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Tian Seng Ng

Robotic Vehicles: Systems and

Technology
1st ed. 2021
Tian Seng Ng
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

ISBN 978-981-33-6686-2 e-ISBN 978-981-33-6687-9

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6687-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer
Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04
Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
In Memory of
The Late
Assoc. Prof. Mr. Teo Ming Yeong
Preface
Global warming has led to changes in the way we live. On the road,
diesel and gasoline engines-driven vehicles are diminishing gradually.
The new hybrid vehicles carry out their mission to roam the streets.
Forging ahead, we can see electric cars making their way through their
popularism, as well. Throughout the decades, many developments have
evolved in automobile technology. Nowadays, where computer control
technology is becoming increasingly popular, the technological
breakthrough has progressed to combine with computed technology
for more precise and complete automation. The time has arrived for
automakers to further their development to automated control in the
zero-emission vehicle. Software advancement aspires to create a
simulation platform to replace real-time testing, rewarding in its
economic benefits. In academics, the study in nano-electronics finds its
use in automobiles to perform at high speed in the limited space of the
vehicle compartment. Smart sensors are entangling in the machine
vision world. Autonomous control techniques in drones, robots, and
automobiles are seeing its future when combining the machine vision
technology for implementing in the land and air vehicles or machine
systems.
Many research and studies over the years have found significant
improvements in the development of aerial and land vehicle technology.
Presently, many enterprises and software developing company venture
to establish the concept for engineering a self-driving car. With the
latest machine learning techniques such as deep learning, platforms for
artificial intelligence arise to drive the functionality of an autonomous
system. With the success of the semiconductor and software
technology, the integration of smart sensors, algorithms, and computer
modules helps to increase the reliability of the self-driving car. Cars can
select its route automatically for its travelling path to avoid congested
traffic and bad weather. The autonomous vehicle has mobile eyes all
round to detect objects as well as to avoid a collision. The coming
generations of vehicles may even respond to human intervention in
speech and action to control and drive the car. Our future road mobility
envisages a voice-commanded zero-emission drive engine that operates
on several tasks autonomously, not forgetting about safety reliability in
the changing era. The changing evolution from hybrid vehicles to
electric vehicles developing further on to autonomous cars is becoming
a reality.
Modern technology in the automobile has brought us to the present
advancements in automatic control vehicular systems and progressing
towards the millenniums. Future road transportation will depend
heavily on research investments in the domain of automobile
technology. Advancement in the vehicular sensing depends heavily on
the current technology in smart cameras and other sensing capabilities.
This book introduces the new features in automobiles and studies the
factors involving the autonomous vehicle. It focuses on the present
technology at large. The system embraces machine vision, artificial
intelligence, machine learning, and deep learning. It forecasts the latest
development of modern technology in automated cars to expose
readers to the engineering features, functions, simulation, embedded
system, connectivity, sensing, control, processing, and communication
of the autonomous vehicle. Moreover, the context also expressed the
control technology of the six-legged walking robot. Autonomous robots
can participate in the search and rescue mission, where tasks are
impossible for humans. We deployed them in environments where it
possesses threats to human safety. Examples of such applications are
bomb disposing and fallen buildings. These robots can enter the debris
to detect signs of human life. In the air, several types of rotor-propelled
crafts are pathing the ways. They have the capability of delivering
human organs to organ transplant patients. Amazon has provided air
parcel and fast food delivery using these rotorcrafts. It cuts downtime
and cost when considering one of these options. Swarms of rotor
copters apply to surveillance and military missions. The adoption of
modern technological successes inspires us to develop and build the
vision of futuristic robotic machines and vehicles.
Tian Seng Ng
Singapore
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Mark
Pitchford for the preparation of some of the contents in vehicle safety.
He would also like to thank Associate Professor Ng Heong Wah for his
expertise and guidance on the automobile system topics. He is the
leading Professor for the solar car teams in NTU, which have won
numerous titles in overseas competitions. Sincere gratitude goes to
Assistant Professor Mir Feroskhan of the aerospace division and
Associate Professor Nickols Francis Malcolm John, who had offered his
expertise joining Prof Ng in supervising the solar car team members.
Moreover, A/P Nickols Francis has also contributed to the creation of
the ground robotic system, which walks on its six legs. Not forgetting
the support team assisting the Professors, Deputy Director Mr. Roger
Tan Kay Chia, Assistant Director Mr. Iskandar Shah Salleh, the
laboratory supporting staff Mr. Ang Teck Meng, Mdm Agnes Tan Siok
Kuan, and Mr. You Kim San, who work in the Robotic Research Centre
and many others working to help in the engineering laboratory.
Appreciations go to my family and friends for their overall support
and patience. Without these people, the writing of the book would not
have been successful. Finally, I would like to thank NTU, School of MAE,
Division of Aerospace Engineering, for allowing me to make the work a
reality.
Abbreviations

Automobile Standards (Courtesy of SAE

International)
J941 Driver’s Eye Locations
J287 Driver Hand Control Reach
J1757/1 Standard Metrology for Vehicular Displays
J1757/2 Optical Metrology for Automotive HUD
J1757/3 Power Metrology for Vehicle Display
J2364 Navigation Function Accessibility While Driving
J2365 Calculation of the Time to Complete In-Vehicle Navigation
Tasks
J2395 In-Vehicle Message Priority
J2396 Definitions and Measures-Related Driver Visual Behavior Using
Video Techniques
J1050 Describing and Measuring the Driver’s Field of View
J2399 Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) Operating Characteristics and
User Interface
J2400 Forward Collision Warning Systems: Operating Characteristics
and User Interface
J2678 Navigation Function Accessibility While Driving Rationale
J2802 Blind Spot Monitoring System (BSMS): Operating
Characteristics and User Interface
J2808 Road/Lane Departure Warning Systems: Human Interface
J2830 Process for Comprehension Testing of In-Vehicle Icons
J2831 Design and Engineering for In-Vehicle Alphanumeric Messages
J2889/1 Measurement of Minimum Noise Emitted by Road Vehicles
NHTSA FMVSS No. 101: Controls and Displays
ISO 15008 Ergonomic Aspects of Transport Information and Control
Systems
ISO 16505 Ergonomic and Performance Aspects of Camera Monitor
Systems
Contents
1 Introduction
1.​1 Preliminary
1.​2 Highlighting Features of the Book
1.​3 Book Organization
2 Autonomous System Connectivity
2.​1 Interconnected Cars
2.​2 Vehicular Network and Communication
2.​3 Vehicle Tracking
2.​4 Cloud Processing
2.​5 Vehicle Safety
2.​6 Vehicle Security
References
3 Embedded System Development
3.​1 Virtual Machine
3.​2 Embedded SoC
3.​3 Embedded Safety Processor
3.​4 SoC Functional Safety
References
4 Autonomous Vehicle Data Processing
4.​1 Vehicle OS Structure
4.​2 Processors
4.​3 Ethernet
4.​4 Vehicle Databus
4.​5 Remote Processing
4.​5.​1 Internet of Things
 References
5 Vehicle Components
5.​1 Brakes and Steering
5.​2 Electric Power Steering
5.​2.​1 Cyberspace Security
5.​3 Vehicle Suspension System
5.​3.​1 Regenerative Braking
5.​4 Electronic Control Units
Reference
6 Vehicle Navigation Computing
6.​1 Wireless MCU
6.​2 Mapping
6.​3 Cloud Computing
6.​4 Edge Computing
6.​5 Car Navigation
7 Vehicle Test Drive and Simulation
7.​1 Vehicle Components Testing
7.​2 Vehicle Simulation and Testing
7.​2.​1 Automated Driving Attestments
Reference
8 Advanced Chip Driven Electronics
8.​1 Automotive Electronics
8.​2 Memory Safety
8.​3 Embedded Chip Security
8.​4 Embedded Computing Board
9 Sensors and Vision System Fusions
 9.​1 Vision Hardware
9.​2 Image Processing
9.​3 Vision Chip
9.​4 Embedded Vision
9.​5 Sensors Fusion
Reference
10 V2V and V2X Communications
10.​1 Driving Vehicle Connectivity
10.​2 Vehicular IoT
10.​3 5G
10.​4 Internet of Vehicles
10.​5 Interconnected Vehicles
References
11 Deep Learning and Neural Network Algorithms
11.​1 Artificial Intelligence
11.​2 Neural Network
11.​3 Deep Learning
11.​4 Neural Network Accelerator
Reference
12 ADAS in Autonomous Driving
12.​1 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems
12.​2 Imaging Radar
12.​3 LiDAR
12.​4 Software Component
12.​5 Hardware Component
References
13 Electric Vehicle
13.​1 HEV/​EV
13.​2 Powertrain and Engines Management
13.​3 Battery, Converter and Inverter
13.​4 Transmission and Fuel Injection Module
13.​5 Braking System
13.​6 Vehicle Charging System
References
14 Vehicular Advancements
14.​1 Vehicular Compliances and Expectations
14.​2 Traffic Management
14.​3 Emission Reduction
14.​4 Future of Driverless Car
Reference
15 Electric Mantis Robot
15.​1 The Electric Mantis Robot
15.​2 The 3 Degrees of Freedom Mechanism
15.​3 Robot Calibration
15.​4 Mantis Robot Walking Methodology
15.​5 Programming Methodology
15.​6 Autonomous Mantis Robot
Reference
16 Rotorcrafts Control Theory
16.​1 State-Space Equation Formulation
16.​2 Controllability and Observability
16.​3 Robust Linear Quadratic Regulator
 Reference
17 Aerial Copters
17.​1 Aerodynamics
17.​2 Derbe Quadcopter
17.​3 Quadcopter
17.​4 Hexacopter
17.​5 Tri-coaxial Copter
References
18 Air Autonomous System
18.​1 Micro Air Technology
18.​2 VTOL Air Taxis
18.​3 Unmanned Air System
18.​4 Go-Green Air Mobility
References
Index
List of Figures
Fig.​2.​1 Car features and developments (Courtesy of www.​intelligent-
aerospace.​com)

Fig.​2.​2 Automotive HDBaseT (Courtesy of Valens)

Fig.​2.​3 Vehicle tracker (Credit ANTZER TECH)

Fig.​2.​4 Automotive performance (Courtesy of Heavy Reading)

Fig.​2.​5 Hypervisors and gateways (Courtesy of Blackberry QNX)

Fig.​2.​6 Potential car (Credit LDRA Ltd)

Fig.​2.​7 BlackBerry’s seven pillar (Courtesy of Blackberry QNX)

Fig.​2.​8 Rear ECU (Courtesy of OpenSynergy)

Fig.​2.​9 Vehicle fleet (Courtesy of DARPA)

Fig.​3.​1 Graphical virtualization workload (Courtesy of Intel)

Fig.​3.​2 System on chip (Courtesy of Imagination Technologies)

Fig.​3.​3 NVIDIA Xavier (Credit Nvidia)

Fig.​3.​4 Embedded technology (Credit TI)

Fig.​3.​5 Automotive arm processor

Fig.​4.​1 Data centricity (Credit RTI)

Fig.​4.​2 AGL virtualization architecture (Credit Linux Foundation)

Fig.​4.​3 Automotive architecture

Fig.​4.​4 Vehicle generic architecture

Fig.​4.​5 Electric car POF optical connectivity (Credit KDPOF)

Fig.​4.​6 Control and infotainment software (Courtesy of Wittenstein)

Fig.​4.​7 Autonomous system data (Credit RTI)

Fig.​4.​8 Data bus architecture (Credit RTI)

Fig.​4.​9 Centralized processing module (Credit Xilinx)

Fig.​4.​10 Data bus flow (Credit RTI)

Fig.​5.​1 Electric power steering (Courtesy of Continental)

Fig.​5.​2 GNSS receiver

Fig.​5.​3 Inclined spring force vector (Credit Ford)

Fig.​5.​4 Vehicle suspension system (Credit Designboom)

Fig.​5.​5 EV regenerative suspension system (Credit www.​caradvice.​com.​

au)

Fig.​6.​1 Wireless data processing infrastructure

Fig.​6.​2 Renesas’ 28 nm automotive flash MCU

Fig. 6.3 Edge computing platform. Credit Kontron

Fig.​6.​4 Car bus system

Fig.​7.​1 Electric Motor management (Courtesy of NI)

Fig.​7.​2 FPGA power electronics models (Credit NI)

Fig.​7.​3 NI hardware testing platform (Credit NI)

Fig.​7.​4 ANSYS simulation construction (Courtesy of ANSYS)

Fig.​7.​5 Virtual simulation architecture

Fig.​7.​6 Virtual vehicle models

Fig.​8.​1 IGBT module (Credit Infineon Technologies)

Fig.​8.​2 Automotive ARC processor application (Credit Synopsys)

Fig.​8.​3 Automotive ICs (Credit Infineon Technologies)

Fig.​8.​4 Automotive embedded security (Credit Infineon Technologies)

Fig.​8.​5 AI computing board

Fig.​9.​1 Automobile vision system (Credit Bosch)

Fig.​9.​2 Automobile ambient sensing (Courtesy of Maximintegrated)

Fig.​9.​3 Self-driving vehicle safety sensor suite (Credit Uber)

Fig.​9.​4 IEEE-SA P2020—automotive image quality standard (Courtesy
of Algolux)

Fig. 9.5 Vision chips (a, b)

Fig.​9.​6 Smart sensor (Courtesy of Octavo Systems)

Fig.​9.​7 Embedded vision processing architecture (Credit Synopsys)

Fig.​9.​8 Embedded vision applications (Courtesy of Avnet)

Fig.​9.​9 Perception and planning

Fig.​10.​1 Vehicle connectivity (Courtesy of UCLA)

Fig.​10.​2 V2V engineering (Courtesy of GM)

Fig. 10.3 Vehicle synchronization (a, b) (Courtesy of Rohde & Schwarz)

Fig.​11.​1 Neural network vehicle control system (Courtesy of ANSYS)

Fig. 11.2 Deep neural network latency (a, b) (Credit Xilinx)

Fig.​11.​3 Dynamic function exchange (Credit Xilinx)

Fig.​11.​4 PowerVR 2NX NNA (Credit Imagination Technologies)

Fig.​11.​5 NN accelerator in SoC (Credit Imagination Technologies)

Fig.​11.​6 Activation functions (Credit SAS)

Fig.​12.​1 ADAS control features (Courtesy of Renesas)

Fig.​12.​2 Radar CMOS sensor (Credit TI)

Fig.​12.​3 AWR1642 device (Credit TI)

Fig.​12.​4 LiDAR System

Fig.​13.​1 Electric vehicle charging system (Courtesy of Cypress

Semiconductor)

Fig.​13.​2 Battery system (Credit KIT IPE)

Fig.​13.​3 On-Board AC-DC converters (Credit Texas Instruments)

Fig.​13.​4 Off-Board charger (Credit Texas Instruments)

Fig.​13.​5 Vehicle electrification

Fig.​13.​6 48 V power supply for automated driving (Credit Ford)

Fig.​13.​7 Fuel injection chipset (Credit STMicroelectroni​cs)

Fig.​13.​8 Vehicle charging station (Courtesy of www.​iot-now.​com)

Fig.​15.​1 Mantis robot

Fig.​15.​2 Electric mantis circuit layout

Fig.​15.​3 Sections of a robotic leg

Fig.​15.​4 Stretched legs

Fig.​15.​5 Legs at two different heights

Fig. 15.6 Calibration of supporting legs, a calibration, b re-calibrated

Fig.​15.​7 Left legs motion methodolgy

Fig.​15.​8 Right legs motion methodology

Fig.​15.​9 Robot retrack paths

Fig.​15.​10 Symmetrical calibration

Fig.​16.​1 Rotorcraft control block diagram

Fig.​17.​1 Derbe quadrotor diagram

Fig.​17.​2 Shrediquette derbe (Source SHREDIQUETTE)

Fig. 17.3 Derbe quadrotor control (a, b)

Fig.​17.​4 Quadrotor

Fig. 17.5 Quadrotor control (a, b)

Fig.​17.​6 Hexacopter

Fig. 17.7 Hexacopter simulation (a, b)

Fig.​17.​8 Tri-coaxial copter

Fig.​17.​9 Tri-coaxial copter configuration

Fig. 17.10 Tri-coaxial copter simulation (a, b)

Fig. 17.11 Tri-coaxial copter attitude and position (a, b)

Fig.​17.​12 Effect of tuning the integral gain

Fig.​18.​1 The hummingbird (Credit Purdue University)

Fig.​18.​2 The mosquito (Credit Harvard University)

Fig.​18.​3 The black hornet (Credit FLIR)

Fig. 18.4 Hybrid VTOL air taxis (a, b, c)

Fig.​18.​5 VTOL air taxi (Credit Volocopter)

Fig. 18.6 E-VTOL air taxis (a, b, c)

Fig.​18.​7 Flying car (Credit SkyDrive)

Fig.​18.​8 Ducted fan UAV

Fig.​18.​9 Next generation UAS (Credit FlightWave)

Fig.​18.​10 E-VTOL air Vehicle (Credit Uber Technologies)

Fig.​18.​11 Arsenal Airplane

Fig.​18.​12 Hydrogen-Fueled Airplane (a, b)

Fig.​18.​13 Autonomous Electric Air Car (Credit EmbraerX)

List of Tables
Table 1.​1 Five levels of vehicle autonomy

Table 4.​1 Automotive Ethernet

Table 5.​1 Various cortex processors [1]

Table 12.​1 Sensor application

Table 13.​1 Light electric vehicle

Table 13.​2 Automobile Electrical Architecture

Table 15.​1 Timing units for different performances

Table 15.​2 Program parameters for different performances

Table 15.​3 Robot legs’ variables

Table 16.​1 Model parameters’ specifications

Table 17.​1 Rotor copter aerodynamic constants

Table 17.​2 Derbe matrix gains

Table 17.​3 Quadrotor matrix gains

Table 17.​4 Hexacopter PID controller matrix

Table 17.​5 Quadcopter K-gain after pole placements

Table 17.​6 Tri-coaxial copter PD controller

Table 17.​7 Similar PD controller

Table 17.​8 Integral gains

Table 17.​9 Robust PD control matrix

Table 17.​10 Robust PD control matrix after fine tuning

Table 18.​1 Design assurance level

List of Flow Charts
Flow Chart 15.1 Mantis forward strokes

Flow Chart 15.2 Electric mantis feeler

Flow Chart 15.3 Timing flowchart

Flow Chart 15.4 Electric mantis main flowchart

Flow Chart 15.5 Motion settings for alternate legs (Connector B)

Flow Chart 15.6 Cycling motion flowchart

List of Programs
P15.1 Mantis Feeler Program

P15.2 Mantis Timing Program

P15.3 Left Center Leg

P16.1 LQR with Pole Placement

P17.1 Aerodynamics Coefficients Computation Program

P17.2 Derbe—Robust PD Control Matrix Computation

P17.3 Quadrotor—Robust PD Control Matrix Computation

P17.4 Tri-Coaxial Copter—Robust PD Control Matrix Computation

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 Fig. 30.—Didymium difforme. A, two sporangia (spg 1 and 2) on a fragment of
leaf (l); B, section of sporangium, with ruptured outer layer (a), and threads
of capillitium (cp); C, a flagellula with contractile vacuole (c.vac) and
nucleus (nu); D, the same after loss of flagellum; b, an ingested bacillus; E,
an amoebula; F, conjugation of amoebulae to form a small plasmodium; G,
a larger plasmodium accompanied by numerous amoebulae; sp, ingested
spores. (After Lister.)

Again, in some cases the plasmodia themselves aggregate in the

same way as the amoeboids do in the Acrasieae, and combine to
form a compound fruit termed an "aethalium,"[98] with the regions of
the separate plasmodia more or less clearly marked off. The species
formerly termed Aethalium septicum is now known as Fuligo varians.
It is a large and conspicuous species, common on tan, and is a pest
in the tanpits. Its aethalia may reach a diameter of a foot and more,
and a thickness of two inches. Chondrioderma diffusum, often
utilised as a convenient "laboratory type," is common on the
decaying haulms of beans in the late autumn. The interest of this
group is entirely biological, save for the "flowers of tan."[99]

CHAPTER IV
 PROTOZOA (CONTINUED): SPOROZOA[100]

II. Sporozoa.
Protozoa parasitic in Metazoa, usually intracellular for at least part of their
cycle, rarely possessing pseudopodia, or flagella (save in the sperms), never
cilia; reproduction by brood-formation, often of alternating types; syngamy
leading up to resting spores in which minute sickle-germs are formed, or
unknown (Myxosporidiaceae).

This group, of which seven years ago no single species was known
in its complete cycle, has recently become the subject of
concentrated and successful study, owing to the fact that it has been
recognised to contain the organisms which induce such scourges to
animals as malarial fevers, and various destructive murrains. Our
earliest accurate, if partial knowledge, was due to von Siebold,
Kölliker, and van Beneden. Thirty years ago Ray Lankester in
England commenced the study of species that dwell in the blood,
destined to be of such moment for the well-being of man and the
animals in his service; and since then our knowledge has increased
by the labours of Manson, Ross and Minchin at home, Laveran,
Blanchard, Thélohan, Léger, Cuénot, Mesnil, Aimé Schneider in
France, Grassi in Italy, Schaudinn, Siedlecki, L. and R. Pfeiffer,
Doflein in Central Europe, and many others.
 Fig. 31.—Lankesteria ascidiae, showing life-cycle. a, b, c, Sporozoites in
digestive epithelium cells of host; d, e, growth stages; f, free gregarine; g,
association; h, encystment; i, j, brood-divisions in associated mates; k,
pairing-cells; l, syngamy; m, zygote; n, o, p, nuclear divisions in spores; q,
cyst with adult spores, each containing 8 sickle-germs. (After Luhe,
modified from Siedlecki.)

As a type we will take a simple form of the highest group, the

Gregarinidaceae, Monocystis, which inhabits the seminal vesicles of
the earthworm. In its youngest state, the "sporozoite," it is a naked,
sickle-shaped cell, which probably makes its way from the gut into
one of the large radial cells of the seminal funnel, where it attains its
full size, and then passes out into the vesicles or reservoirs of the
semen, to lie among the sperm morulae and young spermatozoa.
The whole interior is formed of the opaque endosarc, which contains
a large central nucleus, and is full of refractive granules of
paramylum or paraglycogen,[101] a carbohydrate allied to glycogen
or animal starch, so common in the liver and muscles of Metazoa;
besides these it contains proteid granules which stain with carmine,
and oil-drops. The ectosarc is formed of three layers: (1) the outer
layer or "cuticle"[102] is, in many cases if not here, ribbed, with
minute pores in the furrows, and is always porous enough to allow
the diffusion of dissolved nutriment; (2) a clear plasmatic layer, the
"sarcocyte"; (3) the "myocyte," formed of "myonemes," muscular
fibrils disposed in a network with transverse meshes, which effect
the wriggling movements of the cell. The endosarc contains the
granules and the large central nucleus. The adult becomes free in
the seminal vesicles; here two approximate, and surround
themselves with a common cyst: a process which has received the
name of "association" (Fig. 31, g-i). Within this, however, the
protoplasms remain absolutely distinct. The nucleus undergoes
peculiar changes by which its volume is considerably reduced. When
this process of "nuclear reduction" is completed, each of the mates
undergoes brood-divisions (j), so as to give rise to a large number of
rounded naked 1-nucleate cells—the true pairing-cells. These unite
two and two, and so form the 1-nucleate spores (k-m), which
become oat-shaped, form a dense cyst-wall, and have been termed
"pseudonavicellae" from their likeness to the Diatomaceous genus
Navicella. Some of the cytoplasm of the original cells remains over
unused, as "epiplasm," and ultimately degenerates, as do a certain
number of the brood-cells which presumably have failed to pair. It is
believed that the brood-cells from the same parent will not unite
together. The contents of each spore have again undergone brood-
division to form eight sickle-shaped zoospores, or "sporozoites" (n-
q), and thus the developmental cycle is completed. Probably the
spores, swallowed by birds, pass out in their excrement, and when
eaten by an earthworm open in its gut; the freed sickle-germs can
now migrate through the tissues to the seminal funnels, in the cells
of which they grow, ultimately becoming free in the seminal vesicles.
[103]

We may now pass to the classification of the group.

A. Telosporidia.—Cells 1-nucleate until the onset of brood-

formation, which is simultaneous.
1. Gregarinidaceae.—Cells early provided with a firm
pellicle and possessing a complex ectosarc; at first
intracellular, soon becoming free in the gut or coelom of
Invertebrates. Pairing between adults, which
simultaneously produce each its brood of gametes,
isogamous or bisexual, which pair within the common
cyst; zygotospores surrounded by a firm cyst, and
producing within a brood of sickle-shaped zoospores.
(i.) Schizogregarinidae.—Multiplying by simple
fission in the free state as well as by brood-
formation; the brood-cells conjugating in a common
cyst, but producing only one pairing nucleus in
each mate (the rest aborting), and consequently
only one spore.
Ophryocystis A. Schn.
(ii.) Acephalinidae.—Cell one-chambered, usually
 without an epimerite for attachment.
Monocystis F. Stein; Lankesteria Mingazzini.
(iii.) Dicystidae.—Cell divided by a plasmic partition;
epimerite usually present.
Gregarina Dufour; Stylorhynchus A. Schn.;
Pterocephalus A. Schn.
2. Coccidiaceae.—Cells of simple structure, intracellular in
Metazoa. Pairing between isolated cells usually
sexually differentiated as oosphere and sperm, the
latter often flagellate. Brood-formation of the adult cell
giving rise to sickle-shaped zoospores (merozoites), or
progamic and producing the gametes. Oosperm motile
or motionless, finally producing a brood of spores,
which again give rise to a brood of sickle-spores.
(i.) Coccidiidae.—Cell permanently intracellular, or
very rarely coelomic, encysting or not before
division; zoospores always sickle-shaped; oosperm
encysting at once, producing spores with a dense
cell-wall producing sickle-germs.
(ii.) Haemosporidae.—Cells parasitic in the blood
corpuscles or free in the blood of cold-blooded
animals, encysting before brood-formation;
zoospores sickle-shaped; oosperm at first motile.
Lankesterella Labbé; (Drepanidium Lank.;)
Karyolysus Labbé; Haemogregarina Danilewski.
(iii.) Acystosporidae.—Cells parasitic in the blood and
haematocytes of warm-blooded Vertebrates; never
forming a cyst-wall before dividing; zoospores
formed in the corpuscles, amoeboid. Gametocytes
only forming gametes when taken into the stomach
of insects. Oosperm at first active, passing into the
coelom, producing naked spores which again
produce a large brood of sickle zoospores, which
 migrate to the salivary gland, and are injected with
the saliva into the warm-blooded host.
Haemamoeba Grassi and Feletti; Laverania Grassi
and Feletti; Haemoproteus Kruse; Halteridium Labbé.
[104]

B. Neosporidia.—Cells becoming multinucleate apocytes

before any brood-formation occurs. Brood-formation
progressive through the apocyte, not simultaneous.
1. Myxosporidiaceae.—Naked parasites in cold-blooded
animals. Spore-formation due to an aggregation of
cytoplasm around a single nucleus to form an
archespore, which then produces a complex of cells
within which two daughter-cells form the spores and
accessory nematocysts.
Myxidium Bütsch.; Myxobolus Bütsch.; Henneguya
Thélohan; Nosema Nageli (= Glugea Th.).
2. Actinomyxidiaceae.[105]—Apocyte resolved into a
sporange, containing eight secondary sporanges (so-
called spores), of ternary symmetry and provided with
three polar nematocysts.
3. Sarcosporidiaceae.—Encysted parasites in the
muscles of Vertebrates, with a double membrane;
spores simple.
Sarcocystis Lankester.

Fig. 32.—Gregarina blattarum Sieb. A, two cephalonts, embedded by their

epimerite (ep), in cells of the gut-epithelium; deu, deutomerite; nu, nucleus;
 pr, protomerite; B1, B2, two free specimens of an allied genus; the epimerite
is falling off in B2, which is on its way to become a sporont; C, cyst (cy) of A,
with sporoducts (spd) discharging the spores (sp), surrounded by an
external gelatinous investment (g). (From Parker and Haswell.)

Monocystis offers us the simplest type of Gregarinidaceae. In most

Gregarines (Figs. 31, 32) the sporozoite enters the epithelium-cell of
the gut of an Arthropod, Worm or Mollusc, and as it enlarges
protrudes the greater part of its bulk into the lumen, and may
become free therein, or pass into the coelom. The attached part is
often enlarged into a sort of grapple armed with spines, the
"epimerite"; this contains only sarcocyte, the other layers being
absent. The freely projecting body is usually divided by an ingrowth
of the myocyte into a front segment ("protomerite"), and a rear one
("deutomerite"), with the nucleus usually in the latter. In this state the
cell is termed a "cephalont." Conjugation is frequent, but apparently
is not always connected with syngamy or spore-formation;
sometimes from two to five may be aggregated into a chain or
"syzygy." The number of cases in which a syngamic process
between two cells has been observed is constantly being increased.
In Stylorhynchus (Fig. 33) the conjugation at first resembles that of
Monocystis, but the actual pairing-cells are bisexually differentiated
into sperms in the one parent, and oospheres in the other; it is
remarkable that here the pear-shaped sperms are apparently larger
than the oospheres. In Pterocephalus the chief difference is that the
sperms are minute.[106] In all cases of spore-formation the epimerite
is lost and the septum disappears; in this state the cell is termed a
sporont. Sometimes the epiplasm of the sporont forms tubes
("sporoducts"), which project through the cyst-wall and give exit to
the spores, as in Gregarina (Fig. 32, C), a parasite in the beetle
Blaps.

Gregarines infest most groups of Invertebrates except Sponges and

perhaps Coelenterates, the only exception cited being that of
Epizoanthus glacialis, a Zoantharian (p. 406). They appear to be
relatively harmless and are not known to induce epidemics.
The Coccidiaceae never attain so high a degree of cellular
differentiation as the Gregarines, which may be due to their habitat;
for in the growing state they are intracellular parasites. Their life-
history shows a double cycle, which has been most thoroughly
worked out in Coccidiidae by Schaudinn and Siedlecki in parasites
of our common Centipedes. We take that of Coccidium schubergi (in
Lithobius forficatus[107]), beginning with the sporozoite, which is
liberated from the spores taken in with the food, in the gut of the
Centipede. This active sickle-shaped cell (Fig. 34, l) enters an
epithelial cell of the mid-gut, and grows therein till it attains its full
size (a), when it is termed a "schizont"; for it segments (Gk. σχίζω, "I
split") superficially into a large number of sickle-shaped zoospores,
the "merozoites" (c), resembling the sporozoites. The segmentation
is superficial, so that there may remain a large mass of residual
epiplasm. The merozoites are set free by the destruction of the
epithelium-cell in which they were formed, and which becomes
disorganised, like the residual epiplasm. Each merozoite may repeat
the behaviour of the sporozoite, so that the disease spreads freely,
and becomes acute after several reinfections. After a time the adult
parasites, instead of becoming schizonts and simply forming
merozoites by division, differentiate into cells that undergo a binary
sexual differentiation. Some cells, the "oocytes" (d, e), escape into
the gut, and the nucleus undergoes changes by which some of its
substance (or an abortive daughter-nucleus) is expelled to the
exterior (f), such a cell is now an "oogamete" or oosphere. Others,
again, are spermatogones (h): each when full grown on escaping
into the gut commences a division (i, j), like that of the schizonts. The
products of this division or segment-cells are the flagellate sperms
(s): they are more numerous and more minute than the merozoites
produced by the schizonts, and are attracted to the oosphere by
chemiotaxy (p. 23), and one enters it and fuses with it (g). The
oosperm, zygote or fertilised egg, thus formed invests itself with a
dense cyst-wall, as a "oospore" (k), its contents form one or more (2,
4, 8, etc.) spores; and each spore forms again one, two, or four
sickle-shaped zoospores ("sporozoites"), destined to be liberated for
a fresh cycle of parasitic life when the spores are swallowed by
another host.
 Fig. 33.—Bisexual pairing of Stylorhynchus. a, Spermatozoon; b-e, fusion of
cytoplasm of spermatozoon and oosphere; f, g, fusion of nuclei; h-j,
development of wall to zygote; k, l, formation of four sporoblasts; l, side
view of spore; m, mature sporozoites in spore. (After Léger.)

Fig. 34.—Life-history of Coccidium schubergi. a, Penetration of epithelium-cell of

host by sporozoite; b-d, stages of multiple cell-formation in naked state
(schizogony); e, f, formation of oogamete; g, conjugation; h-j, formation of
sperms (s); k, development of zygote (fertilised ovum) to form four spores; l,
formation of two zoospores (or sickle germs) in each spore. (From Calkins's
Protozoa, after Schaudinn.)

In some cases the oogametes are at first oblong, like ordinary

merozoites, and round off in the gut. The microgametocyte, or
spermatogone, has the same character, but is smaller; it applies
itself like a cap to one pole of the oogamete, which has rounded off;
it then divides into four sperms, whose cytoplasm is not sharply
separated; one of these then separates from the common mass,
enters the oogamete, and so conjugation is effected, with an
oosperm as its result. This latter mode of conjugation is that of
Adelea ovata and Coccidium lacazei: the former is probably the
more primitive and the commoner. The sperms of Coccidiidae, when
free, usually possess two long flagella, either both anterior, or a very
long one in front and a short one behind, both turned backwards.

The genus Coccidium affects many animals, and one species in

particular, C. cuniculi Rivolta, attacks the liver of young rabbits,[108]
giving rise to the disease "coccidiosis." Coccidium may also produce
a sort of dysentery in cattle on the Alpine pastures of Switzerland;
and cases of human coccidiosis are by no means unknown.
Coccidium-like bodies have been demonstrated in the human
disease, "molluscum contagiosum," and the "oriental sore" of Asia;
similar bodies have also been recorded in smallpox and vaccinia,
malignant tumours and even syphilis, but their nature is not certainly
known; some of these are now referred to Flagellata (see p. 121).

Closely allied to the Coccidiidae are the Haemosporidae, dwellers

in the blood of various cold-blooded Vertebrates,[109] and entering
the corpuscles as sporozoites or merozoites to attain the full size,
when they divide by schizogony; they are freed like those of the next
family by the breaking up of the corpuscle. The merozoites were
described by Gaule (1879) as "vermicles" ("Würmchen"), and
regarded by him as peculiar segregation-products of the blood;
though Lankester had described the same species in the Frog's
blood as early as 1871, with a full recognition of its true character.
His name, Drepanidium, has had to give way, having been
appropriated to another animal, and has been aptly replaced by that
of Lankesterella. The sexual process of Karyolysus has been found
to take place in a Tick, that of Haemogregarina in a Leech, thus
presenting a close analogy to the next group, which only differs in its
less definite form in the active state, and in the lack of a cell-wall
during brood-formation.
Laveran was the first to describe a member of the Acystosporidae,
in 1880, as an organism always to be found in the blood of patients
suffering from malarial fever; this received the rather inappropriate
name of Plasmodium, which, by a pedantic adherence to the laws of
priority, has been used by systematists as a generic name. Golgi
demonstrated the coincidence of the stages of the intermittent fever
with those of the life-cycle of the parasite in the patient, the
maturation of the schizont and liberation of the sporozoites
coinciding with the fits of fever. Manson, who had already shown that
the Nematodes of the blood that give rise to Filarial haematuria (see
Vol. II. p. 149) have an alternating life in the gnats or mosquitos of
the common genus Culex,[110] in 1896 suggested to Ronald Ross
that the same might apply to this parasite, and thus inspired a most
successful work. The hypothesis had old prejudices in its favour, for
in many parts there was a current belief that sleeping under
mosquito-netting at least helped other precautions against malaria.
Ross found early in his investigations that Culex was a good host for
the allied genus Haemoproteus or Proteosoma, parasitic in birds, but
could neither inoculate man with fever nor be inoculated from man.
He found, however, that the malaria germs from man underwent
further changes in the stomach of a "dappled-wing mosquito," that is,
as we have since learned, a member of the genus Anopheles.
Thenceforward the study advanced rapidly, and a number of
inquirers, including Grassi, Koch, MacCallum (who discovered the
true method of sexual union in Halteridium[111]), and Ross himself,
completed his discovery by supplying a complete picture of the life-
cycles of the malaria-germs. Unfortunately, there has been a most
unhappy rivalry as to the priority of the share in each fragment of the
discovery, whose history is summarised by Nuttall, we believe, with
perfect fairness.[112]

The merozoite is always amoeboid, and in this state enters the blood
corpuscle; herein it attains its full size, as a schizont, becoming filled
with granules of "melanin" or black pigment, probably a
decomposition product of the red colouring matter (haemoglobin).
 Fig. 35.—Life-history of Malarial Parasites. A-G, Amoebula of quartan parasite to
sporulation; H, its gametocyte; I-M, amoebula of tertian parasite to
sporulation; N, its gametocyte; O, T, "crescents" or gametocytes of
Laverania; P-S, sperm-formation; U-W, maturation of oosphere; X,
fertilisation; Y, zygote. a, Zygote enlarging in gut of Mosquito; b-e, passing
into the coelom; f, the contents segmented into naked spores; g, the spores
forming sickle-germs or sporozoites; h, sporozoites passing into the salivary
glands. (From Calkins's Protozoa, after Ross and Fielding Ould.)

The nucleus of the schizont now divides repeatedly, and then the
schizont segments into a flat brood of germs (merozoites), relatively
few in the parasite of quartan fever (Haemamoeba malariae, Fig. 35,
E-G), many in that of tertian (H. vivax, Fig. 35, M). These brood-cells
escape and behave for the most part as before. But after the disease
has persisted for some time we find that in the genus Haemamoeba,
which induces the common malarial fevers of temperate regions,
certain of the full-grown germs, instead of behaving as schizonts,
pass, as it were, to rest as round cells; while in the allied genus
Laverania, (Haemomenas, Ross) these resting-cells are crescentic,
with blunt horns, and are usually termed half-moons (Fig. 35, O, T),
characteristic of the bilious or pernicious remittent fevers of the
tropics and of the warmer temperate regions in summer. These
round or crescent-shaped cells are the gametocytes, which only
develop further in the drawn blood, whether under the microscope,
protected against evaporation, or in the stomach of the Anopheles:
the crescents become round, and then they, like the already round
ones of Haemamoeba, differentiate in exactly the same way as the
corresponding cells of Coccidium schubergi. The female cell only
exhibits certain changes in its nucleus to convert it into an oosphere:
the male emits a small number of sperms, long flagellum-like bodies,
each with a nucleus; and these, by their wriggling, detach
themselves from the central core, no longer nucleated. The male
gametogonium with its protruded sperms was termed the "Polymitus
form," and was by some regarded as a degeneration-form, until
MacCallum discovered that a "flagellum" regularly undergoes sexual
fusion with an oosphere in Halteridium, as has since been found in
the other genera. The oosperm (Y) so formed is at first motile
("ookinete"), as it is in Haemosporidae, and passes into the
epithelium of the stomach of the gnat and then through the wall,
acquiring a cyst-wall and finally projecting into the coelom (a-e).
Here it segments into a number of spheres ("zygotomeres" of Ross)
corresponding to the Coccidian spores, but which never acquire a
proper wall (f). These by segmentation produce at their surface an
immense quantity of elongated sporozoites (the "zygotoblasts" or
"blasts" of Ross, Fig. 35, g), these are ultimately freed by the
disappearance of the cyst-wall of the oosperm, pass through the
coelom into the salivary gland (h), and are discharged with its
secretion into the wound that the gnat inflicts in biting. In the blood
the blasts follow the ordinary development of merozoites in the blood
corpuscle, and the patient shows the corresponding signs of fever.
This has been completely proved by rearing the insect from the egg,
feeding it on the blood of a patient in whose blood there were
ascertained to be the germs of a definite species of Haemamoeba,
sending it to England, where it was made to bite Dr. Manson's son,
who had never had fever and whose blood on repeated examination
had proved free from any germs. In the usual time he had a well-
defined attack of the fever corresponding to that germ, and his blood
on examination revealed the Haemamoeba of the proper type. A few
doses of quinine relieved him of the consequences of his mild
martyrdom to science. Experiments of similar character but of less
rigorous nature had been previously made in Italy with analogous
results. Again, it has been shown that by mere precautions against
the bites of Anopheles, and these only, all residents who adopted
them during the malarious season in the most unhealthy districts of
Italy escaped fever during a whole season; while those who did not
adopt the precautions were badly attacked.[113]

Anopheles flourishes in shallow puddles, or small vessels such as

tins, etc., the pools left by dried-up brooks and torrents, as well as
larger masses of stagnant water, canals, and slow-flowing streams.
Sticklebacks and minnows feed freely on the larvae and keep down
the numbers of the species; where the fish are not found, the larvae
may be destroyed by pouring paraffin oil on the surface of the water
and by drainage. A combination of protective measures in Freetown
(Sierra Leone) and other ports on the west coast of Africa, Ismailia,
and elsewhere, has met with remarkable success during the short
time for which it has been tried; and it seems not improbable, that as
the relatively benign intermittent fevers have within the last century
been banished from our own fen and marsh districts, so the Guinea
coast may within the next decade lose its sad title of "The White
Man's Grave."

So closely allied to this group in form, habit, and life-cycle are some
species of the Flagellate genus Trypanosoma, that in their less
active states they have been unhesitatingly placed here (see p. 119).
Schaudinn has seen Trypanosomic characters in the "blasts" of this
group, which apparently is the most primitive of the Sporozoa and a
direct offshoot of the Flagellates.

The Myxosporidiaceae (Fig. 36) are parasitic in various cold-

blooded animals. They are at least binucleate in the youngest free
state, and become large and multinucleate apocytes, which may bud
off outgrowths as well as reproduce by spores. The spores of the
apocyte are not produced by simultaneous breaking up, but by
successive differentiation. A single nucleus aggregates around itself
a limited portion of the cytoplasm, and this again forms a membrane,
becoming an archespore or a "pansporoblast," destined to produce
two spores; within this, nuclear division takes place so as to form
about eight nuclei, two of which are extruded as abortive, and of the
other six, three are used up in the formation of each of the two
spores. Of these three nuclei in each spore, two form nematocysts,
like those of a Coelenterate (p. 246 f.), at the expense of the
surrounding plasm; while the third nucleus divides to form the two
final nuclei of the reproductive body. The whole aggregate of the
reproductive body and the two nematocysts is enveloped in a bivalve
shell. In what we may call germination, the nematocysts eject a
thread that serves for attachment, the valves of the shell open, and
the binucleate mass crawls out and grows afresh. Nosema bombycis
Nägeli (the spore of which has a single nematocyst) is the organism
of the "Pébrine" of the silkworm, which was estimated to have
caused a total loss in France of some £40,000,000 before Pasteur
investigated the malady and prescribed the effectual cure, or rather
precaution against its spread. This consisted in crushing each
mother in water after it had laid its eggs and seeking for pébrine
germs. If the mother proved to be infected, her eggs were destroyed,
as the eggs she had laid were certain to be also tainted. Balbiani
completed the study of the organism from a morphological
standpoint. Some Myxosporidiaceae produce destructive epidemics
in fish.

Fig. 36.—A, Myxidium lieberkühnii, amoeboid phase; B, Myxobolus mülleri,

spore with discharged nematocysts (ntc); C, spores (psorosperms) of a
Myxosporidian. ntc, nematocysts. (From Parker and Haswell.)

The Dolichosporidia or Sarcosporidiaceae are, in the adult state,

elongated sacs, often found in the substance of the voluntary
muscles, and known as "Rainey's" or "Miescher's Tubes"; they are at
first uninucleate, then multinucleate, and then break up successively
into uninucleate cells, the spores, in each of which, by division, are
formed the sickle-shaped zoospores.[114]

CHAPTER V

PROTOZOA (CONTINUED): FLAGELLATA

III. Flagellata.
Protozoa moving (and feeding in holozoic forms) by long flagella:
pseudopodia when developed usually transitory: nucleus single or if multiple
not biform: reproduction occurring in the active state and usually by
longitudinal fission, sometimes alternating with brood-formation in the cyst or
more rarely in the active state: form usually definite: a firm pellicle or distinct
cell-wall often present.

The Flagellates thus defined correspond to Bütschli's group of the

Mastigophora. The lowest and simplest forms, often loosely called
"Monads," are only distinguishable from Sarcodina (especially
Proteomyxa) and Sporozoa by the above characters: their artificial
nature is obvious when we remember that many of the Sarcodina
have a flagellate stage, and that the sperms of bisexual Sporozoa
are flagellate (as are indeed those of all Metazoa except Nematodes
and most Crustacea). Even as thus limited the group is of enormous
extent, and passes into the Chytridieae and Phycomycetes
Zoosporeae on the one hand, and by its holophytic colonial
members into the Algae, on the other.[115]

Classification.
A. Fission usually longitudinal
(transverse only in a cyst), or if
multiple, radial and complete:
pellicle absent, thin, or if armour-
like, with not more than two valves.
I. Food taken in at any part of the
body by pseudopodia 1. PANTOSTOMATA
Multicilia Cienk.; Mastigamoeba F. E. Sch. (Fig. 37, 4).
II. Food taken in at a definite point
or points, or by absorption, or
nutrition holophytic.
1. No reticulate siliceous shell.
Diameter under 500 µ
(1⁄50").
* Contractile vacuole
simple (one or more).
(α) Colourless:
reserves usually
fat: holozoic,
saprophytic or
parasitic 2. Protomastigaceae
(β) Plastids yellow or
brown: reserves
fat or proteid:
nutrition variable:
body naked,
often amoeboid
in active state (C.
nudae), or with a
test, sometimes
containing
calcareous discs
("coccoliths,"
"rhabdoliths") of
peculiar form (C.
loricatae) 3. Chrysomonadaceae
Chromulina Cienk.; Chrysamoeba Klebs;
 Hydrurus Ag. Dinobryon Ehrb. (Fig. 37, 11);
Syncrypta Ehrb. (Fig. 37, 12); Zooxanthella
Brandt; Pontosphaera Lohm.;
Coccolithophora Lohm.; Rhabdosphaera
Haeck.
(γ) Green, (more
rarely yellow or
brown) or
colourless:
reserves starch:
fission
longitudinal 4. Cryptomonadaceae
Cryptomonas Ehrb. (Fig. 37, 9); Paramoeba
Greeff.
(δ) Green (rarely
colourless):
fission multiple,
radial 5. Volvocaceae
** System of contractile
vacuoles complex,
with accessory
formative vacuoles or
reservoir, or both.
(ε) Pellicle delicate or
absent:
pseudopodia
often emitted:
excretory pore
distinct from
flagellar pit:
reserves fat 6. Chloromonadaceae
Chloramoeba Lagerheim; Thaumatomastix,
Lauterborn.
(ζ) Pellicle dense, 7. Euglenaceae
 tough or hard,
often wrinkled or
striate: contractile
vacuole
discharging by
the flagellar pit.
Nutrition variable
Euglena Ehrb.; Astasia Duj. (Fig. 37, 3);
Anisonema Duj.; Eutreptia Perty (Fig. 42, p.
124); Trachelomonas Ehrb. (Fig. 37, 1);
Cryptoglena Ehrb.
2. Skeleton an open network of
hollow siliceous spicules.
Plastids yellow. Diameter
under 500 µ. 8. Silicoflagellata
Dictyocha Ehrb.
3. Diameter over 500 µ. Mouth
opening into a large
reticulate endoplasm:
flagella 1, or 2, very
unequal. 9. Cystoflagellata
Noctiluca Suriray (Fig. 48); Leptodiscus R. Hertw.
B. Fission oblique or transverse: flagella
two, dissimilar, the one coiled round
the base of the other or in a
traverse groove; pellicle often
dense, of numerous armour-like
plates 10. Dinoflagellata
Ceratium Schrank; Gymnodinium Stein; Peridinium Ehrb. (Fig.
46); Pouchetia Schütt; Pyrocystis Murray (Fig. 47); Polykrikos
Bütschli.
The Protomastigaceae and Volvocaceae are so extensive as to
require further subdivision.

Protomastigaceae
I. Oral spots 2. Flagella distant in pairs. Distomatidae
II. Oral spot 1 or 0.
A. Flagellum 1.
(a) No anterior process: often
parasitic Oikomonadidae
Oikomonas K. (Figs. 37, 2, 8); Trypanosoma Gruby
(Fig. 39, a-f); Treponema Vuill. (Fig. 39, g-i).
(b) Anterior process unilateral or
proboscidiform: cell often
thecate Bicoecidae
Bicoeca Clark; Poteriodendron St.
(c) Anterior process a funnel,
surrounding the base of the
flagellum: cells often
thecate.
(i.) Funnel free Craspedomonadidae
Codosiga Clark; Monosiga Cl.; Polyoeca Kent;
Proterospongia Kent; Salpingoeca Cl.
(ii.) Funnel not emerging
from the general
gelatinous investment Phalansteridae
B. Flagella 2, unequal or dissimilar in
function, the one sometimes
short and thick.
(a) Both flagella directed
forwards Monadidae