Public Perceptions of Radiation Effects On Health Risks and Well-Being: A Case of RFEMF Risk Perceptions in Malaysia Yusniza Kamarulzaman
Public Perceptions of Radiation Effects On Health Risks and Well-Being: A Case of RFEMF Risk Perceptions in Malaysia Yusniza Kamarulzaman
Public Perceptions of Radiation Effects On Health Risks and Well-Being: A Case of RFEMF Risk Perceptions in Malaysia Yusniza Kamarulzaman
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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ENVIRONMENT,
SECURIT Y, DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 33
Yusniza Kamarulzaman
Farrah Dina Yusop
Noorhidawati Abdullah
Azian Madun
Kwan-Hoong Ng
Public Perceptions of
Radiation Effects on
Health Risks and
Well-Being
A Case of RFEMF Risk
Perceptions in Malaysia
SpringerBriefs in Environment, Security,
Development and Peace
Volume 33
Series Editor
Hans Günter Brauch, Sicherheitspolitik, Peace Research & European Security
Studies, Mosbach, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10357
http://www.afes-press-books.de/html/SpringerBriefs_ESDP.htm
http://www.afes-press-books.de/html_ESDP1.htm
Yusniza Kamarulzaman Farrah Dina Yusop
• •
Kwan-Hoong Ng
Public Perceptions
of Radiation Effects
on Health Risks
and Well-Being
A Case of RFEMF Risk Perceptions
in Malaysia
123
Yusniza Kamarulzaman Farrah Dina Yusop
Faculty of Business and Accountancy Faculty of Education
University of Malaya University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Kwan-Hoong Ng
Faculty of Medicine
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface
Risk perceptions play a pivotal role in health behaviour theories. Understanding the
impact of perceived risk on well-being is essential in order to investigate the
explanatory value and effectiveness of the interventions influencing these beliefs.
The interrelationships between risk knowledge, attitude and behaviour among
different groups of the general public are very complex such that the generalization
of relationship cannot easily be concluded. Investigating these relationships is
essential in order to identify and predict the behaviour of the general public
regarding health issues. A better understanding of the influence of this knowledge
on attitudes and risk reduction in a particular culture or country could significantly
help in designing effective educational/awareness programmes and health
messages.
During the past few years, the mainstream media such as the television news
channels and newspapers have sporadically reported the fear and concern among
the general public with regard to the presence of telecommunication towers in many
residential areas. This is due to the perception of some quarters of the general public
that these towers radiate electromagnetic signals, which may pose hazard and risk to
human health. Therefore, this study was commissioned as part of the Government’s
effort to identify and examine the perception of risk among the general public on
this matter.
Since the telecommunication towers are built for the purpose of transmitting
electronic signals which have the properties of electromagnetic fields, this book is
about the study on the investigation of the public perception on the effects of
radio-frequency electromagnetic field (RFEMF) on human health and well-being.
This study seeks to expand knowledge and understanding of different risk per-
ceptions related to the radiation of RFEMF, which would explain the gap in the
literature regarding the relationship between risk perceptions that lead to public
behaviours.
This book presents empirical findings of a national study that unveils two key
factors affecting public risk perceptions: psychographic and personal factors. It
brings a more collective and cultural understanding of public perceptions of radi-
ation risks via systematic mixed-method research approach. While the radiation risk
v
vi Preface
vii
viii Contents
Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
List of Figures
xi
List of Tables
xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction to Radiation and Risk
Perception
A. Madun
Human beings’ understanding about magnetic, electric and electromagnetic fields has
been growing and developing through various stages since 1600 with the work of
scientists such as Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday and James Maxwell.
Electromagnetic fields were first discovered in the 19th century when scientists
noticed that electric arc could be reproduced at a distance, with no connecting wires
in between. This led scientists to believe that the sparks could be used as signals to
communicate over long distances without wires (Forbes & Mahon 2014). This was,
in fact, the beginning of the development of mobile technologies or wireless devices.
Electromagnetic fields are typically generated by an alternating current in
electrical conductors. At the low extreme, the frequency of the alternating current is
one cycle in thousands of years, while it can go to trillions or quadrillions of cycles
per second at the high extreme. The frequency of the electromagnetic field is
usually expressed in terms of a unit called hertz with an abbreviation of Hz. One Hz
equals one cycle per second and one megahertz (MHz) equals one million cycles
per second. In short, the electromagnetic field consists of waves of electric and
magnetic energy moving together through space at the speed of light (Purcell 2012).
RFEMF is useful in everyday life. The most important use of RFEMF is in
providing telecommunications services such as radio and television broadcasting,
cellular phones, personal communications services, pagers, cordless telephones and
radio communications for police and fire departments as well as amateur radio.
RFEMF can also be used for non-communication purposes such as radar and
heating. Radar is a valuable tool used by traffic speed enforcement, air traffic control
at the airports as well as military surveillance. An intense level of RFEMF radiation
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2020 1
Y. Kamarulzaman et al., Public Perceptions of Radiation Effects on Health
Risks and Well-Being, SpringerBriefs in Environment, Security,
Development and Peace 33, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9894-1_1
2 A. Madun
can produce heat that can be used to rapidly heat materials used in many industries,
including moulding plastic materials, wood products and sealing items. It is also
used in medical applications such as magnetic resonance imaging (Jin 1999).
The concern related to electromagnetic field arises when it interacts with organic
tissue, consequently health-related concerns arise. One example of the application
of electromagnetic field is X-ray machines which are commonly used in the hos-
pitals. An interaction with the electromagnetic field can lead to “ionization”.
Ionization is a process where electrons are stripped from atoms that can lead to
damage in biological tissue, including genetic material of living organisms. X-ray is
an example of an electromagnetic field which is sufficiently high to ionize bio-
logical material such that the X-ray is capable of detecting broken bones, tumours,
dental decay and abnormalities within the body without invasive surgery or causing
any pain (Kimura et al. 2008).
Ionizing radiation may possibly cause different types of cancer such as stomach,
liver, colon, lung, breast, uterine and thyroid cancer and leukaemia as well as
genetic effects. High radiation exposures can also damage blood and tissues,
including the heart, eyes, intestines, skin, and reproductive organs, depending on
the type of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma), the route of absorption and its potency
(Cember & Johnson 2009).
Non-ionizing radiation is also electromagnetic radiation but it has less energy.
Therefore, it is not powerful enough to cause the ionization (removal of electrons)
of molecules. It includes many types of electromagnetic radiation ranging in energy
from extremely low frequency radiation to ultraviolet radiation. Hospitals employ
equipment that generates many types of non-ionizing radiation such as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and lasers. The health effects of non-ionizing radiation
are expected to be related to many factors such as periods of exposure, wavelength
or change in electric and magnetic fields over time and space. As a result, workers
in hospitals should be aware of the non-ionizing and ionizing hazards that they are
facing in their job (Gorman et al. 2013).
Therefore, RFEMF is often related to “radiation”. However, the term radiation
associated with RFEMF is often confused with the term “radioactive”. Hence,
radiation is always perceived to do with a bad connotation. Radiation in RFEMF
refers to the motion of the RFEMF through space that may cause heating, whereas
radioactive refers to the decaying process of an unstable atom that loses energy by
emitting radiation. Radiation related to RFEMF may or may not pose danger to
human depending on the levels of radiation exposure, while radiation related to
radioactive contains substances that are ultimately hazardous to human. This might
explain why there is a bad perception with regards to RFEMF due to its association
with the term radiation.
1 Introduction to Radiation and Risk Perception 3
There are three common ways to measure RFEMF radiation; firstly, volt per
meter which is used to express the strength of the electric field; secondly, watts per
square meter which is used to measure the density of exposure; and thirdly, watts
per kilogram which is used to measure the quantity of energy absorbed in a body
widely known as the “Specific Absorption Rate” or “SAR” (Jin 1999).
An exposure to very high levels of RFEMF can be detrimental due to its ability
to heat biological tissue rapidly, which in turn increases body temperature. This can
cause tissue damage owing to the body’s inability to cope with such a high body
temperature or because of dissipating the excessive heat. Two areas of the body, the
eyes and the testes, are particularly vulnerable because of the relative lack of
available blood flow to dissipate the excess heat load.
At relatively low levels of exposure to RFEMF, the heat produced is insignifi-
cant and the evidence does not suggest any harmful biological effects. Nonetheless,
standards-setting organisations and government agencies continue to monitor the
latest experimental findings to confirm their validity and determine whether changes
in safety limits are needed in order to protect human health.
In short, although there are no clear evidence to suggest a link between electro-
magnetic fields and negative health effects on humans, considerable prudence is
necessary such as persons who have metal-containing implants fitted in their body to
avoid superconducting magnet (Perrin & Souques 2012). Similarly, people who are
exposed to electromagnetic radiation at the workplace should avoid long exposure to
the radiation or reduce the exposure to high frequency (Gorman et al. 2013).
Electromagnetic fields are most diffuse and ubiquitous, especially because many
consumer goods and new advanced technological devices are being developed
based on the application of electromagnetic fields. As a result, these products can be
categorised by the order of frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum and the ener-
gies developed in the range of frequencies. For example, the electric power lines are
categorised under low frequency, while X-ray machine belongs to high frequency
(Perrin & Souques 2012) as shown in Fig. 1.1.
As the application of electromagnetic fields increases in consumer goods, there
is an increase in the research on the possible health and biological effects of
RFEMF that have been carried out in Europe, North America, Japan and other
countries. These research activities are supported by public and private funding
bodies at both the national and international levels (EFHRAN 2012).
The extent and diversity of these activities, encompassing many areas of medical
and biological research, as well as the latest developments in physics and engi-
neering make it particularly difficult to provide relevant, authoritative and timely
input for the development of public health policies. Furthermore, it is possible that
specific assessments for one situation can be misinterpreted or inappropriately
applied to other conditions.
4 A. Madun
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has issued continuous statements from
time to time with regard to the risk of RFEMF as the usage of mobile phone
becomes universally accepted. As the transmission of a mobile phone communi-
cation signal is one of the sources of RFEMF, in their latest statement, they are of
the opinion that there are no adverse health effects that could have been established
due to the use of mobile phone (World Health Organization 2014). Their opinion is
based on the report by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP), which is also supported by researchers in Europe who have
examined the literature on scientific evidence on the risk of RFEMF. They are also
of the opinion that the health risk due to human exposure to electromagnetic fields
is either limited or inadequate (EFHRAN 2012).
However, there are differences of opinion among experts regarding the risks of
RFEMF as differences arise from various perspectives. For example, Starkey (2016)
argued that the official assessment of the safety of RFEMF is inaccurate because the
executive summary and overall conclusions provided by the government agency
did not accurately reflect the scientific evidence available. Hence, he suggested the
presence of a conflict of interest in the advisory group. Hardell (2017) claimed the
presence of a conflict of interest among advisory group members of the WHO on
the safety of RFEMF. This is because five of the six members are
industry-affiliated, resulting in the dismissal of adverse health effects of RFEMF
radiation.
Nonetheless, there were experiments that have been performed to investigate the
impact of RFEMF. For example, Akdag et al. (2016) found that prolonged exposure
to 2.4 GHz frequency of Wi-Fi device can significantly affect some organ tissues of
rats as compared to rats that were not exposed to Wi-Fi.
1 Introduction to Radiation and Risk Perception 5
In conclusion, the risk of RFEMF full of contentious issues from opponents and
proponents is debatable. Both sides have their own arguments and supporting
evidence. Hence, it is important to investigate public perceptions of the risk of
RFEMF and its implication.
Although it is hard to understand, the risk perception has always been the focus of
policymakers and researchers. According to Sjoberg (2000), there are various ways
to explain risk perception which can be categorised as follows: technical estimates
(real risk), heuristics (human biased), psychometric model (scales as measurements
of risk) and cultural theory (categorising people based on their hazard concern).
While there is no model that can be adapted to all the phenomena, generally
people can accept a certain level of risk in their lives, if necessary, to achieve certain
benefits. Similarly, people are also likely to accept the risk if the benefit is higher
than the risk (Slovic 2000). Individuals often make calculated risks. If they do not
know or understand the situation or do not have the experience to make an informed
decision, they may choose to take the calculated risk.
There are many factors that may influence human beings’ decision-making
which will eventually affect their behaviour (Hillson 2004). However, studies on
the relationship between risk perception and behaviours have revealed mixed
results. The typical theoretical prediction is that the risk perception is negatively
correlated with risk-taking behaviour. It means that people behave in such a way
that they can protect themselves from the risk, i.e. protective behaviour (Reyna &
Farley 2006). However, there are studies which indicate positive correlation
between risk perception and behaviour. It means that the risk does not hinder people
from engaging in what they were doing before, i.e. reflective behaviour (Johnson
et al. 2002).
Essentially, this shows that people are willing to accept a certain level of risk in
their lives, if necessary, to achieve certain benefits. The higher the benefit, the more
likely they will accept the risk (Slovic 2000). Individuals often make calculated
risks. If they do not know or understand the situation or do not have an experience
base to make informed decisions, they may choose to take a calculated risk. If
people take safety for granted, they may not stop to consider the whole picture.
Sometimes, they are influenced by the people around them to accept risks that they
normally would not.
On the other hand, the risk perception does not just apply to individuals; it also
applies when people work in groups or teams. People respond to their assessment of
circumstances and what their peers tell them. If a team member, whom they respect
and whom they believe is more experienced than them, tells them that something is
safe, they tend to accept that respected member’s decision. If a person of authority
deems an environment or piece of equipment to be safe, they generally do not
question that person’s conclusion (Vaughan & Hogg 1998; Geller 2005). Most
1 Introduction to Radiation and Risk Perception 7
groups have a natural leader who sets the group culture, is never questioned and
always has the final say.
Besides the trade-off between benefits and loss, risk perception is also related to
intuitive beliefs. For example, Wiedmann et al. (2017) found that the general public
tends to believe that many people are highly exposed to the risks of RFEMF
although they do not know much about the health impact of RFEMF. They sug-
gested that this could be due to the inaccurate method of measuring the risk per-
ception which is biased towards the exaggeration of public views.
In summary, it is not easy to generalise risk perception in any field of study.
Sometimes, the risks are exaggerated as the media compete for public attention and
made the issue driven by public sentiment rather than the actual facts (Kahneman
2012). Therefore, risk perception is a highly personal process of decision making
based on an individual’s frame of reference developed over a lifetime, among many
other factors (Brown 2014).
WHO (2002) has identified eight groups of key stakeholders concerning the
RFEMF issue; scientific community, health and legal practitioners, industry play-
ers, non-governmental organisations, media, general public and government. All
key stakeholders have different roles in their respective communities.
For example, the scientific community should be independent and apolitical and
is responsible for providing technical information which could help the public
understand the benefits and risks of EMF. The health practitioners are responsible to
provide input from the health aspect concerning the EMF issue. The legal practi-
tioners are responsible for legal standing and involvement in the issue under
question in order to ensure that everyone involved is corresponding to the dictates
of the law (National Research Council 1989).
The industry, despite being viewed acting based on profit motive by the public,
should be active in managing risk and initiating open communication with the
public. Associations which may include environmental groups, community-based
organisations and non-government agencies are important in making the public
sentiment heard by other stakeholders. Media which may include the internet,
television, newspaper and radio could serve effectively in increasing problem
awareness and broadcast information, but it could also be effective in disseminating
incorrect information. The general public which includes landowners and con-
cerned citizens might be the greatest determinant to the success or failure of a
proposed technology project. However, they should be careful of misleading
information caused by media. The government officials are important to devise
standards and guidelines, which should be based upon information from other
major stakeholders (WHO 2002).
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and avian flu outbreaks. The delayed
communication caused SARS early symptoms to be largely unnoticed as many
clinicians were unaware of this epidemic threat (Qiu et al. 2016). This eventually
caused the significant epidemic break-out that gained considerable strength before it
was recognised by the government.
Ineffective risk communication could also devastate communities and economy
if it leads to illness, fear and death (World Health Organization 2015). For instance,
in the SARS outbreak crisis, China’s delayed detection and poor communication
eventually caused civil unrest which damaged their economy and reputation (Qiu
et al. 2016). In the long run, poor risk communication would also cause the gov-
ernment to lose the public’s trust, especially if they are perceived to hide infor-
mation or release contradictory information.
Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of effective risk communi-
cation in enabling people to make informed choices and participate in deciding how
risks should be managed. Effective risk communication provides people with
timely, accurate, clear, objective, consistent, and complete risk information. It is the
starting point for creating an informed population that is involved, interested,
reasonable, thoughtful, solution-oriented, cooperative and appropriately concerned.
The U.S. National Academy of Sciences (National Research Council 1989) has
defined risk communication as “an interactive process of exchange of information
and opinion among individuals, groups and institutions.” Risk communication is
the two-way exchange of information about risks, including the risks associated
with radiation and radiological events and emergencies. Policymakers must
recognise the importance of risk and crisis communication planning (Covello &
Sandman 2001). To communicate risks effectively during and after an emergency,
Covello strongly advocated an APP approach: (A) anticipation, (P) preparation and
(P) practice.
In summary, risk communication should be properly planned and the planning
should be comprehensive. The organisation managing the risk must determine the
objectives of the risk communication efforts, identify the target audience, under-
stand the legal mandate related to the risk and the constraints in undertaking the
effort including ethical issues, determine the appropriate methods of communication
and finally evaluate the risk communication that has been undertaken (Lundgren &
McMakin 2018).
One of the most perplexing problems in risk analysis is why some relatively minor
risks or risk events, as assessed by technical experts, often elicit strong public
concerns and result in substantial impacts upon society and economy. It shows that
the social experience of risk is not confined to the technical definition of risk, i.e.,
the product of probability and magnitude. What human beings perceive as a threat
to their wellbeing and how they evaluate probabilities and magnitudes of unwanted
10 A. Madun
As each higher-order impact is reacted to, they may ripple to other parties and
locations. Traditional risk analyses neglect these ripple effect impacts and thus
greatly underestimate the adverse effects from certain risk events. Public distortion
of risk signals provides a corrective mechanism by which society assesses a fuller
determination of the risk and its impacts to such things not traditionally factored
into a risk analysis (Kasperson & Roger 2005).
As described earlier, the technology that is derived from RFEMF is mainly applied
to consumer goods which require Government approval before they can be sold to
the general public. Similarly, the construction of telecommunication transmission
towers requires permission from the federal and local government. It means that the
study of RFEMF would also have to involve the Government who was also one of
the stakeholders that have the authority in giving approval. In other words, the
study would be more comprehensive by examining the authority of the Government
pertaining to RFEMF.
Previous studies show that the public trust in the Government is related to the
performance of the Government, which indicates that as long as the public is
satisfied with the performance, they will put their trust in the Government (Yang &
Holzer 2006; Torcal 2014). Besides performance, the transparency of the
Government also plays a role in increasing public trust in Government. With the
prevalence of e-government, the general public can have access to timely and
reliable information on the Government’s procedures and enable them to evaluate
the decision making process. It increases the sense of democracy among the general
public and empowers them to monitor the Government performance; hence
restoring high confidence in the Government (Pina et al. 2007; Kim & Lee 2012).
In short, the communication of risk would be more effective when the general
public is satisfied with the performance of Government that are transparent and not
corrupted.
1.4.1 Background
As early as 2005, there were many newspaper reports regarding the danger of
mobile phone towers or bases that were erected in residential areas. For example, in
April 2008, a tabloid newspaper reported about a claim that mobile phone tower
could lead to cancer to the people living nearby due to the radiation from the tower.
Recently, another newspaper report refuted the claim by saying that the
12 A. Madun
telecommunication tower does not pose any risk to human health as the reading of
the exposure was lower than suggested by the authority (Utusan Online 2018). Such
newspaper coverage may cause discomfort and disturb the peace of mind among
some quarters of the general public. Hence, this study was commissioned by the
Government of Malaysia as part of the study to examine the impact of telecom-
munication towers on health (Utusan Online 2008).
Amid the contradicting reports from various sources, the debate of whether the
telecommunication towers or RFEMF posed any health hazard or not has never
ceased to disappear from the mainstream media or among scientists and researchers.
Although there are published studies on electromagnetic fields in Malaysia, their
focus was mostly on the fields of natural or physical sciences. For example, Ismail
et al. (2009) documented that the readings of electromagnetic exposure at two major
cities in Malaysia were well-below the guidelines set by the International
Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Similarly, Pradhan
et al. (2012) reported theoretical issues on electromagnetic field in Malaysia.
Therefore, this study was different because instead of natural or physical sci-
ences, the issue of electromagnetic field was being examined from social sciences
perspective. Essentially, this study seeks to investigate the public’s perception of
RFEMF effect on their health and well-being. Understanding the impact of per-
ceived risk on well-being is essential in order to investigate the explanatory value
and effectiveness of interventions influencing these beliefs. Therefore, this research
examined the reliability and predictive validity of different risk perception opera-
tionalization related to RFEMF.
A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches has been employed in
the study. The mixed method approach is used simultaneously for the purpose of
data collection and analysis, which consists of Phase 1 (qualitative approaches) and
Phase 2 (quantitative approaches). Qualitative and quantitative data collection took
place from January 2012 to August 2013. At the closing of the data collection
process, a total of 2,245 samples were collected. However, after the data cleaning
process, only 1,975 samples qualified for further analysis.
The samples for the study were the general public. Therefore, respondents for the
study were residents of all the states in Malaysia. It means that the sampling was
comprehensive in terms of geographical coverage. Besides questionnaires, the
study also included observations, face-to-face interviews and group discussions
with other stakeholders such as the Government bodies, telecommunication service
providers as well as consumers. It means that the study was comprehensive in terms
of stakeholders’ involvement.
Drawing upon the Social Amplification of Risk Framework (SARF), this study
investigates the perception of RFEMF health risks by the public. SARF is the most
comprehensive tool available for the study of risk. Theories and frameworks are
useful and effective only to the extent that they conform to certain fundamental
features of logic: clearly defined terms, coherence, internal consistency, sound
organisation explicated with parsimony, accompanied by a specification of scope
conditions and the generation of testable hypotheses.
Some people perceive risks from RFEMF exposure as likely and possibly even
severe. Several reasons for public fear include social media interactions, word of
mouth and media announcements of new and unconfirmed scientific studies, which
lead to a feeling of uncertainty and a perception that there may be unknown or
undiscovered hazards. Other factors are aesthetic concerns and a feeling of lack of
control or input to the process of determining the location of new base stations.
Risk perceptions play a pivotal role in health behaviour theories. Understanding
the impact of perceived risk on well-being is essential in order to investigate the
explanatory value and effectiveness of interventions influencing these beliefs. This
study investigated the reliability and predictive validity of different risk perception
operationalization related to RFEMF in order to explain the inconsistent findings in
the literature regarding the relationship between risk perceptions and public
behaviours.
The relationship between risk knowledge, attitude and behaviour among dif-
ferent population groups is complex and has not been sufficiently explored
(Khachkalyan 2006). It was essential to investigate this relationship in order to
predict future behaviour for the well-being of the population. A better under-
standing of the influence of this knowledge on attitudes and risk reduction in a
particular culture or country could significantly help in designing effective educa-
tional and awareness programmes and health messages. Essentially, this study of
risk perception and its effect on the well-being of Malaysians was designed to fill
the research gap and create a basis for further research in this area.
14 A. Madun
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Chapter 2
Design of the Study
Yusniza Kamarulzaman
This study adopted qualitative as well as quantitative research design and subse-
quently integrated the findings from both approaches. The study was conducted for
the duration of 24 months through two (2) phases. The first phase was a qualitative
study through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, while the second
phase was a quantitative study via a questionnaire survey. This research combined
the strengths of mixed-methods while enhancing the validity and reliability of the
research findings. Figure 2.1 summarises the multi-methods approach carried out in
this study.
Figure 2.1 shows the research design and approaches that were used corre-
spondingly to fulfil the objectives of the study. This study relies on data sources
which were gathered by both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Two
data sources, primary data and secondary data, were collected, examined and
analysed. The primary data were collected by both qualitative and quantitative
research methods. Qualitative research methods involved an in-depth interview,
focus group discussion and content analysis of the secondary data. Qualitative
exploratory research methods are crucial to uncovering the prevailing issues in the
thoughts and opinions of the study sample. This guides researchers to gain precise
categorisation of the explored issues in specific dimensions and items. The fol-
lowing sections elaborate both phases and approaches.
The main aim of applying the qualitative approach in the first phase is to com-
prehend the scenario concerning public perception of RFEMF risk while uncov-
ering the underpinning issues of the problems. These issues lead to the development
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2020 17
Y. Kamarulzaman et al., Public Perceptions of Radiation Effects on Health
Risks and Well-Being, SpringerBriefs in Environment, Security,
Development and Peace 33, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9894-1_2
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