Modeling, Control, Estimation, and

Optimization for Microgrids: A

Fuzzy-Model-Based Method 1st Edition
Zhixiong Zhong
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/modeling-control-estimation-and-optimization-for-micr
ogrids-a-fuzzy-model-based-method-1st-edition-zhixiong-zhong/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/

Robust Integration of Model-Based Fault Estimation and

Fault-Tolerant Control Jianglin Lan

https://textbookfull.com/product/robust-integration-of-model-
based-fault-estimation-and-fault-tolerant-control-jianglin-lan/

Introduction to Process Control Analysis Mathematical

Modeling Control and Optimization 1st Edition Victor A.
Skormin (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-process-control-
analysis-mathematical-modeling-control-and-optimization-1st-
edition-victor-a-skormin-auth/

Micro Nanosystems and Systems on Chips Modeling Control

and Estimation 1st Edition Alina Voda

https://textbookfull.com/product/micro-nanosystems-and-systems-
on-chips-modeling-control-and-estimation-1st-edition-alina-voda/
Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metal Parts:
Modeling, Optimization, and Control of Mechanical
Properties 1st Edition Linkan Bian

https://textbookfull.com/product/laser-based-additive-
manufacturing-of-metal-parts-modeling-optimization-and-control-
of-mechanical-properties-1st-edition-linkan-bian/

Modeling, Control, and Optimization of Natural Gas

Processing Plants 1st Edition William A. Poe

https://textbookfull.com/product/modeling-control-and-
optimization-of-natural-gas-processing-plants-1st-edition-
william-a-poe/

Estimation and Inference in Discrete Event Systems A

Model Based Approach with Finite Automata Christoforos
N. Hadjicostis

https://textbookfull.com/product/estimation-and-inference-in-
discrete-event-systems-a-model-based-approach-with-finite-
automata-christoforos-n-hadjicostis/

Model Selection and Error Estimation in a Nutshell Luca

Oneto

https://textbookfull.com/product/model-selection-and-error-
estimation-in-a-nutshell-luca-oneto/

Control and dynamics in power systems and microgrids

1st Edition Fan

https://textbookfull.com/product/control-and-dynamics-in-power-
systems-and-microgrids-1st-edition-fan/
Modeling, Control,
Estimation, and
Optimization for
Microgrids
Modeling, Control,
Estimation, and
Optimization for
Microgrids
A Fuzzy-Model-Based Method

Zhixiong Zhong
MATLABr is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does
not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLABr
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a par-
ticular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLABr software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

c 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-49165-6 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize
to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material
has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, trans-
mitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access
www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC),
222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that pro-
vides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy
license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
 Dedication

To my parent Yongxiang Zhong and Fengmei Hong, my wife Yanyu

Hong, and my sons Hongli Zhong and Ceyi Zhong.
Contents

List of Figures .........................................................................................................xiii

List of Tables............................................................................................................ xv

Preface....................................................................................................................xvii

PART I Fuzzy Modeling and Local Control for

Microgrid Components

Chapter 1 Fuzzy Modeling and Control of Photovoltaic (PV) Power .............5

1.1 Modeling of PV Power ...........................................................6
1.1.1 Modeling of PV Power with DC Load ......................6
1.1.2 Modeling of PV Power with AC Load.......................8
1.2 Control of PV Power.............................................................10
1.2.1 Stability Analysis of PV Power ...............................10
1.2.2 Control Synthesis of PV Power ...............................11
1.3 MPPT Fuzzy Control of PV Power ......................................12
1.3.1 Modeling of MPPT of PV Power with DC Load.....12
1.3.2 Modeling of MPPT of PV Power with AC Load.....14
1.3.3 MPPT Controller Design .........................................15
1.4 Robust MPPT Fuzzy Observer-Based Control .....................17
1.4.1 Modelling of Uncertain PV Power ..........................18
1.4.2 Design of Observer-Based Controller......................20
1.5 Finite-Time MPPT via Sliding Mode Control......................23
1.5.1 Design of FSMC Law for PV Power with MPPT....24
1.5.2 Reaching Phase in FTB for PV Power with
FSMC Law............................................................... 26
1.5.3 Design Procedure for MPPT Algorithm ..................30
1.6 Simulation Studies ................................................................30
1.6.1 Solar PV Power with DC-DC Boost Converter .......30
1.6.2 Solar PV Power with DC-DC Buck Converter ........31
1.6.3 Solar PV Power with MPPT Control .......................32
1.7 References.............................................................................34

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 2 Fuzzy Modeling and Control of Wind Power................................ 37

2.1 Modeling of Wind Power......................................................38
2.1.1 Modeling of Variable Speed Wind Power................38
2.1.2 Modeling of Wind Power with DC Load.................41
2.1.3 Modeling of Wind Power with AC Load .................44
2.2 Control of Wind Power with PMSG.....................................46
2.2.1 Stability Analysis of Wind Power............................46
2.2.2 Design of Wind Power with MPPT Control ............46
2.3 Finite-Time MPPT of Wind Power via Sliding Mode
Control ..................................................................................48
2.3.1 Design of Wind Power with FSMC Law .................49
2.3.2 Reaching Phase in FTB of Wind Power ..................51
2.3.3 Design Procedure for MPPT Algorithm ..................54
2.4 Simulation Studies ................................................................54
2.4.1 MPPT Control of Wind Power with PMSG.............54
2.4.2 FTB of SMC of Wind Power with PMSG ...............55
2.5 References.............................................................................57

Chapter 3 Fuzzy Modeling and Control Energy Storage Systems.................59

3.1 Modeling and Control of Lead-Acid Batteries .....................60
3.1.1 Modeling of Lead-Acid Batteries ............................60
3.1.2 Charge Modeling .....................................................61
3.1.3 Discharge Modeling.................................................63
3.1.4 Switching Charge and Discharge Operations ..........64
3.1.5 SOC Estimation of Switching Operations ...............65
3.2 Modeling and Control of Li-Ion Batteries ............................66
3.2.1 Li-Ion Batteries Based on Single Particle Model
(SPM).......................................................................67
3.2.2 Li-Ion Batteries Based on Circuit Model.................70
3.2.3 Stability Analysis of SOC Estimation System.........72
3.2.4 Design of Observer-Based Fuzzy Controller ...........74
3.3 Modeling of Supercapacitors................................................77
3.4 Simulation Studies ................................................................78
3.5 References.............................................................................79

PART II Coordinated Fuzzy Control for

Microgrids

Chapter 4 Centralized Fuzzy Control.............................................................85

4.1 Modeling of Multi-PV Generators........................................85
4.1.1 Modeling of Multi-PVs with DC Load....................85
Contents ix

4.1.2 Modeling of Multi-Photovoltaic System with

AC Load................................................................... 88
4.2 Modeling of Multi-Machine Wind Generators .....................91
4.2.1 Modeling of Multi-Wind Systems with DC Loads..91
4.2.2 Modeling of Multi-Wind Generator With AC Load 93
4.3 Centralized Control of Tracking
Synchronization ....................................................................95
4.3.1 Centralized Fuzzy Control .......................................95
4.3.2 Design of Stabilization Controller ...........................96
4.3.3 Centralized Sampled-Data Controller with
Event-Triggered ZOH ..............................................97
4.3.4 Centralized Sampled-Data Controller Design
with Time-Triggered ZOH .....................................102
4.3.5 Centralized Sampled-Date Control with Time
Delay ......................................................................108
4.4 Simulation Studies .............................................................. 116
4.5 References........................................................................... 117

Chapter 5 Decentralized Fuzzy Control.......................................................119

5.1 Modeling of Multi-PV Generators...................................... 119
5.1.1 Modeling of Multi-PV Power with DC Load ........ 119
5.1.2 Modeling of Multi-PV Generators with AC Load . 120
5.2 Modeling of Multi-Machine Wind Generator .................... 121
5.2.1 Modeling of Multi-Machine Wind with DC Load. 121
5.2.2 Modeling of Multi-Machine Wind Generator
with AC Load.........................................................122
5.3 Decentralized Control of Tracking
Synchronization .................................................................. 123
5.3.1 Decentralized Fuzzy Control ................................. 123
5.3.2 Decentralized Sampled-Data Control with
Event-Driven ZOH.................................................127
5.3.3 Decentralized Sampled-Data Control with
Time-Driven ZOH..................................................134
5.4 Simulation Studies .............................................................. 141
5.5 References........................................................................... 144

Chapter 6 Distributed Fuzzy Control ...........................................................145

6.1 Distributed Control of Tracking
Synchronization .................................................................. 145
6.1.1 Design of Distributed Fuzzy Controller................. 145
6.1.2 Design of Distributed Sampled-Data Controller.... 149
6.1.3 Distributed Sampled-Data Control with
Time-Driven ZOH..................................................158
x Contents

6.2 Simulation Studies .............................................................. 167

6.3 References........................................................................... 171

PART III Energy Management for Microgrids

Chapter 7 Operation of Microgrids .............................................................. 177
7.1 Photovoltaic System for DC Load ...................................... 177
7.1.1 Operation Modes.................................................... 177
7.1.2 Dynamic Modeling ................................................ 178
7.2 Photovoltaic System for AC Load ......................................183
7.2.1 Operation Modes....................................................183
7.2.2 Dynamic Modeling ................................................185
7.3 PMSG System for DC Load ...............................................190
7.3.1 Operation Modes....................................................190
7.3.2 Dynamic Modeling ................................................192
7.4 PMSG System for AC Load ...............................................197
7.4.1 Operation Modes....................................................199
7.4.2 Dynamic Modeling ................................................199
7.5 PV system and PMSG system for DC load ........................206
7.5.1 Operation Modes....................................................208
7.5.2 Dynamic Modeling ................................................208
7.6 PMSG system and PV system for AC load ........................216
7.6.1 Operation Modes....................................................217
7.6.2 Dynamic Modeling ................................................217
7.7 References...........................................................................229

Chapter 8 Optimization of Microgrids.........................................................231

8.1 Power Management Strategy ..............................................232
8.2 Transient Performance Analysis.........................................232
8.2.1 MPPT Optimal Algorithm for Single Generator ...232
8.2.2 MPPT Optimal Algorithm for Multi-Machine
Generators ..............................................................236
8.2.3 Optimal Algorithm for Multi-Mode Operation......242
8.3 Steady-State Performance Analysis....................................245
8.3.1 MPPT Optimal Algorithm for Single Generator ...245
8.3.2 MPPT Optimal Algorithm for Multi-Machine
Generators ..............................................................248
8.3.3 Optimal Algorithm for Multi-Mode Operation......252
8.4 Simulation Studies ..............................................................255
8.5 References...........................................................................256
Contents xi

PART IV Cyber-Physical Control Framework for

Microgrids
Chapter 9 Fuzzy Control with Network-Induced Delay .............................. 263
9.1 Network-Induced Delays in Local Subsystems ..................263
9.1.1 Decentralized Control Problems ............................263
9.1.2 Model Transformation ...........................................266
9.1.3 Design of Decentralized Dynamic Output Feed-
back Control...........................................................268
9.2 Network-Induced Delay in Interconnected
Systems ...............................................................................279
9.2.1 Model Transformation ...........................................282
9.2.2 Design of Decentralized Control of Reachable
Set ..........................................................................284
9.3 Simulation Studies ..............................................................298
9.4 References...........................................................................300

Chapter 10 Event-Triggered Fuzzy Control...................................................303

10.1 Centralized Event-Triggered Fuzzy Control.......................303
10.1.1 Problem Formulation .............................................303
10.1.2 Design of Centralized Event-Triggered Control ....307
10.1.3 Relaxing Design of Centralized Event-Triggered
Control ...................................................................309
10.2 Decentralized Event-Triggered Fuzzy Control...................315
10.2.1 Problem Formulation .............................................315
10.2.2 Co-Design of Decentralized Event-Triggered
Control ...................................................................319
10.3 Distributed Event-Triggered Fuzzy Control .......................329
10.3.1 Design of Distributed Event-Triggered
Controller ...............................................................329
10.4 Simulation Studies ..............................................................340
10.5 References...........................................................................346

Chapter 11 Estimation and Compensation for TDS Attacks .........................349

11.1 TDS Attack of Local Components .....................................350
11.1.1 Reachable Set Estimation for Tracking Control ....351
11.1.2 Observer Design for System State and Delay
Perturbation............................................................351
11.1.3 Compensation Mechanism for the Perturbation
of TDS Attack ........................................................355
11.1.4 Design Procedure for Reachable Set Estimation ...357
xii Contents

11.2 TDS Attack of Power Networks .........................................357

11.2.1 Fuzzy Modeling of Power Networks .....................357
11.2.2 TDS Attacks...........................................................359
11.2.3 Observer Design for TDS Attacks .........................360
11.2.4 Compensation Control for TDS Attacks................364
11.2.5 Design Procedure for Attenuating TDS Attacks....366
11.3 Simulation Studies ..............................................................366
11.4 References...........................................................................369

Index ......................................................................................................................371
List of Figures

1.1 Solar PV power with DC-DC buck converter. ..................................................6

1.2 Solar PV power with DC-DC boost converter. .................................................7
1.3 Solar PV power using DC-AC converter. .........................................................8
1.4 MPPT fuzzy control for PV power system.....................................................12
1.5 Circuital model for a single PV cell. ..............................................................17
1.6 State responses of open-loop system with DC-DC boost converter. ..............31
1.7 State responses of closed-loop control system with DC-DC boost converter.32
1.8 State responses of open-loop system with DC-DC buck converter. ...............33
1.9 State responses of closed-loop control system with DC-DC buck converter. 33

2.1 Wind turbine with PMSG. ..............................................................................38

2.2 Power circuit of AC-DC converter..................................................................42
2.3 Power circuit of AC-AC resonant converter. ..................................................44
2.4 State responses of open-loop system. .............................................................56
2.5 State responses of closed-loop control system. ..............................................57

3.1 Lead-acid battery equivalent network.............................................................60

3.2 Schematic of the SPM. ...................................................................................67
3.3 Schematic of circuit model for lithium-ion battery.........................................70
3.4 Schematic of supercapacitor. ..........................................................................78

4.1 Centralized control for multi-PV generator with DC load. ............................86

4.2 Interconnected PV generator with AC load. ...................................................89
4.3 Interconnected multi-wind generator with DC load. ......................................91
4.4 Interconnected multi-wind generator with AC load. ......................................94

5.1 Decentralized control for first multi-PV generator with DC load. Note
instability.......................................................................................................142
5.2 Decentralized control for second multi-PV generator with DC load. Note
instability. .....................................................................................................142
5.3 Decentralized control for first multi-PV generator with DC load. Note
convergence to zero. .....................................................................................143
5.4 Decentralized control for second multi-PV generator with DC load. Note
convergence to zero. .....................................................................................143

6.1 Instability of distributed control for first multi-PV power system with
DC load.........................................................................................................169
6.2 Instability of distributed control for second multi-PV power system with
DC load.........................................................................................................169

xiii
xiv List of Figures

6.3 Distributed control for first multi-PV power system with DC load show-
ing convergence to zero. ...............................................................................170
6.4 Distributed control for second multi-PV power system with DC load
showing convergence to zero. .......................................................................170

7.1 DC microgrid with solar PV. ........................................................................178

7.2 AC microgrid with solar PV..........................................................................184
7.3 DC microgrid with PMSG. ...........................................................................191
7.4 AC microgrid with PMSG. ...........................................................................198
7.5 DC microgrid with PV and PMSG. ..............................................................207
7.6 AC microgrid with PV and PMSG. ..............................................................218

8.1 State responses for closed-loop control system. ...........................................256

10.1 State responses for open-loop DC microgrid................................................344

10.2 State responses for closed-loop DC microgrid. ............................................345
10.3 Event-triggered times for σi = 0.041. ..........................................................346

11.1 TDS attacks for power networks. .................................................................368

11.2 Response of xiT (t) Ri xi (t). ............................................................................368
List of Tables

2.1 Parameters of AC-DC converter system. ........................................................ 42

3.1 Parameters of Li-ion batteries......................................................................... 68

8.1 Linearization of operation points..................................................................255

9.1 Comparison of minimum δ̄ for different methods .......................................300

xv
Preface
Microgrids provide appealing solutions for integrating renewable energy sources into
power grids. They have attracted increasing interest in recent years because of envi-
ronmental concerns and shortages of traditional energy sources (natural gas, oil, and
coal). Microgrids are small-scale electrical distribution systems consisting of power
converters that link generation, storage, and distribution facilities. Microgrids utiliz-
ing renewable energy sources present little or no inertia and thus are more instable
than conventional power grids with synchronous generators. They represent the main
building blocks of future “smart” grids.
Renewable energy generators such as solar photovoltaic (PV) systems and wind
turbines have been widely studied. However, their high installation costs make max-
imum power point tracking (MPPT) control a major factor. MPPT is impacted by
changes in external conditions and intrinsic characteristics of systems. It is there-
fore difficult to implement traditional MPPT controls such as Newton-like extremum
seeking, adaptive perturbation, and close observation. Current control methods lack
strict convergence analysis capability and guarantee only near-maximum power.
Power converters based on pulsewidth modulation (PWM) techniques are com-
monly used to control microgrids. PWM converters exhibit several desirable charac-
teristics such as high efficiency, constant frequency operation, few components, and
high conversion ratios. However, they also exhibit nonlinear dynamic behaviors and
are thus difficult to control.
Traditional power generators are large-scale nonlinear systems. Simplified linear
models in synchronous generators have been investigated for a long time. Their in-
herent simplicity of design means that they provide asymptotic stability on a small
scale and attenuate the impacts of small-scale disturbances. Conversely, power net-
works are large-scale spatially distributed systems with multiple locations and re-
quire complex monitoring and control systems to guarantee safety and stability while
providing needed power. This is typically done by a centralized control framework
utilizing a single controller that has powerful processing capabilities for handling
complex data measurements. Centralized control systems with higher sampling rates
reduced overall system reliability and increased system sensitivity to a single point
of failure. Distributed control systems are becoming more commonly used in inter-
connected power systems.
The coexistence of multiple energy resources with varying dynamic properties
such as inertial levels and dispatch characteristics has raised concerns about the sta-
bility, control, and efficiency of microgrids. Their flexibility can be ensured by oper-
ating various types of generators as power demands change. Maintaining the power
balance in the face of changing demands represent a challenging problem in all areas
of the power industry. Another vital issue is the need to maintain power generation
security in the present climate of increasing numbers of cyber attacks that can pro-
duce catastrophic results.

xvii
xviii Preface

This book consists of eleven chapters divided into four parts. Part I (Chapters 1
through 3) explains fuzzy modelling and local controls of microgrid components.
Part II (Chapters 4 through 6) discusses centralized, decentralized, and distributed
fuzzy control schemes. Part III (Chapters 7 and 8) describes operational and opti-
mization aspects of microgrid energy management. Part IV (Chapters 9 through 11)
details various aspects of cyber-physical system (CPS) controls for microgrids and
devotes an entire chapter to time delay switch (TDS) attacks.
Chapter 1 addresses the stability analysis and control synthesis for stand-alone
nonlinear solar power systems via the T-S fuzzy-model-based approach, nonlinear
photovoltaic (PV) systems with DC/AC loads, and the reformulation of the MPPT
problems of PV systems in the framework of descriptor systems. Other topics pre-
sented are a robust fuzzy observer for state feedback control and finite-time stabi-
lization via sliding mode control of descriptor systems. Two numerical examples
demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Chapter 2 develops a novel MTTP method for stand-alone wind power generators
via the T-S fuzzy-model-based approach. It covers nonlinear wind power systems,
the MPPT problem in relation to wind power systems, and a fuzzy observer for state
feedback control under partial state measurement. A fuzzy sliding mode controller
for descriptor systems is proposed. The chapter concludes with two numerical exam-
ples that demonstrate effectiveness.
Chapter 3 focuses on the development of a model framework for lead-acid batter-
ies, lithium (Li)-ion batteries, and supercapacitors; it also covers the reformulation of
the original partial differential equation (PDE)-based battery model to a fuzzy-based
version to precisely characterize its charge and discharge operations. The chapter
also explains a fuzzy state of charge (SOC) estimation approach for various types of
batteries and supercapacitors and includes a numerical example demonstrating the
effectiveness of the proposed model.
Centralized fuzzy control is the topic of Chapter 4. It examines methods for track-
ing voltage synchronization of PV installations and wind systems and the concept
that all generator subsystems act as a single entity to achieve synchronization through
a communication network. It details network-based controls with sampled data mea-
surement and time-triggered zero order hold (ZOH), and a numerical example con-
cludes the chapter.
Chapter 5 investigates the problems of tracking voltage synchronization of multi-
ple PV and wind turbine systems. Again, the subsystems must act as a single group
to achieve synchronization through local information exchange. Use of sampled data
measurement and time-triggered ZOH in decentralized fuzzy control systems is ex-
amined. A numerical example is provided.
Chapter 6 focuses on distributed fuzzy controls and tracking voltage synchro-
nization of microgrids. Sampled data measurement and time-triggered ZOH and a
numerical example are also discussed.
Chapter 7 studies detailed models and fuzzy logical formulations of microgrid
systems consisting of PV, wind turbines, and energy storage facilities. Three switch-
ing models are proposed to maintain power balance.
Preface xix

Optimization is the subject of Chapter 8. It details power management strategies.

Renewable energy sources are utilized as distributed connections to a common bus
in a microgrid. To maintain the power balance, the power management system deter-
mines the operating modes of the energy systems based on measured currents. The
chapter also covers maintenance of system stability and transient and steady perfor-
mances of microgrids through optimization using reachable set estimation and finite
time control.
Chapter 9 continues the discussion of using renewable energy sources routed
through a common bus in a microgrid. The sources communicate with each other
via networks. Network-induced delays are introduced along with proposals for solv-
ing stability and control problems. The chapter includes a numerical example.
Chapter 10 covers some of the same topics explained in earlier chapters in Part
IV in relation to event-triggered fuzzy control. New concepts for solving stability
analysis and control synthesis problems are proposed and a numerical example is
provided.
Chapter 11 is a timely discussion of the vulnerability of power generation sys-
tems to time delay switch (TDS) attacks with a focus on nonlinear power networks.
Its intent is to establish an effective method to deal with such attacks, particularly
through better monitoring of system states by an augmented observer that ensures
finite-time boundedness (FTB) and compensation control. A numerical example that
demonstrates the effectiveness of the method is included.
The research described in this book represents a fresh approach to explaining
fuzzy-model-based control approaches to microgrid applications. This book covers
the author’s long-term research results, teaching, and practical experience focusing
on microgrid control and operation. It is intended for use by engineers and operators
in all areas of power grid and microgrid planning, control, and operations, and also
by students, and academic researchers. It describes microgrid dynamics, modelling,
and control issues from introductory through advanced levels. It can serve as a text
for both undergraduate and post-graduate electrical engineering students in courses
on microgrids, smart grids, and modern power system controls.
The author has been inspired over the years by many scientists who undoubtedly
give their help on this book; in particular by Hao Ying, Chih-Min Lin, Lixian Zhang,
Michael V. Basin, and Hak-Keung Lam. This work would not have been possible
without my colleagues and the excellent professional environments at Fujian Provin-
cial Key Laboratory of Information Processing and Intelligent Control, and Digital
Fujian IoT Laboratory of Intelligent Production. To all these people I extend our sin-
cere thanks. I also sincerely thank Marc Gutierrez, Nick Mould, and Arun for giving
me the opportunity to publish my book with Taylor & Francis CRC Press, and the ed-
itorial and production team at Taylor & Francis for their valuable help. We gratefully
acknowledge the financial support of the the Central Government Guides Local Sci-
ence and Technology Development Projects (grant no. 2019L3009), the Advanced
Research Program of Minjiang University (grant no. K-30404307; MJY18003), the
Science and Technology Planning Project of Fuzhou City (grant no. 2017-G-106;
2019-G-49; 2018-G-98; 2018-G-96), the Fujian Industrial Technology Development
xx Preface

and Application Plan Project (grant no. 2019h0025), the Industrial Robot Applica-
tion Fujian University Engineering Research Center (grant no. MJUKF-IRA1802),
and the scientific research project of Xiamen City (grant no. 3502Z20189033). I also
thank my families for their continual understanding, patience, and support. Many
researchers have made significant contribution to microgrid applications. Owing to
the structural arrangement and length limitation of the book, many of their published
results are not included or even not cited. I would extend my apologies to these re-
searchers.

Zhixiong Zhong
Minjiang University
Fuzhou, China
Part I

Fuzzy Modeling and Local

Control for Microgrid
Components
Preview
Due to increasing demands for electricity, the costs of conventional power sources
(coal, petroleum, and other fossil fuels) have increased and their stocks are finite.
The accelerating demands threaten the security of energy supplies worldwide and
will worsen environmental pollution. Renewal energy sources such as wind power
and photovoltaic (PV) systems are promising alternatives because they are freely
available, environmentally friendly, and accrue fewer operational and maintenance
costs.
Microgrids are key components used by modern power systems to integrate re-
newable energy sources. They control and coordinate renewable energy sources, bal-
ance loads and also monitor protective devices and communication networks. They
utilize maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to achieve optimum energy genera-
tion. This is an important factor because outputs of wind turbines and PV arrays must
be regulated based on load demands. Furthermore, weather conditions cause fluctua-
tions of wind and solar power that create variations of bus voltages and impact power
flows through transmission systems. Conventional linear controllers based on small-
signal analysis decrease system performance and transient events such as islanding,
maintenance, and load variations may result in instability.
Modern electrical utilities utilize model-based techniques to analyze operations
but these models often fail to generate sufficient details that would allow them to
effectively coordinate microgrid management of renewable energy sources. Fuzzy
logic control (FLC) has been applied successfully to control complex nonlinear and
even nonanalytic systems. The Takagi-Sugeno (T-S) model is regarded as a likely
candidate for controlling complex nonlinear systems. The T-S fuzzy models can ap-
proximate nonlinear system operations with good precision and aid utilities to de-
velop linear methods to resolve control problems.
Many theoretical findings focused on stability analysis and control synthesis by
T-S fuzzy systems have been published over the years. More recently, reports of uses
of T-S models to achieve MPPT for wind turbines and PV arrays have appeared in
the literature.
Chapter 1 investigates the modelling procedure and local control of AC-DC PV
systems and presents a fuzzy-based approach for controlling the dynamics of PV
power generation. The chapter also discusses a singular system approach to achiev-
ing MPPT. Since PV panel output is very sensitive to solar activity and temperature
and these factors impacted MPPT, a robust fuzzy observer-based MPPT and a finite-
time MPPT via sliding mode strategy are proposed. Chapter 2 extends some of these
results to wind power generators. Chapter 3 covers fuzzy modelling and state of
charge (SOC) estimation design on energy storage sytems (lead-acid and lithium ion
batteries and supercapacitors).

3
 1 Fuzzy Modeling and
Control of Photovoltaic
(PV) Power
Solar energy has experienced dramatic growth in the past few decades. It has been
predicted that, the global capacity of solar power will reach 980 GW by 2020 [1].
A solar PV system directly converts solar irradiation into electricity. The main draw-
backs of PV systems include high device cost and low energy conversion efficiency.
In order to reduce the cost of energy, it is crucial to maintain the PV operation at its
maximum efficiency at all times. However, the maximum power point of PV power
depends on the changes in its intrinsic characteristics and external disturbances, such
as aging of the device, irradiance intensity, and temperature conditions. Therefore, it
is difficult to ensure the achievement of MPPT control for solar PV systems.
Nowadays, several MPPT techniques and their implementations are reported in
the open literature [2]. Traditional MPPT control is based on perturb and observe,
incremental conductance, fuzzy logic, and maximum power voltage-based methods.
Unfortunately, the maximum power produced by the PV array changes with solar ra-
diation and cell temperature so that most of MPPT methods lack strict convergence
analysis and only provide near-maximum power. Although the works propose non-
linear MPPT control with guaranteed stability, these approaches are realized with
difficulty due to the use of either the discontinuous control law or the time derivative
of the PV voltage and current. In addition, no result reported in current literature has
dealt with the robust MPPT control problem for PV power systems with partial state
measurement, parametric uncertainty, and disturbance. It is always difficult for users
to select an MPPT technique implementing a particular application. Until 2007, only
a few papers discussed MPPT techniques. But many new MPPT techniques such as
the Newton-like extremum seeking technique [4], the distributed MPPT [3], and the
adaptive perturbation and observation [5], have been reported since then.
In the last three decades, the DC-DC converters have been widely used in the
PV systems. The buck, boost and buck-boost circuits are three basic configurations
for the DC-DC converters [6]. The duty ratio determines the switching action via
pulsewidth modulation, which implements the control of the DC-DC converters, and
exhibits a nonlinear dynamic behavior. Moreover, in most cases the approximated
linear models based on a single operating point are not limited to minimum phase
types for the DC-DC converters. For a specific operating condition, there is usu-
ally a unique maximum power point on the P-V characteristics. Maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) control of the PV system aims to locate the MPP for online
operation regardless of the change of the PV intrinsic and environment uncertain-
ties. Although the linear controller is easier to design and implement, it is difficult

5
6 Modeling, Control, Estimation, and Optimization for Microgrids

to ensure MPPT performance in all the operating conditions [6]. Recently, it has
been shown that nonlinear systems can be described by several local linear systems
blending IF-THEN fuzzy rules [7, 8]. More recently, a T-S fuzzy-model-based ap-
proach has been developed for the MPPT control of PV systems with the DC-DC
converters [9].
In this chapter, the stability analysis and control synthesis are developed for stand-
alone solar power nonlinear systems via the T-S fuzzy-model-based approach. First,
the nonlinear PV powers with DC-AC load are represented in the T-S fuzzy model.
Then, the MPPT problem of the considered PV system is reformulated into the
framework of descriptor systems. A robust fuzzy observer for state feedback con-
trol is proposed under partial state measurement. We further consider the finite-time
stabilization via the sliding mode control in the framework of descriptor systems. Fi-
nally, two numerical examples are provided to show the effectiveness of the proposed
method.

1.1 MODELING OF PV POWER

1.1.1 MODELING OF PV POWER WITH DC LOAD

PV Array DC-DC Buck Converter

φpv φL

L φ0

vpv Cpv u C0 v0 Load

D

Figure 1.1 Solar PV power with DC-DC buck converter.

Consider a solar PV power system using the DC-DC buck converter as shown
in Figure 1.1. Its dynamic model can be represented by the following differential
equations [9],

1

 v̇ pv = Cpv (φ pv − φL u) ,
φ̇L = L1 R0 ((φ0 − φL ) − RL φL − v0 ) + L1 (VD + v pv − RM φL ) u − VLD , (1.1)

 v̇ = 1 (φ − φ ) ,
0 C0 L 0

where v pv , φL , and v0 denote the PV array voltage, the current of the inductance L,
and the voltage of the capacitance C0 , respectively; R0 , RL , and RM are the resistances
on the capacitance C0 , on the inductance L, and on the power MOSFET, respectively;
VD is the forward voltage of power diode; φ0 is the measurable load current; u is the
duty ratio using the pulsewidth-modulated signal to control the switching MOSFET.
Note that a nonlinear system can be described by several local linear systems
blending IF-THEN fuzzy rules at any given accuracy [7]. Here, define x (t) =
Fuzzy Modeling and Control of Photovoltaic (PV) Power 7

 T
, z2 = φL , z3 = φφL0 , z4 = vVpvD , and z5 = v pv
φ pv
v pv φL v0 , and choose z1 = v pv
as fuzzy premise variables. Thus, it follows from (1.1) that the PV power nonlinear
system is represented by the following T-S model,
Plant Rule R l : IF z1 is F1l and z2 is F2l and · · · and z5 is F5l , THEN

ẋ(t) = Al x (t) + Bl u(t), l ∈ L := {1, 2, . . . , r} (1.2)

where R l denotes the l-th fuzzy inference rule; r is the number of inference rules;
Fθl (θ = 1, 2, . . . , 5) is the fuzzy set; x(t) ∈ ℜnx and u(t) ∈ ℜnu denote the system
state and control input, respectively; nx , and nu can be determined from the context;
z(t) , [z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , z5 ] are the measurable variables; {Al , Bl } is the l-th local model
as below:
   
C pv F1
1 l 0 0 F2l
  −
 C pv 
, Bl =  1 VD + F l − RM F l
 .
F l
Al = 
 − L4 R0 R0
L F3 − L − L
l R0 RL
− RL0 

l L 5 2
1−F3
0 C0 0 0
(1.3)
By denoting µl [z(t)] as the normalized membership function, one gets
 
∏5φ =1 µφ l zφ (t) r
µl [z(t)] := r   ≥ 0, ∑ µl [z(t)] = 1. (1.4)
∑ς =1 ∏5φ =1 µφ zφ (t)
ς
l=1

Here, we denote µl , µl [z(t)] for brevity.

By fuzzy blending, the global T-S fuzzy dynamic model is given by

ẋ(t) = A(µ)x (t) + B(µ)u(t), (1.5)

r r
where A(µ) := ∑ µl Al , B(µ) := ∑ µl Bl .
l=1 l=1

PV Array DC-DC Buck Converter

φpv φL

L φ0

vpv Cpv u C0 v0 Load

D

Figure 1.2 Solar PV power with DC-DC boost converter.

8 Modeling, Control, Estimation, and Optimization for Microgrids

Now, consider a solar PV power system using the DC-DC boost converter as
shown in Figure 1.2. Its dynamic model can be represented by the following differ-
ential equations [14]

φ̇ pv = − L1 (1 − u) vdc + L1 v pv ,
(1.6)
v̇dc = C10 (1 − u) φ pv − C10 φ0 ,

where u ∈ [0, 1] denotes the duty ratio, and φ pv and vdc stand for the inductor current
and the output voltage, respectively. It should be noted that the duty ratio u deter-
mines the switching action via the pulsewidth modulation.
 T v
Define x (t) = φ pv vdc , and choose z1 = φpv pv
, z2 = vφ0 , z3 = vdc , z4 = φ pv ,
dc
as fuzzy premise variables. Similar to the procedure in (1.2) and (1.3), and it follows
from (1.6) that the PV power nonlinear system is represented by the following T-S
model,
Plant Rule R l : IF z1 is F1l and z2 is F2l and z3 is F3l and z4 is F4l , THEN

ẋ(t) = Al x (t) + Bl u(t), l ∈ L := {1, 2, . . . , r} (1.7)

where    
L F1 L F3
1 l − L1 1 l
Al = , Bl = . (1.8)
1
C0 − C10 F2l − C0 F4l
1

By fuzzy blending, the global T-S fuzzy dynamic model is obtained by

ẋ(t) = A(µ)x (t) + B(µ)u(t), (1.9)

r r
where A(µ) := ∑ µl Al , B(µ) := ∑ µl Bl .
l=1 l=1

1.1.2 MODELING OF PV POWER WITH AC LOAD

φpv φdc
ua ub uc

L1 L2
φa R
ea
φb L1 L2
R
vpv C eb
φc R L1 L2
ec
ūa ūb ūc
Cf Cf Cf

Figure 1.3 Solar PV power using DC-AC converter.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Parents and
children
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Parents and children

Author: Charlotte M. Mason

Release date: December 17, 2023 [eBook #72445]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Kegan Paul, 1897

Credits: Carol Brown, Tim Lindell, Turgut Dincer and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PARENTS

AND CHILDREN ***
PARENTS AND CHILDREN
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR
HOME EDUCATION: A Course of Lectures to
Ladies. By Charlotte M. Mason. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, 6s.
STUDIES IN ENGLISH FOR THE USE OF
MODERN SCHOOLS. By H. C. Bowen. Eleventh
Thousand. Small crown 8vo, 1s. 6d.
SIMPLE ENGLISH POEMS. English Literature for
Junior Classes. By H. C. Bowen. 3s. Parts I., II.,
and III. 6d. each. Part IV. . 1s.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. By H. C.
Bowen. Fcap. 8vo, 1s.
ON THE STUDY OF WORDS. By the late
Archbishop Trench. Revised by A. L. Mayhew.
Twenty-fifth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
ENGLISH PAST AND PRESENT. By the late
Archbishop Trench. Revised by A. L. Mayhew.
Fifteenth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
THE MODERN FRENCH READER. Edited by C.
Cassal, LL.D., and Theodore Karcher, LL.B.
Junior Course. Nineteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s.
6d. Senior Course. Seventh Edition. Crown 8vo,
4s. Senior Course and Glossary, in One Vol.
Crown 8vo, 6s.
PRACTICAL FRENCH GRAMMAR. By Mortimer
de Larmoyer, Professor of the French Language
and Literature at the Crystal Palace School.
Crown 8vo. New Edition, in One Vol., 3s. 6d. Two
Parts, 2s. 6d. each.
London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Lᵀᴰ
P a r e n t s and C h i l d r e n

A SEQUEL TO

“ H O M E E D U C AT I O N ”

BY
 CHARLOTTE M. MASON

LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO. Lᵀᴰ

PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD

1897
The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved.

Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.

At the Ballantyne Press
 TO THE MEMBERS OF

THE PARENTS’ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL UNION

THIS VOLUME

is inscribed by the author

as an expression of the affection and
reverence with which their
efforts inspire her

Ambleside,
November 1896.
 PREFACE
The following essays have appeared in the Parents’ Review, and
were addressed, from time to time, to a body of parents who are
making a practical study of the principles of education—the “Parents’
National Educational Union.” The present volume is a sequel to
Home Education (Kegan Paul & Co.), a work which was the means
of originating this Union of Parents. It is not too much to say that the
Parents’ Union exists to advance, with more or less method and with
more or less steadfastness, a definite school of educational thought
of which the two main principles are—the recognition of the physical
basis of habit, i.e. of the material side of education; and of the
inspiring and formative power of the Idea, i.e. of the immaterial, or
spiritual, side of education. These two guiding principles, covering as
they do the whole field of human nature, should enable us to deal
rationally with all the complex problems of education; and the object
of the following essays is, not to give an exhaustive application of
these principles—the British Museum itself would hardly contain all
the volumes needful for such an undertaking—but to give an
example or a suggestion, here and there, as to how such and such
an habit may be formed, such and such a formative idea be
implanted and fostered. The intention of the volume will account to
the reader for what may seem a want of connected and exhaustive
treatment of the subject, and for the iteration of the same principles
in various connections. The author ventures to hope that the
following hints and suggestions will not prove the less practically
useful to busy parents, because they rest on profound educational
principles.
 CONTENTS

BOOK I

THEORY

CHAPTER I
page
the family 3

CHAPTER II
parents as rulers 12

CHAPTER III
parents as inspirers (part i) 20

CHAPTER IV
parents as inspirers (part ii ) 29

CHAPTER V
parents as inspirers (part iii) 39

CHAPTER VI
parents as inspirers (part iv ) 48
 CHAPTER VII
the parent as schoolmaster 58

CHAPTER VIII
the culture of character (part i) 66

CHAPTER IX
the culture of character (part ii ) 79

CHAPTER X
bible lessons 88

CHAPTER XI
faith and duty (part i) 96

CHAPTER XII
faith and duty (part ii ) 111

CHAPTER XIII
faith and duty (part iii) 122

CHAPTER XIV
the heroic impulse 134

CHAPTER XV
is it possible? 143

CHAPTER XVI
discipline 160
 CHAPTER XVII
sensations and feelings (part i) 169

CHAPTER XVIII
sensations and feelings (part ii ) 181

CHAPTER XIX
“what is truth?” 192

CHAPTER XX
show cause why 201

CHAPTER XXI
herbartian pedagogics 211

CHAPTER XXII
the teaching of the “parents’ national
educational union” (part i) 220

CHAPTER XXIII
the teaching of the “parents’ national
educational union” (part ii ) 228

CHAPTER XXIV
whence and whither (part i) 242

CHAPTER XXV
whence and whither (part ii ) 250
 CHAPTER XXVI
the great recognition 260

CHAPTER XXVII
the eternal child 271

BOOK II

ESSAYS IN PRACTICAL EDUCATION

CHAPTER I
the philosopher at home 283

CHAPTER II
“attention” 303

CHAPTER III
an educational experiment 312

CHAPTER IV
dorothy elmore’s achievement: a forecast 320

CHAPTER V
consequences 346

CHAPTER VI
mrs. sedley’s tale 355
 CHAPTER VII
ability 367

CHAPTER VIII
poor mrs. jumeau! 376

CHAPTER IX
“a happy christmas to you!” 386

CHAPTER X
parents in council (part i) 395

CHAPTER XI
parents in council (part ii ) 405

CHAPTER XII
a hundred years after 413

note 429
BOOK I
THEORY
 PARENTS AND CHILDREN

CHAPTER I

THE FAMILY
“The family is the unit of the nation.”—F. D. Maurice.

It is probable that no other educational thinker has succeeded in

affecting parents so profoundly as did Rousseau. Emile is little read
now, but how many current theories of the regimen proper for
children have there their unsuspected source? Everybody knows—
and his contemporaries knew it better than we—that Jean Jacques
Rousseau had not enough sterling character to warrant him to pose
as an authority on any subject, least of all on that of education. He
sets himself down a poor thing, and we see no cause to reject the
evidence of his Confessions. We are not carried away by the charm
of his style; his “forcible feebleness” does not dazzle us. No man can
say beyond that which he is, and there is a want of grit in his
philosophic theories that removes most of them from the category of
available thought.
But Rousseau had the insight to perceive one of those patent
truths which, somehow, it takes a genius to discover; and, because
truth is indeed prized above rubies, the perception of that truth gave
him rank as a great teacher. “Is Jean Jacques also among the
prophets?” people asked, and ask still; and that he had thousands of
fervent disciples amongst the educated parents of Europe, together
with the fact that his teaching has filtered into many a secluded
home of our own day, is answer enough. Indeed, no other
educationalist has had a tithe of the influence exercised by
Rousseau. Under the spell of his teaching, people in the fashionable
world, like that Russian Princess Galitzin, forsook society, and went
off with their children to some quiet corner where they could devote
every hour of the day, and every power they had, to the fulfilment of
the duties which devolve upon parents. Courtly mothers retired from
the world, sometimes even left their husbands, to work hard at the
classics, mathematics, sciences, that they might with their own lips
instruct their children. “What else am I for?” they asked; and the
feeling spread that the bringing up of the children was the one work
of primary importance for men and women.
Whatever extravagance he had seen fit to advance, Rousseau
would still have found a following, because he had chanced to touch
a spring that opened many hearts. He was one of the few
educationalists who made his appeal to the parental instincts. He did
not say, “We have no hope of the parents, let us work for the
children!” Such are the faint-hearted and pessimistic things we say
to-day. What he said was, in effect, “Fathers and mothers, this is
your work, and you only can do it. It rests with you, parents of young
children, to be the saviours of society unto a thousand generations.
Nothing else matters. The avocations about which people weary
themselves are as foolish child’s play compared with this one serious
business of bringing up our children in advance of ourselves.”
People listened, as we have seen; the response to his teaching
was such a letting out of the waters of parental enthusiasm as has
never been known before nor since. And Rousseau, weak and little
worthy, was a preacher of righteousness in this, that he turned the
hearts of the fathers to the children, and so far made ready a people
prepared for the Lord. But alas! having secured the foundation, he
had little better than wood, hay, and stubble to offer to the builders.
Rousseau succeeded, as he deserved to succeed, in awaking
many parents to the binding character, the vast range, the profound
seriousness of parental obligations. He failed, and deserved to fail,
as he offered his own crude conceits by way of an educational code.