Textbook Prism and Lens Making A Textbook For Optical Glassworkers Second Edition Frank Twyman Ebook All Chapter PDF
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PRISM AND LENS MAKING
Frank Twyman FRS (1876-1959). Portrait courtesy of The Royal Society.
PRISM AND LENS
MAKING
A textbook for optical glassworkers
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Taylor & Francis Group
is the Academic Division of Informa plc.
But this rough magic
I here abjure; and when I have require'd
Some heavenly music, which even now I do
To work mine end upon their senses that
This airy charm is for, I'll break my staff,
Bury it certain fathoms in the earth,
And deeper than did ever plummet sound,
I'll drown my book.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: The Tempest
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
THis book describes methods which are in use in the optical workshops
of Adam Hilger Limited for making high quality prisms and lenses.
Optical firms are reticent about their methods and it may well be that
we are considerably behind some of our fellow-manufacturers in just
those directions where we suppose ourselves to be leading. Certain of
the methods here described are certainly antiquated, even if others have
only recently been developed by us, but of one thing the reader can be
assured-namely, that these methods and machines will enable even
an unskilled worker, after a short period of training under competent
supervision, to produce work of first quality as far as definition and
accuracy of angle are concerned.
I hope that those manufacturers who may be using other, and per-
haps better, methods may be willing to give me the benefit of a full
knowledge of them. A reliable and complete text might in that way
become available which would raise opticians to a level of proficiency
not attained in our generation.
The bibliographical references have been incorporated in the Name
Index where the system used in the Royal Society's Publications has
been followed (i.e. references in the text are by the author's name
and date of publication-thus: Jones & Homer (1941)). There are,
as exceptions to this, some brief Bibliographical Notes at the close
of Chapter I, and a special Bibliography concerning the Hilger Inter-
ferometers, placed for convenience at the close of Chapter IX.*
The section on the deposition of metals was kindly written for me,
by Dr. K. M. Greenland of the British Scientific Instrument Research
Association. During the preparation of the book I have had much help
from co-workers of mine at Hilgers, in particular Mr. S. J. Underhill,
Head of the Optical Department; Mr. J. W. Perry, Chief Computer and
Head of Applied Optics Department; Mr. A. Green, Mr. A. Pope and
Mr. A. S. Henderson, who are in charge of various optical shops ; but it
would not be correct to assume that any errors or grave omissions are
other than my own. My thanks are also due to Mr. T. L. Tippell, whose
careful proof-reading has resulted in the correction of many errors and
crudities of diction. My acknowledgments are also due to the publishers
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica for permission to use extensively my
article in the 14th Edition on " The Manufacture and Testing of
Lenses", and to my co-Directors on the Board of Adam Hilger Ltd. for
permission to publish much information hitherto private to the Com-
pany.
F. TWYMAN
* Corresponding to Chapter 12 in the second edition.
vii
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
THE reception given to the first edition made me feel that it would be
worth while to extend its scope to cover types of work other than those
with which I was personally familiar. The present volume therefore
includes information on the manufacture of spectacle lenses, on fine
dividing, and on the working of large object glasses and mirrors. It
also deals with developments to which the firms, now amalgamated to
form Hilger & Watts Ltd, have devoted much attention in the last few
years, e.g. making artificial crystals and the production of non-spherical
surfaces. I am also able to include a description, issued from the
Kodak Research Laboratories, of the recent important developments
in optical glasses.
The help of the collaborators who have assisted me in thus extending
the scope of the book is acknowledged in the text ; but besides these,
and those mentioned in the preface to the first edition, I must add my
recognition of the help given me by Mr H. W. Yates, Head of the
Optical Workshop at the Hilger Division of Hilger & Watts Ltd, in
bringing the practical instructions into accord with the latest procedure.
Mr Yates, as Head· of the Hilger Optical Workshops, has taken the
place held for so many years by Mr A. Green, now retired (though often
consulted), with whom I worked for over fifty years. I must also thank
Mr A. H. Winterflood, of the laboratory concerned with dioptric
materials, for experiments on annealing carried out to check and extend
the work done by me many years ago.
I shall be grateful to any reader who will bring to my notice errors or
omisssions, and I would add that no reviews are so helpful as those which
are critical.
October 1951 F. TWYMAN
viii
PREFACE TO REPRINT OF SECOND EDITION
Frank Twyman (1876-1959) had no formal academic qualification
and he acquired his skills in all aspects of optics by learning on the
job, which was not very unusual in the early years of this century.
Twyman joined Otto Hilger, a maker of simple spectroscopes at £10
apiece, in 1898, and when Otto died in 1902 Twyman took over. In
1904 the firm of Adam Hilger Ltd was formally born and for some SO
years the name Hilger was known for the finest quality optical and
mechanical work. Twyman was Managing Director for 44 years and
during the whole of that time .he was intimately concerned with the
scientific and technical aspects of the company; he designed many of
the instruments himself and was constantly concerned with improving
the techniques of optical grinding and polishing. I sometimes saw
him in one of the optical shops working at a fixed post polisher, trying
out a new idea or testing a new polishing medium. He was always
prepared to discuss a new instrument or a new application with a
customer and many of the developments in industrial and in biological
spectroscopy came through Hilger instruments.
Twyman's name is, of course, best known for the lens-testing inter-
ferometer which he invented in collaboration with Alfred Green, the
then foreman of the optical shops, but he also carried out fundamental
studies of the annealing process for glass and invented new spec-
trophotometers and spectrographs. In 1943 he published Prism and
Lens Making, a slim book which packed in a great amount of technical
information never before available in print . He produced a con-
siderably enlarged edition in 1952 and the present reprint is almost
unchanged from that one, apart from the correction of minor
misprints. Some of what is in it has undoubtedly been superseded
by more recent developments but there is much that will be of lasting
value; there are almost certainly things in the book which have been
forgotten but which badly need rediscovery and use. I am sure this
classic of applied optics will give pleasure as well as help to all
concerned with making good optical systems.
ix
CONTENTS
Chapter Page
l HISTORICAL 5
Ancient optical work-The invention of spectacles-Telescope
and microscope lenses-Newton and the reflecting telescope-
Early grinding and polishing machines-Bibliographical notes
APPENDIXES 591
(i) Derivation of the formula for the Twyman annealing
schedules
(ii) Making polarizing prisms
(iii) The present state and future trends of the manufacture of
optical glass
(iv) Glossary of terms used in the optical industry
BIBLIOGRAPHY 618
INDEX 623
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL
Ancient optical work
1 As with most of the useful arts, the development of lens making
has been in an order the reverse of what the scientific man feels to be
logical. Instead of first studying the principles of the process, then
putting the process into operation, and then finding a use for the
product-a course followed by the science-born electrical industry-
man first discovered some optical uses of accidentally produced
lens-shaped bodies, and only then set himself deliberately to make
lenses, leaving till quite recent times the study of the process of
lens polishing.
2 It is a pleasing fancy that the possibility of using a lens as a
burning glass may be related to the supposed ability of the priestly
classes during the Nilotic and Mesopotamian civilizations to " bring
down fire from heaven" during religious ceremonies. The word focus
(Latin) meant originally a hearth or burning place, and its etymology
goes back to roots which suggest that originally it had associations
with temple altars or places where sacrifices were burned (see the
larger Oxford Dictionary). It may be noted that the modern French
word " foyer " is used for both " hearth " and " focus."
Gunther (1923) points out that in England, the practice of kindling the
new fire on Easter Eve by a burning glass was not uncommon in the
Middle Ages ; an entry to that effect occurs in the Inventory of the
Vestry, Westminster Abbey, in 1388.
The references of Pliny and other ancient writers show quite clearly
that burning glasses were known to them in the shape of glass spheres
filled with water ; and passages from Greek and Roman writers have
been cited as showing that they knew of the magnifying properties
of lenses, or at least of such glass spheres filled with water. The very
thorough account of the subject by Wilde (1838-43)1* denies to the
ancients all knowledge of spectacle lenses whether for short or long
sight, or indeed of any kind of lenses, if we except the spheres of
glass filled with water referred to above ; and maintains that the
lens-shaped glasses or crystals which have been found from time to
time among the relics of departed civilizations were made by polishers
of jewels for purposes of ornament. Mach (1926), on the other hand,
seems to tend, on the whole, to the opinion that a few archaeological
• The references by number are to the Bibliographical Notes at the end
of this Chapter ; those without numbers are in the General Bibliography.
5
6 PRISM AND LENS MAKING
objects which have been found were made, and intended to be used,
as lenses.
Hooke
9 About this time Hooke was working on the microscope (Hooke
1667). He describes a way of making microscope objective lenses;
he drew a piece of broken Venice glass in a lamp into a thin thread,
then held the end of this thread in a flame till a globule of glass was
formed. He then polished a flat surface on the thread side of the
globule, first on a whetstone and then on a smooth metal plate with
Tripoli ; but these lenses being too small he used good plano-convex
object glasses, and there is no indication that he made these himself.
Leeuwenhoek
10 The great Dutch microscopist, Leeuwenhoek (1719), made his
own lenses, but left no account of his methods. He says in a letter
to Leibnitz dated the 28th of September, 1715-
As to your idea of encouraging young men to polish glass-as
it were to start a school of glass polishing-I do not myself see
that would be of much use. Quite a number, who had time on
14 PRISM AND LENS MAKING
with the concave Copper till it had done making a noise, because
if the Particles of the Putty were not by this means made to stick
fast in the Pitch, they would by rolling up and down grate and
fret the Object-Metal and fill it full of little holes.
But because metal is more difficult to polish than Glass and is
afterwards very apt to be spoiled by tarnishing and reflects not so
much Light as Glass quick-silvered over does : I propound to use
instead of the Metal, a Glass ground concave on the foreside, and
as much convex on the back-side, and quicksilvered over on the
convex side. The Glass must be everywhere of the same thickness
exactly. Otherwise it will make objects look coloured and indistinct.
By such a Glass I tried about five or six Years ago to make a
reflecting telescope of four Feet in length to magnify about 150
times, and I satisfied myself that there wants nothing but a good
Artist to bring the design to perfection. For the glass being
wrought by one of our London Artists after such a manner as they
grind Glasses for Telescopes, tho' it seemed as well wrought as the
object-glasses use to be, yet when it was quick-silvered, the
Reflexion discovered innumerable Inequalities all over the Glass.
And by reason of these Inequalities, Objects appeared indistinct
in the Instrument. For the errors of reflected Rays caused by an
Inequality of the Glass are about five times greater than the Errors
of refracted rays caused by the like Inequalities. Yet by this
Experiment I satisfied myself that the Reflexion on the concave
side of the Glass, which I feared would disturb the Vision, did no
sensible prejudice to it, and by consequence that nothing is wanting
to perfect these Telescopes but good Workmen who can grind and
polish Glasses truly spherical. An Object-Glass of a fourteen Foot
Telescope made by an Artificer at London, I once mended consider-
ably by grinding it on Pitch with Putty, and leaning very easily
on it, in the grinding, lest the Putty should scratch it. Whether
this way may not do well enough for polishing these reflecting
Glasses, I have not yet tried. But he that shall try either this
or any other way of polishing which he may think better, may do
well to make his Glasses ready for polishing by grinding them without
that violence wherewith our London workmen press their Glasses in
grinding. For by such violent pressure, Glasses are apt to bend a
little in the grinding, and such bending will certainly spoil their figure .
f
Ill!.
L’Imitation.
Huit jours, huit mois, huit ans, huit siècles, je ne sais quoi de
long, de sans fin dans l’ennui, depuis que je t’ai quitté, mon ami,
mon pauvre malade ! Est-il bien ? est-il mieux ? est-il mal ?
Questions de toujours et de toujours sans réponse. Ignorance
pénible, difficile à porter, ignorance du cœur, la seule qui fait souffrir
ou qui fait souffrir davantage. Il fait beau, on sent partout le soleil et
un air de fleurs qui te feront du bien. Le printemps, la chaleur vont te
guérir mieux que tous les remèdes. Je te dis ceci en espérance,
seule dans une chambre d’ermite, avec chaise, croix et petite table
sous petite fenêtre où j’écris. De temps en temps, je vois le ciel et
entends les cloches et quelques passants des rues de Nevers, la
triste. Est-ce Paris qui me gâte, me rapetisse, m’assombrit tout ?
Jamais ville plus déserte, plus noire, plus ennuyeuse, malgré les
charmes qui l’habitent, Marie et son aimable famille. Il n’est point de
charme contre certaine influence. O l’ennui ! la plus maligne, la plus
tenace, la plus emmaisonnée, qui rentre par une porte quand on l’a
chassée par l’autre, qui donne tant d’exercice pour ne pas la laisser
maîtresse du logis. J’ai de tout essayé, jusqu’à tirer ma quenouille
du fond de son étui où je l’avais depuis mon départ du Cayla. Cela
m’a rappelé l’histoire de ce berger qui, parvenu à la cour, y
conservait le coffre où était sa houlette, et l’ouvrait quelquefois pour
trouver du plaisir. J’ai aussi trouvé du plaisir à revoir ma quenouille
et à filer un peu. Mais je filais tant d’autres choses ! Voyage enfin
aux îles Pelew, ouvrage aussi intéressant que des étoupes. Je n’en
ai pu rien tirer en contre-ennui. Qu’il demeure, cet inexorable ennui,
ce fond de la vie humaine. Supporter et se supporter, c’est la plus
sage des choses.
Une lettre, enfin ! Une lettre où tu es mieux, une lettre de ton ami
qui t’a vu, qui t’a parlé, qui t’a trouvé presque en gaieté. O res
mirabilis ! de la gaieté ! pourvu que ce ne soit pas factice, que tu ne
veuilles pas nous tromper ! Les malades jouent de ces tours
quelquefois. Pourquoi ne pas croire aussi ? Le doute ne vaut rien
pour rien. Ce qui me fait tant estimer ton ami, c’est que je n’en doute
pas, que je le crois immuable en amitié et en parole, un homme de
vérité. Ce qui me fait aimer et vouloir ses lettres encore, c’est qu’il
est le plus près de toi par l’intelligence et le cœur, et que je te vois
en lui.
Le 24. — Que tout est riant, que le soleil a de vie, que l’air m’est
doux et léger ! Une lettre, des nouvelles, du mieux, cher malade, et
tout est changé en moi, dedans, dehors. Je suis heureuse
aujourd’hui. Mot si rare que je souligne. Enfin, enfin cette lettre est
venue ! Je l’ai là sous les yeux, sous la main, au cœur, partout. Je
suis toute dans une lettre toujours, tantôt triste, tantôt gaie. Dieu soit
béni d’aujourd’hui, de ce que j’apprends de ton sommeil, de ton
appétit, de cette promenade aux Champs-Élysées avec Caro, ton
ange conducteur ! Le cher et bon ami me mande cela avec un détail
d’amitié bien touchant. C’est trop aimable de se mettre ainsi entre
frère et sœur séparés pour leur correspondance intime, pour servir
mes sollicitudes, pour couper la longue distance qui s’arrête où je le
rencontre. Toujours, toujours j’aurai obligation, reconnaissance
infinie de ce service, de cet affectueux dévouement du plus aimable
des amis.
Causé longtemps avec Marie de cette lettre et de choses infinies
qui s’y sont rattachées. Les enchaînements se font si bien de chose
à autre, qu’on noue le monde par un cheveu quelquefois. Ainsi
avons-nous tiré le passé, le passé de l’éternité où il est tombé, pour
le revoir entre nous, entre Elle et moi, moi venue si
extraordinairement auprès d’Elle.
La belle vision, l’admirable figure de Christ que j’aperçois sur la
tapisserie vis-à-vis de mon lit ! C’est fait pour l’œil d’un peintre.
Jamais je n’ai vu tête plus sublime, plus divinement douloureuse
avec les traits qu’on donne au Sauveur. J’en suis frappée, et j’admire
ce que fait ma chandelle derrière une anse de pot à l’eau dont
l’ombre encadre trois fleurs sur la tapisserie qui font ce tableau. Ainsi
les plus petites choses font les grandes. Des enfants découvrirent
les lunettes d’approche, un verre par hasard rapprocha les astres,
une mauvaise lumière et un peu d’ombre sur un papier me font un
tableau de Rubens ou de Raphaël. Le beau n’est pas ce qu’on
cherche, mais ce qu’on rencontre. Il est vraiment beau, plus beau
que rien de ce que j’ai vu en ce genre à l’Exposition. Quelque ange
l’a-t-il exposée pour moi dans ma chambre solitaire, cette image de
Jésus, car Jésus est doux à l’âme, et avec lui rien ne lui manque et
rien ne lui paraît difficile. Eh bien ! donc, que cette image me soit
utile, me soit en aide dans la pensée qui m’occupe. Demain, je vais
pour toi faire un pèlerinage qui me coûte, non pour les pas, c’est
pour autre chose qui demande courage d’âme, force de foi. Je
l’aurai, Dieu aidant. Ne va pas croire à un martyre ; il ne s’agit que
d’aller me confesser à un prêtre auquel je n’ai pas confiance, mais
c’est le seul de l’endroit, et j’ai besoin de me confesser pour la
neuvaine que nous faisons faire. Dans cet acte de religion, il faut
toujours séparer l’homme du prêtre et quelquefois l’anéantir.
Adieu ; je vais dormir avec ces pensées, avec ton souvenir et tant
d’autres.
Le 28. — Heureux ceux qui croient sans avoir vu. Heureux donc
les croyants à la poudre homœopathique ! heureux donc mon
estomac qui vient d’en prendre sur l’ordonnance de Marie ! J’ai plutôt
foi au médecin qu’au remède, il faut le dire, ce qui revient au même
pour l’effet. Quoique je t’aie pressé de consulter cette nouvelle
méthode de guérison, c’était plutôt pour le régime doux et long, et
par cela d’un bon effet, que pour les infiniment petits qui doivent
produire infiniment peu de chose. Que peut contenir d’agissant un
atome de poudre quelconque, fût-elle de feu ? J’ai donc pris sans
conviction, et pour complaire à la tendre amie, pleine de soins pour
ma santé. Mon remède est de ne rien faire, de laisser faire dame
Nature qui s’en tire seule, à moins de cas aigus. La santé est
comme les enfants, on la gâte par trop de soins. Bien des femmes
sont victimes de cet amour trop attentif à de petites douleurs, et
demeurent tourmentées de souffrances pour les avoir caressées.
Les dérangements de santé qui ne sont d’abord que petits maux,
deviennent grandes maladies souvent, comme on voit les défauts
dans l’âme devenir passions quand on les flatte. Je ne veux donc
pas flatter mon malaise d’à présent, et, quoique gémissent cœur et
nerfs, lire, écrire et faire comme de coutume en tout. C’est bien
puissant le je veux de la volonté, le mot du maître, et j’aime fort le
proverbe de Jacotot : Pouvoir, c’est vouloir. En effet, quel levier !
L’homme qui s’en sert peut soulever le monde et se porter lui-même
jusqu’au ciel. Noble et sainte faculté qui fait les grands génies, les
saints, les héros des deux mondes, les intelligences supérieures.
Lu les Précieuses Ridicules et les Savantes. Quel homme, ce
Molière ! Je veux le lire.
Le 1er mai. — C’est au bel air de mai, au soleil levant, au jour
radieux et balsamique, que ma plume trotte sur ce papier. Il fait bon
courir dans cette nature enchanteuse, parmi fleurs, oiseaux et
verdure, sous ce ciel large et bleu du Nivernais. J’en aime fort la
gracieuse coupe et ces petits nuages blancs çà et là comme des
coussins de coton, suspendus pour le repos de l’œil dans cette
immensité. Notre âme s’étend sur ce qu’elle voit ; elle change
comme les horizons, elle en prend la forme, et je croirais assez que
l’homme en petit lieu a petites idées, comme aussi riantes ou tristes,
sévères ou gracieuses, suivant la nature qui l’environne. Chaque
plante tient du sol, chaque fleur tient de son vase, chaque homme
de son pays. Le Cayla, notre bel enclos, m’a tenue longtemps sous
sa verdure, et je me sens différente d’alors. Marie craint que ce soit
malheur, mais je ne crois pas : il me reste assez de ce que j’étais
pour reprendre à la même vie. Seulement il y aura nouvelle branche
et deux plantes sur même tronc, comme ces arbres greffés de
plusieurs sortes où l’on voit des fleurs différentes.
A pareil jour, peut-être à pareil [instant], Mimi la sainte est à
genoux devant le petit autel du mois de Marie dans la chambrette.
Chère sœur ! je me joins à elle et trouve aussi ma chapelle aux
Coques. On m’a donné pour cela une chambre que Valentine a
remplie de fleurs. Là j’irai me faire une église, et Marie, ses petites
filles, valets et bergers et toute la maison s’y réuniront tous les soirs
devant la sainte Vierge. Ils y viennent d’abord comme pour voir
seulement. Jamais mois de Marie ne leur est venu. Il pourra résulter
quelque bien de cette dévotion curieuse, ne fût-ce qu’une idée, une
seule idée de leurs devoirs de chrétiens, que ces pauvres gens
connaissent peu, que nous leur lirons en les amusant. Ces dévotions
populaires me plaisent en ce qu’elles sont attrayantes dans leurs
formes et offrent en cela de faciles moyens d’instruction. On drape le
dessous de bonnes vérités qui ressortent toutes riantes et gagnent
les cœurs au nom de la Vierge et de ses douces vertus. J’aime le
mois de Marie et autres petites dévotions aimables que l’Église
permet, qu’elle bénit, qui naissent aux pieds de la foi comme les
fleurs aux pieds du chêne.