in silicon heat sink with
40 parallel rectangular microchannels, having a length of 15 mm and a hydraulic
diameter of 194 μm. During their studies they also had in mind to address:
1. The effects of inlet water temperature on flow boiling instabilities
2. Influence of different subcooling conditions on the magnitude of temperatures
3. The effect of nonuniform distribution within the channels on both flow instabili-
ties and the temperature distribution
18 2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities
a b
180 Tin 200
Tin
Tout 180
160 Tw1 Tout
Tw1
Tw2 160
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
Tw3 Tw2
140 Tw3
Tw4 140 Tw4
Tw5
120 120 Tw5
100 100
80
80
60
60 40
40 20
65 70 75 80 85 2475 2480 2485 2490 2495
Time (s) Time (s)
c d
Pin 1.5 Pin
1.25 Pout
Pout
1.20 1.4
Pressure (Bar)
Pressure (Bar)
1.15 1.3
1.10 1.2
1.05 1.1
1.00 1.0
65 70 75 80 85 2475 2480 2485 2490 2495
Time (s) Time (s)
(a)Type-B with xe=0.096 and Tin=35ºC (b)Type-A with xe=0.099 and Tin=35ºC
Fig. 2.11 Measurements of inlet/outlet water and wall temperatures and inlet/outlet pressures in
parallel microchannels (Dh = 186 μm) in bubby/annular alternating flow boiling regimes: (a) type
B connection with q = 485.52 kW/m2, G = 364.90 kg/m2 s, and Tin = 35 °C (xe = 0.096) and (b) type
A connections with q = 497.80 kW/m2, G = 368.94 kg/m2 s, and Tin = 35 °C (xe = 0.099) [6]
Experiments were conducted at four different heat fluxes (178, 267, 356, and
445 kW/m2) and two inlet subcooling conditions (25 and 71 °C). Depending upon
the frequency and amplitude of pressure drop oscillations, two categories of two-
phase instabilities were identified, namely, high amplitude with low frequency
(HALF) oscillations and low amplitude with high frequency (LAHF) oscillations. It
was found that frequencies typical of HALF-type instabilities were in the range of
0.9–2.88 Hz. Frequencies typical of LAHF instabilities were in the range of
23–25 Hz. Flow stability maps in terms of heat flux and mass flux have been dem-
onstrated in Fig. 2.12 for two different inlet water temperatures. Each flow stability
map consists of two inclined lines that differentiate stable flow, unstable flow boiling
with HALF instabilities, and unstable flow boiling with LAHF instabilities. It was
observed that the flow regime and type of two-phase flow instabilities were depen-
dent on the heat flux to mass flux (q/G) ratio and inlet subcooling condition. However,
the experimental findings revealed that boiling leads to asymmetrical flow distribu-
tion within microchannels that results in high-temperature nonuniformity and the
simultaneously existence of different flow regimes along the transverse direction.
From the flow stability maps, it was noticed that at inlet water temperature of
25 °C, high amplitude with low frequency (HALF) instabilities existed for q/G
2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities 19
a
500
2.62 kJ/kg<q/G>3.44 kJ/kg
HALF inst.
q/G>3.44 kJ/kg
400
LAHF inst.
q [kW/m2]
300
q/G<2.62 kJ/kg
stable flow
200
Tin = 25 °C
HALF
LAHF
100
50 100 150 200
G [kg/m2s]
b
500
0.99 kJ/kg<q/G>1.55 kJ/kg
HALF inst.
q/G>1.55 kJ/kg
400 LAHF inst.
q [kW/m2]
q/G<0.99 kJ/kg
300
stable flow
200
Tin = 25 °C
HALF
LAHF
100
100 200 300 400 500
G [kg/m2s]
Fig. 2.12 Flow stability maps in parallel microchannels with hydraulic diameter of 194 μm for
two different water inlet temperatures: (a) 25 °C and (b) 71 °C [7]
ranging from 2.62 to 3.44 kJ/kg while it ranged from 0.99 to 1.55 KJ/kg for inlet
water temperature of 71 °C. Low amplitude with high frequency instabilities, on
other hand, were traced when q/G > 3.44 kJ/kg at an inlet water temperature of
25 °C and q/G > 1.55 kJ/kg at inlet water temperature of 71 °C.
20 2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities
a b
115 130
T1 125 T1
110 T2 T2
T3
120 T3
105
T4 115 T4
100 T5 110 T5
Temperature [°C]
Temperature [°C]
95 105
100
90
95
85
90
80 85
75 80
70 75
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time [s] Time [s]
2 2
q = 219.6 kW/m
c d q = 243.0 kW/m
115 115
T1 T1
110 T2 110 T2
T3 T3
105 105
T4 T4
100 T5 100 T5
Temperature [°C]
Temperature [°C]
95 95
90 90
85 85
80 80
75 75
70 70
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time [s] Time [s]
2 2
q = 252.8 kW/m q = 267.6 kW/m
Fig. 2.13 Sensor temperature fluctuations in unstable flow regime with HALF instabilities for a
mass flux of 208 kg/m2 s, inlet water temperature of 71 °C, and a range of heat fluxes [7]
Instability phenomenon was observed when heat flux was increased keeping
mass flux constant or decreasing mass flux maintaining heat flux constant.
Figure 2.13 presents the temperature fluctuations recorded for a constant mass flux
of 208 kg/m2 s, inlet water temperature of 71 °C, and a range of heat fluxes.
Megahed [8] experimentally investigated flow instability in a cross-linked micro-
channel heat sink consisting of 45 straight microchannels each with a hydraulic diam-
eter of 248 μm and heated length of 16 mm, and three cross-links of width 500 μm
are introduced. Experiments were conducted using the dielectric coolant FC-72 over
a range of heat flux from 7.2 to 104.2 kW/m2 and mass flux from 99 to 290 kg/m2 s
while exit quality ranged from 0.01 to 0.71. Instability measurement in terms of inlet
pressure and outlet temperature fluctuations is presented in Fig. 2.14a, b.
Instability data interpretation from the above the plot revealed that (1) the ampli-
tude of inlet pressure fluctuation was found to reduce with increasing mass flux. (2)
The frequency of oscillation of inlet pressure was reduced at low mass flux. (3) The
amplitude of inlet pressure oscillation at low mass flux was around three times the
inlet pressure amplitude corresponding to higher mass flux. (4) The oscillation
amplitude and frequency of outlet saturation temperature depicted high values at low
mass flux. (5) The amplitude of saturation temperature oscillations at low heat and
mass fluxes was about seven times higher than the amplitude of oscillations at higher
heat and mass fluxes. (6) Compare to straight microchannel, the two-phase pressure
drop in heat sinks with cross-links was much higher due to the cross-link effect.
2 Studies on Two-Phase Flow Instabilities 21
a
35
20
G=105 kg/m2.s, q=24.5 kW/m2
G=155 kg/m2.s, q=24.5 kW/m2
15
30 G=201 kg/m2.s, q=24.5 kW/m2
10
25 5
Pin (kPa)
20
15
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
time (s)
b
60
G=105 kg/m2.s, q=24.5 kW/m2
58
59.5
G=155 kg/m2.s, q=45.9 kW/m2
59 57
58.5
56
57.5
57
56.5
56
55.5
55
0 100 200 300 400 500
time (s)
Fig. 2.14 Oscillations of inlet pressure and outlet temperature measurements, q = 24.5–45.8 kW/m2
and G = 105–201 kg/m2 s [8]
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de Cataluña. Conocedor de la patria en cuyo seno había tenido la
dicha de nacer, creyó que sus frailunas vestiduras eran el uniforme
más seductor para acaudillar aventureros, y al igual de las cortantes
armas puso la imagen del crucificado. En los campos de batalla, fuera
de alguna ocasión solemne, llevaba el látigo en la mano y la cruz en e
cinto; pero al entrar en las poblaciones colgaba el látigo y blandía la
cruz, incitando a todos a que la besaran. Esto hacía en aque
momento, avanzando por la plazuela. Su mulo no podía romper sino a
fuerza de cabezadas y tropezones la muralla de devotos patriotas, y él
afectando una seriedad más propia de mascarón que de fraile, echaba
bendiciones. El demonio metido a evangelista no hubiera hecho su
papel con más donaire. Viéndole, fluctuaba el ánimo entre la risa y un
horror más grande que todos los horrores. Los tiempos presentes no
pueden tener idea de ello, aunque hayan visto pasar fúnebre y
sanguinosa una sombra de aquellas espantables figuras. Sus
reproducciones posteriores han sido descoloridas, y ninguna ha tenido
popularidad, sino antes bien, el odio y las burlas del país.
Cuando el bestial fraile, retrato fiel de Satanás ecuestre, llegó junto
al grupo de que hemos hablado, recibió las felicitaciones de las tres
personas que lo formaban, y él les hizo saludo marcial alzando e
Crucifijo hasta tocar la sien.
—Bienvenido sea el padre Marañón —dijo el jefe de la Comisión
militar acariciando las crines del mulo, que aprovechó tal coyuntura
para detenerse—. ¿A dónde va tanto bueno?
—Hombre..., también uno ha de querer ver las cosas de gusto —
replicó el fraile—. ¿A qué hora será eso mañana?
—A las diez en punto —contestó Regato—. Es la hora mejor.
—¡Cuánta gente curiosa!... No me han dejado rezar, seño
Chaperón —añadió el fraile, inclinándose como para decir una cosa
que no debía oír el vulgo—. Usted, que lo sabe todo, dígame: ¿conque
es cierto que se nos marcha el príncipe?
—¿Angulema? Ya va muy lejos, camino de Francia. ¿Verdad, padre
Marañón, que no nos hace falta maldita?
—¿Pues no nos ha de hacer falta, hombre de Dios? —dijo el fraile
soltando una carcajada que asemejó su rostro al de una gárgola de
catedral despidiendo el agua por la boca—. ¿Qué va a ser de nosotros
sin figurines? Averigüe usted ahora cómo se han de hacer los
chalecos y cómo se han de poner las corbatas.
Los tres y otros intrusos que oían rompieron a reír, celebrando e
donaire del Trapense.
—Queda de general en jefe el general Bourmont.
—Por falta de hombres buenos, a mi padre hicieron alcalde —dijo
Chaperón—. Si Bourmont se ocupara en otra cosa que en coge
moscas, y se metiera en lo que no le importa, ya sabríamos tenerle a
raya.
—Me parece que no nos mamamos el dedo —repuso el fraile—. Y
me consta que Su Majestad viene dispuesto a que las cosas se hagan
al derecho, arrancando de cuajo la raíz de las revoluciones. Dígame
usted, ¿es cierto que se ha retractado en la capilla?
—¿Quién, Su Majestad?
—No, hombre, Rieguillo.
—De eso se trata. El hombre está más maduro que una breva. ¿No
va usted por allá?
—¿Por la capilla?... No me quedaré sin meter mi cucharada... Ahora
no puedo detenerme: tengo que ver al obispo para un negocio de
bulas, y al ministro de la Guerra para hablarle del mal estado en que
están las armas de mi gente... Con Dios, señores... ¡arre!
Y echó a andar hacia la calle de Toledo, seguido del entusiasta
cortejo que le vitoreaba. Chaperón, después de dar las últimas
órdenes a los aparejadores y de volver a observar el efecto de la bella
obra que se estaba ejecutando, marchó con sus amigos hacia la calle
Imperial, por donde se dirigieron todos a la cárcel de Corte. En la
plazuela había también gente, de esa que la curiosidad, no la
compasión, reúne frente a un muro detrás del cual hay un reo en
capilla. No veían nada, y sin embargo, miraban la negra pared, como
si en ella pudiera descubrirse la sombra, o si no la sombra, misterioso
reflejo del espíritu del condenado a muerte.
Los tres amigos tropezaron con un individuo que apresuradamente
salía de la Sala de Alcaldes.
—¡Eh!, no corra usted tanto, señor Pipaón —gritole el de la
Comisión militar—. ¿A dónde tan a prisa?
—Hola, señores, salud y pesetas —dijo el digno varón
deteniéndose—. ¿Van ustedes a la capilla?...
—No hemos de ser los últimos. ¿Qué tal está mi hombre?...
—Van a darle de comer... Una mesa espléndida, como se
acostumbra en estos casos. Con que, señor Chaperón, seño
Regato...
—¡A dónde va usted que más valga! —dijo Chaperón deteniéndole
por un brazo—. ¿Hay trabajillo en la oficina?
—Yo no trabajo en la oficina, porque estoy encargado de los
festejos para recibir al rey —repuso Bragas con orgullo.
—¡Ah!, no hay que apurarse todavía.
—Pero no es cosa de dejarlo para el último día. No preparamos una
función chabacana como las del tiempo constitucional, sino una
verdadera solemnidad regia, como lo merecen el caso y la persona de
Fernando VII. El carro en que ha de verificar su entrada se está
construyendo. Es digno de un emperador romano. Aún no se sabe s
tirarán de él caballos o mancebos vistosamente engalanados. Es
indudable que llevarán las cintas los voluntarios realistas.
—Pues se ha dicho que nosotros tiraríamos del carro —dijo Romo
con énfasis, como si reclamara un derecho.
—Ahí tiene usted un asunto sobre el cual no disputaría yo —insinuó
Regato blandamente—. Yo dejaría que tiraran caballos o mulas.
—Ya se decidirá, señores, ya se decidirá a gusto de todos —dijo
Bragas con aires de transacción—. Lo que me trae muy preocupado
es que..., verán ustedes..., me he propuesto presentar ese día
doscientas o trescientas majas lujosamente vestidas. ¡Oh! ¡qué bonito
espectáculo! Costará mucho dinero ciertamente; pero ¡qué precioso
efecto! Ya estoy escogiendo mi cuadrilla. Doscientas muchachas
bonitas no son un grano de anís. Pero yo las tomo donde las
encuentro..., ¿eh? De los trajes se encarga el Ayuntamiento... Me han
dado fondos. ¡Caracoles!, es una cuestión peliaguda... Espero lucirme.
—Este Pipaón es de la piel de Satanás... ¿De dónde va a sacar ese
mujerío?
—Yo daría la preferencia a los arcos de triunfo —dijo Romo—. Es
mucho más serio.
—¿Arcos?... ¡Si ha de haber cuatro! Por cierto que el seño
Chaperón nos ha hecho un flaco servicio llevándose para la horca los
grandes mástiles que sirven para armar arcos de triunfo.
—Hombre, por vida del Santísimo Sacramento —dijo Chaperón
mostrando un sentimiento que en otro pudiera haber sido bondad—
ya servirán para todo. Pues qué, ¿vamos a ahorcar a media España?
—Entre paréntesis, no sería malo... Conque ahora sí que me voy de
veras.
Estrechó Pipaón sucesivamente la mano de cada uno de sus tres
amigos.
—Ya nos veremos luego en las oficinas de la Comisión.
—Pues qué, ¿hay algo nuevo?
—Hombre, no se puede desamparar a los amigos.
—¡Recomendaciones! —vociferó el brigadier mostrando su fiereza
—. Por vida del Santísimo, que eso de las recomendaciones y las
amistades me incomoda más que la evasión de un prisionero. Así no
hay justicia posible, señor Pipaón; así la justicia, los castigos y las
purificaciones no son más que una farsa.
El terrible funcionario se cruzó de brazos, conservando fuertemente
empuñado el símbolo de su autoridad.
—Es claro —añadió Romo por espíritu de adulación—, así no hay
justicia posible.
—No hay justicia —repitió Regato como un eco del cadalso.
—Amigo Chaperón —dijo el astuto Bragas con afabilidad y
desviando un poco del grupo al comisario para hablarle en secreto—
cuando hablo de amigos me refiero a personas que no han hecho
nada contra el régimen absoluto.
—Si, buenos pillos son sus amigos de usted.
—No es más sino que al pobre don Benigno Cordero le está
molestando la policía de Zaragoza, y es posible que lo pase mal. Ya
recordará usted que don Benigno dio cien onzas bien contadas porque
se le comprendiera en el secreto del 2 de octubre fechado en Jerez
Acogiéndose a la proscripción, se libraba de la cárcel y quizás de la
horca... Pues en Zaragoza me le han puesto en un calabozo. Eso no
está bien...
—Bueno, bueno —dijo Chaperón disgustado de aquel asunto
También Romo me ha recomendado a ese Cordero.
Romo no dijo una palabra, ni abandonó aquella seriedad que era en
él como su mismo rostro.
—Por última vez, señores, adiós —chilló Bragas—, ahora sí que me
voy de veras.
—Abur.
Dirigiéronse a la puerta de la cárcel por la calle del Salvador; pero
les fue preciso detenerse, porque en aquel momento entraba una
cuerda de presos. Iban atados como criminales que recogiera en los
caminos la antigua Hermandad de Cuadrilleros, y por su traje
ademanes, y más aún por el modo de expresar su pena, debían de
pertenecer a distintas clases sociales. Los unos iban serenos y con la
frente erguida; los otros abatidos y llorosos. Eran veintidós entre
varones y hembras, a saber: tres patriotas de los antiguos clubs, dos
ancianos que habían desempeñado durante el régimen caído el cargo
de vocales del Supremo Tribunal de Justicia, un eclesiástico, dos
toreros, cuatro cómicos, un chico de siete años, descalzo y roto, tres
militares, un indefinido, como no se le clasificara entre los pordioseros
una señora anciana que apenas podía andar, dos de buena edad y
noble continente, que pertenecían a clase acomodada, y dos mujeres
públicas.
Chaperón echó sobre aquella infeliz gente una mirada que bien
podía llamarse amorosa, pues era semejante a las del artista
contemplando su obra, y cuando el último preso (que era una de las
damas de equívoca conducta) se perdió en el oscuro zaguán de la
prisión, rompió por entre la multitud curiosa y entró también con sus
amigos.
V
En los días sucesivos tuvo don Patricio los mismos deseos de salir
si bien, a excepción de una vez, no fueron tan ardientes; pero hubo
gritos, amenazas, volvió a funcionar el inocente palo y la carcelera a
desplegar las armas de su convincente piedad, de la graciosa entereza
que tan buenos efectos produjera el primer día. Horas enteras pasaba
el vagabundo patriota, corriendo de un ángulo a otro de la sala, como
enjaulada bestia, deteniéndose a veces para oír los ruidos de la calle
que a él le sonaban siempre como discursos, proclamas o himnos, y
poniéndose a cada rato el sombrero como para salir. Este acto de
cubrirse primero y descubrirse después, al caer en la cuenta de su
encierro, era gracioso, y excitaba la risa de su amable guardiana. En la
comida y cena mostrábase más manso, y se ponía con cierto orgullo
las prendas de vestir que Sola le arreglara. Desde la cabeza a los pies
cubríase con lo perteneciente al antiguo dueño de la casa, de cuya
adaptación no resultaba gran elegancia, a causa de la diferencia de
talle y estatura.
Por las noches daba a Soledad lección de escritura, poniendo en
ella tanto cuidado la discípula como el maestro. Él, particularmente
mostraba una prolijidad desusada, esmerándose en transmitir a su
alumna sus altos principios caligráficos, la primorosa maestría de
ejecución que poseía y de que estaba tan orgulloso.
—Desde que el mundo es mundo —decía observando los trazos
hechos por Soledad sobre el papel pautado—, no se han dado
lecciones con tanto esmero. Hanse reunido, para producir colosales
efectos, la disposición innata de la discípula y la destreza del maestro
Ahora bien, señora y carcelera mía: la justicia y el agradecimiento
piden que en pago de este beneficio me conceda usted la libertad, que
es mi elemento, mi vida, mi atmósfera.
—Bueno —respondió Sola—, cuando sepa escribir te abriré la
puerta, viejecillo bobo.
En los primeros días de noviembre estuvo muy tranquilo, apenas
dio señales de persistir en su diabólica manía, y se le vio reír y aun
modular entre dientes alegres cancioncillas; pero el 7 del mismo mes
llegaron a su encierro, no se sabe cómo (sin duda por el aguador o la
indiscreta criada), nuevas del suplicio de Riego, y entonces la
imaginación mal contenida de don Patricio perdió los estribos. Furioso
y desatinado, corría por toda la casa gritando:
—¡Esperad, verdugos, que allá voy yo también! No será él solo..
Esperad, hacedme un puesto en esa horca gloriosa... ¡Maldito sea e
que quiera arrancarme mis legítimos laureles!
Soledad tuvo miedo; mas sobreponiéndose a todo, logró contenerle
con no poco trabajo y riesgo, porque Sarmiento no cedía como antes a
la virtud del palo, ni oía razones, ni respetaba a la que había logrado
con su paciencia y dulzura tan gran dominio sobre él. Pero al fin
triunfaron las buenas artes de la celestial joven, y Sarmiento
acorralado en la sala, sin esperanzas de lograr su intento, hubo de
contentarse con desahogar su espíritu poniéndose de rodillas y
diciendo con voz sonora:
—¡Oh tú, el héroe más grande que han visto los siglos, patriarca de
la libertad, contempla desde el cielo donde moras esta alma atribulada
que no puede romper las ligaduras que le impiden seguirte! Preso
contra todo fuero y razón; víctima de una intriga, me veo imposibilitado
de compartir tu martirio, y con tu martirio tu galardón eterno. Y
vosotros, asesinos, venid aquí por mí si queréis. Gritaré hasta que mis
voces lleguen hasta vuestros perversos oídos. Soy Sarmiento, el digno
compañero de Riego, el único digno de morir con él; soy aque
Sarmiento cuya tonante elocuencia os ha confundido tantas veces; e
que no os ha ametrallado con balas, sino con razones; el que ha
destruido todos vuestros sofismas con la artillería resonante de su
palabra. Aquí estoy, matad la lengua de la libertad, así como habéis
matado el brazo. Vuestra obra no está completa mientras yo viva
porque mientras yo aliente se oirá mi voz por todas partes diciendo lo
que sois... Venid por mí. La horca está manca: falta en ella un cuerpo
No será efectivo el sacrificio sin mí. ¿No me conocéis, ciegos? Soy
Sarmiento, el famoso Sarmiento, el dueño de esa lengua de acero que
tanto os ha hecho rabiar... ¿No daríais algo por taparle la boca? Pues
aquí le tenéis... Venid pronto... El hombre terrible, la voz destructora de
tiranías, callará para siempre.
Todo aquel día estuvo insufrible en tal manera, que otra persona de
menos paciencia y sufrimiento que Solita le habría puesto en la calle
dejándole que siguiera su glorioso destino; pero se fue calmando, y un
sueño profundo durante la noche le puso en regular estado de
despejo. Habíale traído Soledad tabaco picado y librillos de papel para
que se entretuviese haciendo cigarrillos, y con esto y con limpiar la
jaula de un jilguero pasaba parte de la mañana. Sentándose después
junto a la huérfana mientras esta cosía, hablablan largo rato y
agradablemente de cosas diversas. Uno y otro contaban cosas
pasadas: Sarmiento sus bodas, la muerte de Refugio y la niñez de
Lucas; Sola su desgraciado viaje al reino de Valencia.
Continuaban las lecciones de escritura por las noches, y después
leía el anciano un libro de comedias antiguas que de la casa de
Cordero trajo Sola. Cuidaba esta de que en la vivienda no entrase
papel ninguno de política, y siempre que el anciano pedía noticias de
los sucesos públicos, se le contestaba con una amonestación
acompañada a veces de un ligero pellizco. Poco a poco iba
acomodándose el buen viejo a tal género de vida, y sus accesos de
tristeza o de rabia eran menos frecuentes cada día. Su carácter se
suavizaba por grados, desapareciendo de él lentamente las asperezas
ocasionadas por un fanatismo brutal, y la irritación y acritud que en é
produjera la gran enfermedad de la vida, que es la miseria. A las
ocupaciones no muy trabajosas de hacer cigarrillos y cuidar el pájaro
añadió Soledad otras que entretenían más a Sarmiento. Como no
carecía de habilidad de manos y había herramientas en la casa, todos
los muebles que tenían desperfectos y todas las sillas que claudicaban
recibieron compostura. En la cocina se pusieron vasares nuevos de
tablas; después nunca faltaba una percha que asegurar, una cortina
que suspender, lámpara que colgar, lámina que mudar de sitio o
madeja de algodón que devanar.
Llegó el invierno, y la sala se abrigaba todas las noches con
hermoso brasero de cisco bien pasado, en cuya tarima ponía los pies
el vagabundo, inclinándose sobre el rescoldo sin soltar de la mano la
badila. Era notable don Patricio en el arte de arreglar el brasero, y de
ello se preciaba. Su conocimiento de la temperatura teníale muy
orgulloso, y cuando el brasero empezaba a desempeñar sus