Pgeg 2
Pgeg 2
Pgeg 2
SECTION – A
Answer any two of the following : 18 × 2 = 36
b) How are English consonant and vowel sounds described ? Give examples of three different types each of consonant and
vowel sounds
ANS: A vowel is a sound produced with a comparatively open configuration of the vocal tract. In everyday language, a vowel
is a letter (sound) of the English alphabet that is not a consonant.A vowel is most often identified as a letter that is not a
consonant. More specifically, a vowel is a sound that when paired with a consonant makes a syllable.
A vowel is any sound that a letter makes that is not a consonant sound.
There are five English vowels:
A, E, I, O, U.
Sometimes, Y can also function as a vowel, but it is not considered a vowel in and of itself.
Examples in Words:
cat
‗a‘ is a vowel in this word
street
‗e‘ and ‗e‘ are vowels in this word
late
‗a‘ and ‗e‘ are vowels in this word
Vowels and consonants are two different sounds. A consonant is most often identified as a letter that is not a vowel. English
consonants are: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y (sometimes), Z. Consonants and vowels do not make
syllables on their own. A vowel paired with a consonant makes a syllable.
Example of consonants in words:
bin
‗b‘ and ‗n‘ are the consonants in this word
stool
‗s,‘ ‗t,‘ and ‗l‘ are the consonants in this word
chair
‗c,‘ ‗h,‘ and ‗r‘ are the consonants in this word
A syllable is a unit of sound that creates meaning in language. Vowels alone do not make syllables. Instead, they pair with
consonants to create what we know as syllables.
A vowel is a speech sound made with your mouth fairly open, the nucleus of a spoken syllable.
A consonant is a sound made with your mouth fairly closed.
When we talk, consonants break up the stream of vowels (functioning as syllable onsets and codas), so that we don‖t sound
like we‖ve just been to the dentist for four fillings and the anaesthetic hasn‖t worn off yet.Consonants require more precise
articulation than vowels, which is why children find them harder to learn, and often end up in speech therapy after having
become so cross at not being understood that they‖ve started hitting people.Only a few children with severe speech sound
difficulties (often called dyspraxia or apraxia) sometimes need therapy to help them produce vowel sounds correctly.Most
syllables contain a vowel, though vowel-like consonants can occasionally be syllables. And to complicate matters, many
English vowels are technically two or three vowels shmooshed together.
All vowel sounds are voiced, unless you‖re whispering or speaking Japanese, Quebecois, or a North American indigenous
language like Comanche or Cheyenne.
Vowels are sounds produced with the mouth fairly open, and differ by mouth shape, for example ‗ee‘ is a high front vowel
and ‗o‘ as in ‗got‘ is a low back vowel.
Some vowels, like the ‗a‘ in ‗cat‘ and the ‗i‘ in ‗big‘, are said with the mouth in the same position from start to finish
(monophthongs).
Some vowels, like the ‗ay‘ in ‗paper‘ and the ‗I‘ in ‗hi‘, move from one mouth position to another (diphthongs).
There‖s also one vowel in English, the ‗you‘ in ‗human‘, which is actually a combination of a consonant and a vowel (‗y‘ +
‗ooh‘). But knowing this doesn‖t help us spell it, there isn‖t usually any need to notice the little ‗y‘ sound, which in some
dialects is omitted (think of how the word ‗news‘ is pronounced in US English).
In the English I speak, in which the consonant ‗r‘ is only pronounced before a vowel, a few vowels like the ‗ire‘ in ‗fire‘
and the ‗our‘ in ‗sour‘ contain three mouth positions (triphthongs). When teaching spelling it‖s best to treat these as two
sounds (i’e + r, ou + r).
Smart children often notice that diphthongs are actually two sounds. This sort of excellent listening should give rise to much
rejoicing and praise, after which they can be told that spelling gets mighty confusing if we slice these sounds so finely (e.g.
the ‗ay‘ sound in paper contains two sounds, but represented by only one letter), so we usually treat diphthongs as single
sounds.
The only time I remember having to actively slice a diphthong in half for a learner was in order to explain the spellings of
the homophones ‗gaol‘ and ‗jail‘. We Aussies learn a lot about gaols in history class and from the family genealogy nut,
though we‖ve never found out why Great-great-great grandfather William Yates, a 20-year-old York chimney sweep, was
transported to Tasmania for life on a ship called the Phoenix in 1820. If your family genealogy nut is in York and
can find out, my family genealogy nut would be most appreciative.
Its only for- What is derivational affix ? Classify and describe the different types of derivational affixes.
d) Distinguish between surface structure and deep structure according to Chomsky's 1965 theory
ANS: One of the most important concepts proposed by Chomsky is the concept of surface and deep structure. The Generativist
paradigm claims that the concept of structural analysis proposed by Structuralism paradigm is too swallow, it only reaches
the level of surface structure. Surface structure can be defined as the syntactic form they take as actual sentences. In the
other words, it is forms of sentences resulted from modification/ transformation. Consider these sentences:
You close the door.
The door is closed by you.
Close the door!
The first sentence is active, second is passive, and the last is imparative. However, if you take a look those
closely, you will find that those three are very closely related, even identical. They seem to be identical, since they have the
same undelying abstract representation that is called deep structure. It is defined as an abstract level of structural
organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented. If you want to analyze the
relation of those three sentences, the first you have to know about the deep structure of them, since deep structure is the
input of transformation rules. We cannot apply transformation rules if you don‖t have deep structure. transformation rules
are sets of rules which will change or move constitiuents in the structures derive from the phrase structure rules.
The terms "surface layer" and "deep layer" refer to different levels that information goes through in the
language production system. For example, imagine that you see a dog chasing a mailman. When you encode this information,
you create a representation that includes three pieces of information: a dog, a mailman, and the action chasing. This
information exists in the mind of the speaker as a "deep" structure. If you want to express this information linguistically,
you can, for example, produce a sentence like "The dog is chasing the mailman." This is the "surface" layer: it consists of
the words and sounds produced by a speaker (or writer) and perceived by a listener (or reader). You can also produce a
sentence like "The mailman is being chased by a dog" to describe the same event -- here, the order in which you mention
the two characters (the "surface" layer) is different from the first sentence, but both sentences are derived from the same
"deep" representation. Linguists propose that you can perform movement operations to transform the information encoded
in the "deep" layer into the "surface" layer, and refer to these movement operations as linguistic rules. Linguistic rules are
part of the grammar of a language and must be learned by speakers in order to produce grammatically correct sentences.
Noam Chomsky‟s ‗underlying‘ structures represent a two level deep-structure and surface-structure, but his grammar
complexity is more. According to his two-level structures, its model has several, the bottom of which is ‗initial element‘
ambiguously and followed by the ‗base component‘, which is consisted of two kinds rewriting rules: ‗phrase structure
rules,‘ which are often to all languages, and ‗lexical rules,‘ which also derive from universal categories.
Specifically, that means that the phrase structure rules generate the deep structure of a sentence, which contains
all the syntactic and semantic information determining its meaning. Finally, transformational rules modify the deep
structure, resulting in the surface structures, which explain that all the sentences in a given language causing movement
embedded in his theory which stated as the above on which is from the base to the deep structure via phrase structure
rules and is from the deep structure to the surface via transformational rules. By the way, as Chomsky mentioned in his
essay in 1965, the phrase structure rules portray the internalized an unconscious workings of the human mind with the deep
structure determining meaning underlying sentences and sound to the surface structure.
However, the assumption of Chomsky‟ ‗underlying‘ structures raised enormous philosophic objects. Because they didn‟t
find his evidence all that convincing; and because Chomsky‟s ‗empirical‘ evidence of language structure about how humans
apply language in a social situation is not based upon living language, but on sentences found in an ideal state which means
that linguistic theory is concerned with an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who
knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions a memory limitations,
distractions, shifts of attention and interest ,and errors’. Reading between the lines, loaded with suppositions, which have
shown doubt about during the past two decades, one of which is Michel Foucault, that there are two distinctions which refer
to philosophical differences regarding assumptions about ‗human nature‘ involved and a generation gap regarding how the
‗creative speaking subject‘ is perceived. Edwin Gentzler said that Chomsky has only idealized the speaking subject and was
awarded it with particular abilities concerning its creative ability to use language. But Chomsky didn‟t intervere, through
process of idealization, certain usages involving ‗correct‘ formulations, which is very crucial to Foucault‟s understanding of
the speaking subject and its underlying ‗nature‘.
Despite of this, After Babel issued by George Steiner (1975) implicated that it was important to deal
extensively with Chomsky‟s theory and its relevance to understanding translation because of Chomsky‟s humanistic and on
account of his deep-structure vs. surface-structure model. Therefore, Eugene Nida and Wolfram Wilss claimed unwillingly
that one is just based upon a model similar to Chomsky‟s deep-structure vs. surface-structure, has perhaps simplified
Chomsky‟s work and misappropriated it for his purposes and the other, the leading German translation scientist, has
probably unwillingly adopted more from Chomsky that he is willing to admit, but all of them are absolutely applied a
Chomskian model for their theories.
Turning back to the depth of Chomsky‟s deep-structure, which intends the ‗depth‘ of the formal properties, and
whether the base structure and phrase structure are common property, which sounds formal universal common to all
THEORY AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE STUDIES. Chomsky added that particular deep-structure of a sentence in any given
language doesn‟t go much deeper than these formal properties and which are not specific to any particular language
(Chomsky, 1965). And further, the deep-structure, by Chomsky, isn‟t universal, so the form of a particular language doesn‟t
indispensably equal the form of another. Because the existence of deep-seated formal universals’ implies that all languages
are cut to the same pattern, but doesn‟t imply that there is any point by point correspondence between particular
languages. It does not, for example, imply that there must be some reasonable procedure for translating between languages.
As for generative rules assumed by Chomsky, with a formal device probably existing behind all, lie at the heart
of man‖s language facility. Edwin Gentzler (2004) in his Contemporary Translation Theories, argued that Chomsky didn‟t
jump to conclusions, based upon correlations between two languages and not assume that a grammar particular to one
language would work systematically for another, which means that surface structures needn‟t be like their underlying deep
structures
It can be concluded that deep structure then is a pure representation of thematic relations. Anything which is interpreted as
the subject or object of a given predicate will be in the subject or object position of that predicate at Deep structure no
matter where it is found at Surface structure.
SECTION – B
Answer any three of the following questions : 12 × 3 = 36
2.a) Explain the nature of English diphthongs and lateral consonants.
ANS: The word "diphthong" comes from the Greek and means "two voices" or "two sounds." In phonetics, a diphthong is
a vowel in which there is a noticeable sound change within the same syllable. (A single or simple vowel is known as a
monophthong.) The process of moving from one vowel sound to another is called gliding, which is why another name for a
diphthong is a gliding vowel but they are also known as compound vowels, complex vowels, or moving vowels. The sound
change that turns a single vowel into a diphthong is called diphthongization. Diphthongs are sometimes referred to as "long
vowels" but this is misleading. While vowel sounds do change in a diphthong, they do not necessarily take more time to say
than a monophthong.
Diphthongs in American English
How many diphthongs are there in the English language? It depends on which expert you ask. Some sources cite eight,
others as many as 10. Even syllables containing a single vowel can contain a diphthong. The rule of thumb is: If the sound
moves, it‖s a diphthong; if it's static, it‖s a monophthong. Each of the following diphthongs is represented by its phonetic
symbol.
/aɪ/ This diphthong creates sounds similar to "eye" and most often occurs with letter combinations that include /i/, /igh/,
and /y. Examples: crime, like, lime
/eɪ/ This diphthong creates sounds similar to ‗great‘ and is most often used with letter combinations that include /ey/,
/ay/, /ai/ and /a/. Examples: break, rain, weight
/əʊ/ This diphthong creates sounds similar to ‗boat‘ and most often occurs with letter combinations that include /ow/, /oa/
and /o/. Examples: slow, moan, though
/aʊ/ This diphthong creates sounds similar to ‗ow!‘ and most often occurs with letter combinations that include /ou/ and
/ow/. Examples: brown, hound, now
/eə/ This diphthong creates sounds similar to ‗air‘ and most often occurs with letter combinations that include /ai/, /a/,
and /ea/. Examples: lair, stair, bear
/ɪə/ This diphthong creates sounds similar to ‗ear‘ and most often occurs with letter combinations that include /ee/, /ie/
and /ea/. Examples: beer, near, pier
/ɔɪ/ This creates sounds similar to ‗boy‘ and most often occurs with letter combinations that include /oy/ and /oi/.
Examples: oil, toy, coil
/ʊə/This diphthong creates sounds similar to ‗sure‘ and most occurs with letter combinations that include /oo/, /ou/, /u/,
and /ue/. Examples: lure, pure, fur
Diphthongs in Dialects
One of the most interesting ways in which diphthongs relate to spoken language is in how they‖ve evolved into
regional accents and dialects from their languages of origin. In the borough Brooklyn, for example, when someone says, ‗Let
the dog out,‘ the word dog contains a distinctive ‗aw‘ sound so that ‗the dog‘ becomes a ‗dawg.‘
Lateral (also called lateral approximant), a type of consonant sound, which is produced by allowing the air to
escape around the sides of the tongue rather than over the middle of the tongue. The lateral sound is frictionless. It is in
many respects vowel-like and could be considered as a continuant. It is to some extent similar to /r/j/.
Classification
There is only one lateral consonant in English: /l/. Like other consonants the lateral sound is customarily described on the
following three bases:
1. Manner of Articulation: The manner of articulation refers to how the articulators approach to each other to create a
closure. It also determines the type and degree of hindrance the airflow meets on its way out affected by the closure. The
closure takes different manners for different sounds. For instance, during the articulation of the lateral sound the following
sequence of events occurs:
The tip of the tongue makes a firm contact with the upper alveolar ridge to form a complete closure in the middle of the
mouth.
The soft palate is raised to completely block the nasal passage .
The sides of the tongue are lowered to let the air escape along the sides of the tongue without any friction.
2. Place/Point of Articulation: The place of articulator refers to the place or point where the speech organs create a closure
by either coming close or near contact. This is the place where the sound is produced. For lateral sound the place of
articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with the tip the tongue at the alveolar ridge.
3. Voicing/Phonation: Voicing refers to whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating. If the vocal folds vibrate during the
articulation then a voiced sound is produced. Contrariwise, if the vocal folds do not vibrate then a voiceless sound is
produced. Some phoneticians use the terms Lenis and Fortis to describe the voiced and voiceless sounds respectively. During
the production of /l/ the vocal folds vibrate. It is thus a voiced sound.
From the above discussion we can identify /l/ as a voiced alveolar lateral. However, In English the pronunciation of this
sound differs from person to person. But the usage of wrong /l/ won‖t necessarily change the intended word. Therefore, In
English /l/ occurs in two pronunciation variations, that is, /l/ consists of two allophonic variants:
a) Briefly analyse the development of the English language from the Anglo-Saxon to the Modern period.
ANS: The history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or
Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes
from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A.D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh
century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of
the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had
begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of
Old English had begun to break down.
The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the
completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively
redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern.
(Mandeville‖s English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.)
Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the
direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures
around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous
other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock.
The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under
consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring
into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records.
Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other
dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and
Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not
share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon,
phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly
during the last century.
Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in
common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is
clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in
the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such
dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an
ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.
While Anglo-Saxon is an ancestor of modern English, it is also a distinct language. It stands in much the same
relationship to modern English as Latin does to the Romance languages. The English language developed from the West
Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles, Saxons, and other Teutonic tribes who participated in the invasion and occupation
of England in the fifth and sixth centuries. As a language, Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, was very different from modern
English. The language flourished in England until the Norman conquest, when French became for a time the language of the
court and of literature. English was thus left to everyday use and changed rapidly in the direction of the modern language.
For example, a reader today can pick up the works of Chaucer, the greatest writer in Middle English, and understand him
with a minimum of annotation; however, the same accessibility vanishes when one turns to such Anglo-Saxon works as "The
Seafarer" or "Beowulf." One must find a translation or learn the language.
– as a relative pronoun.
Ex: I think that we should improve quality of services a lot.
– as a helping verb
Ex: Does she work as a teacher?
Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms and the use of jargon, and a
difference in intonation and pace; in "The Study of Language," linguist George Yule describes the function of jargon as
helping " to create and maintain connections among those who see themselves as 'insiders' in some way and to exclude
'outsiders.'"
Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed. Depending on grammar, syntax, and
tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even need to use an actual word to communicate
effectively. A huff of exasperation during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.
Imagine that you're going to be introduced to a very important person who you have never met. Maybe it is the Queen of
England. When you meet her, would you say: 'Hey, dude! What's up?' Probably not. You would say something
more formal such as 'It is an honor to meet you, Your Highness.' On the other hand, you wouldn't call your best friend 'His
Royal Highness.' Instead you would be fine using the informal address, 'dude.'
In every situation you encounter, you use speech appropriate to the person to whom you are speaking and his or her
context. The language you use when talking to your friends is not the same language you would use when meeting someone
as important as the Queen. This difference in language formality is called register.
Types of Linguistic Register
Some linguists say there are just two types of register: formal and informal. This isn't incorrect, but it is an
oversimplification. Instead, most who study language say there are five distinct registers.
Frozen: This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or communication that is
intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer. Examples: The Bible, the United States Constitution, the
Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet."
Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal settings where
communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is never used, and contractions are rare.
Examples: a TED talk, a business presentation, the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray.
Consultative: People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who has specialized
knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful (use of courtesy titles) but may be more casual if the
relationship is longstanding or friendly (a family doctor.) Slang is sometimes used, people may pause or interrupt one
another. Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an annual physical, a service provider like a plumber.
Casual: This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-workers, and family. It's
probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other people, often in a group setting. Use of slang,
contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common, and people may also use expletives or off-color language in some
settings. Examples: a birthday party, a backyard barbecue.
Intimate: Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two people and often in private.
Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke between two college friends or a word whispered in a
lover's ear.
SECTION – C
11. Locate and annotate any four of the following : 7 × 4 = 28
a) Write a note on the global character of the English language.
ANS: There is no official definition of "global" or "world" language, but it essentially refers to a language that is learned
and spoken internationally, and is characterized not only by the number of its native and second language speakers, but also
by its geographical distribution, and its use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations. A global language acts
as a ‗lingua franca‘, a common language that enables people from diverse backgrounds and ethnicities to communicate on a
more or less equitable basis.
Historically, the essential factor for the establishment of a global language is that it is spoken by those who wield
power. Latin was the lingua franca of its time, although it was only ever a minority language within the Roman Empire as a
whole. Crucially, though, it was the language of the powerful leaders and administrators and of the Roman military - and,
later, of the ecclesiastical power of the Roman Catholic Church - and this is what drove its rise to (arguably) global language
status. Thus, language can be said to have no independent existence of its own, and a particular language only dominates
when its speakers dominate (and, by extension, fails when the people who speak it fail).
The influence of any language is a combination of three main things: the number of countries using it as their first
language or mother-tongue, the number of countries adopting it as their official language, and the number of countries
teaching it as their foreign language of choice in schools. The intrinsic structural qualities of a language, the size of its
vocabulary, the quality of its literature throughout history, and its association with great cultures or religions, are all
important factors in the popularity of any language. But, at base, history shows us that a language becomes a global
language mainly due to the political power of its native speakers, and the economic power with which it is able to maintain
and expand its position.
English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages and is therefore related to most other languages spoken
in Europe and western Asia from Iceland to India. The parent tongue, called Proto-Indo-European, was spoken about 5,000 years
ago by nomads believed to have roamed the southeast European plains. Germanic, one of the language groups descended
from this ancestral speech, is usually divided by scholars into three regional groups: East (Burgundian, Vandal, and Gothic, all
extinct), North (Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish), and West (German, Dutch [and Flemish], Frisian, and
English). Though closely related to English, German remains far more conservative than English in its retention of a fairly
elaborate system of inflections. Frisian, spoken by the inhabitants of the Dutch province of Friesland and the islands off the
west coast of Schleswig, is the language most nearly related to Modern English. Icelandic, which has changed little over the
last thousand years, is the living language most nearly resembling Old English in grammatical structure.
Modern English is analytic (i.e., relatively uninflected), whereas Proto-Indo-European, the ancestral tongue of most of the
modern European languages (e.g., German, French, Russian, Greek), was synthetic, or inflected. During the course of
thousands of years, English words have been slowly simplified from the inflected variable forms found
in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Russian, and German, toward invariable forms, as in Chinese and Vietnamese. The German and
Chinese words for the noun man are exemplary. German has five forms: Mann, Mannes, Manne, Männer, Männern. Chinese
has one form: ren. English stands in between, with four forms: man, man‖s, men, men‖s. In English, only nouns, pronouns (as
in he, him, his), adjectives (as in big, bigger, biggest), and verbs are inflected. English is the only European language to
employ uninflected adjectives; e.g., the tall man, the tall woman, compared to Spanish el hombre alto and la mujer alta. As for
verbs, if the Modern English word ride is compared with the corresponding words in Old English and Modern German, it will
be found that English now has only 5 forms (ride, rides, rode, riding, ridden), whereas Old English ridan had 13, and Modern
German reiten has 16.
In addition to the simplicity of inflections, English has two other basic characteristics: flexibility of function and openness of
vocabulary.
Openness of vocabulary implies both free admission of words from other languages and the ready creation of compounds and
derivatives. English adopts (without change) or adapts (with slight change) any word really needed to name some new object
or to denote some new process. Words from more than 350 languages have entered English in this way. Like French,
Spanish, and Russian, English frequently forms scientific terms from Classical Greek word elements. Although a Germanic
language in its sounds and grammar, the bulk of English vocabulary is in fact Romance or Classical in origin.
Major technological and scientific advancements have been written in English language. This is the age of science. The
world is changing at a terrific speed. This is all due to the scientific and technological progress which the other countries
have made. If we want to keep pace with these fast moving countries, scientific and technological research must be made in
our own land. We can advance only through knowledge of these subjects. Ultimately, we have to depend upon English. To
produce first rate scientists and technicians, English must be taught to our people as good and useful books on these
subjects are available in this language only.
For proper mental development it is essential that we study the best literature. If we want to shed the feeling of false
superiority and to broaden our minds, we must be ever-ready to take the best from others. Now, the literatures ofother
counties and of our own different languages can be easily obtained in English. In our own languages, modern up-to-date
literature is not available. This makes it essential that our young men continue to learn English. Moreover, many a young
men go to foreign countries for advanced studies. They need good knowledge of English. Its importance for such
scholars is indeed very great.
Even after the completion of their studies, the students of engineering need to have sufficient proficiency in English
for getting involved in the process of Job seeking. The vacancies for the jobs are often found announced in English. For
understanding the announcements also, they need to possess the capability to perceive what information the vacancy
announcements
contain. After being able to understand what thelegible for the vacant post. Furthermore,
they have to apply for the post lying vacant in the concerned company. As they prepare themselves for applying for the job,
they need to write a very impressive letter of job application. At this moment also, the quality and standard of their English
language that they have used in their letter of job applications matters much.
After the submission of the letter of Job applications also, they are required to attend both written examination and
interview or group discussion. The qualities of their their performance in in both the examinations are often gauged on the
basis of the quality of English proficiency.
English must be studied as an important foreign language. It must also continue to be the medium of instruction, at
least in science and technology, and in other subjects also in higher classes but India represents unity in diversity & respect
all languages.
c) Distinguish between morph, morpheme and allomorph.
ANS: Morphology is the study of words and their structure. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful morphological unit in a
language. Allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. The main difference between morpheme and allomorph is
that morpheme is concerned with the meaning and structure of a word whereas allomorph is concerned with the sound.
A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning in a language. It can be defined as the smallest, meaningful, morphological
unit in a language that cannot be further divided or analyzed. In linguistics, morphemes are classified into two categories.
They are free morpheme and bound morpheme. A free morpheme is a word, that is, a free morpheme is a meaningful unit.
Some examples of free morphemes include hat, believe, cheap, talk, red, new, cow, deliver, legal, etc.
Note that all free morphemes are words, but not all words are morphemes.
Bound morphemes are the units that cannot stand alone. On their own, they have no meaning. It always has to be added to
other morphemes to give a meaning. The underlined parts in the following words are bound morphemes.
Hats
Disbelieve
Cheaply
Talked
Reddish
Bound Morphemes can be further divided into two categories called derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational
morpheme is a morpheme that is added to the (the base form) of the word to derive a new word.
Example 1:
Danger ⇒ Dangerous
Beauty ⇒ Beautiful
Example 2:
Visible ⇒ invisible
Believe ⇒ Disbelieve
Derivational morphemes often change the word class of a word. (as in example 1)
Even if the word class remains unchanged, the meaning of the word will undergo a significant difference. (as in example 2)
In contrast, inflectional morphemes do not cause a change in the meaning or word class, they merely serve as grammatical
markers. They indicate some grammatical information about a word.
Danced –Past Tense
Vans – Plural
Raining – Progressive
Allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. It can be simply described as a unit of meaning that varies in sound without
changing its meaning. Allomorph is an alternative pronunciation of a morpheme in a particular context.
For instance, the plural morpheme in English, generally written as {s} has 3 allomorphs.
/s/ as in cats
/z/ as in dogs
/ɪz/ as in boxes
The past form morphemes also have three allomorphs.
/d/ as in slammed
/t/as in slipped
/ɪd/ as in stilted
A morph is a phonological string (of phonemes) that cannot be broken down into smaller constituents that have a
lexicogrammatical function. In some sense it corresponds to a word-form. An allomorph is a morph that has a unique set of
grammatical or lexical features. All allomorphs with the same set of features forms a morpheme. A morpheme, then, is a set
of allomorphs that have the same set of features.
The following box illustrates:
morphs s, en
allomorphs s s, en s
morpheme {[-Past,-Pers, -Pl]} {[+Pl]} {[+Poss]}
The morph 's' is linked to three distinct allomorphs, each containing a different set of features as indicated in the morpheme
class: if it is adjoined to a noun, then it marks the plural; if it is adjoined to a verb, then it marks the third person singular
of the verb; if it is adjoined to a noun phrase, then it it marks possession.
One way to represent a morpheme is by listing its features ([+Past]). Many linguists try to represent it by listing its chief
allomorph if there are more than one allomorph ('s'). This is somewhat ambiguous in that "s" could stand for three
morphemes, and is not a desirable way list a morpheme.
Each morpheme may have a different set of allomorphs. For example, "-en" is a second allomorph that marks plural in
nouns (irregular, in only three known nouns: ox/ox+en, child/childr+en, brother/brether+en). The morph "-en" is linked to
the allomorph "-en", which occurs in complementary distribution with "-s". When the possessive is adjoined to a noun
phrase, there is only one phonological form, /s/, but it is written either as " 's " or " s'". The inflectional pattern of English
pronouns is too complex to go into here. "-en" is a distinct morph from "s".
ANS: The concept of strong form efficiency was pioneered by Princeton economics professor Burton G. Malkiel in his book
published in 1973 entitled "A Random Walk Down Wall Street." The book championed two forms of the random walk theory.
The semi-strong form explains that public information will not help an investor to select undervalued securities because it is
reflected in the current market prices. Therefore, it is impossible to earn long-term abnormal returns. The strong form states
that no information, public or inside information, will benefit an investor because even inside information is reflected in the
current stock price.
Grammatical words are words that help us construct the sentence but they don't mean anything: articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc.
These words have stress, and so they are called ‗Strong Form‘. This version sounds unnatural and, believe it or not, more
difficult to understand for a native speaker.
In certain contexts the strong forms of the weak forms words are used.
The strong forms is used when a weak form word occurs at the end of a sentence. Where are you from? Many weak form
words never occur at the end of a sentence e.g. the, your, etc. some words particularly certain pronouns occur in their weak
forms in final position.
A strong form is used when a weak form word is contrasted with another word e.g. The letter‖s from him, not to him. Same
is the case in co-ordinated use of prepositions e.g. I travel to and from London a lot.
A strong form is used when a weak form word in given stress for the purpose of emphasis,e.g. You must give him more
money.
A strong form is used when a weak form word is ―quoted‖ or ―cited‖, e.g. You shouldn‖t put ―and‖ at the end of a sentence.
Another point to remember is that when a weak form word whose spelling begins with ―h‖ e.g. ―her‖, ―have‖. Occurs at the
beginning of a sentence, the pronunciation is with initial ―h‖ even thought this is usually omitted in other contexts.
Diphthong, = ALREADY GIVEN
Alliteration,
In alliteration, consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words or syllables are repeated. The repeated sounds are
usually the first, or initial, sounds—as in "seven sisters"—but repetition of sounds in non-initial stressed, or accented,
syllables is also common: "appear and report." Alliteration is a common feature in poetry, but it is also found in songs and
raps and speeches and other kinds of writing, as well as in frequently used phrases, such as "pretty as a picture" and "dead
as a doornail."
Alliteration can in its simplest form reinforce one or two consonant sounds, as in this line from William Shakespeare's
"Sonnet XII":
When I do count the clock that tells the time
A more complex pattern of alliteration can be created when consonants both at the beginning of words and at the beginning
of stressed syllables within words are repeated, as in the following line from Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Stanzas Written in
Dejection Near Naples":
The City's voice itself is soft like Solitude's
As a poetic device, alliteration is often discussed with assonance, the repetition of stressed vowel sounds within two or more
words with different end consonants, as in "stony" and "holy"; and consonance, the repetition of end or medial consonants,
as in "stroke" and "luck."
Examples of alliteration in a Sentence
As far as sound repetition goes, I don't have any principles. I try to stay away from heavy alliteration and other pyrotechnics
because I think they detract from the sense of the poem and blur the imagery.— Maxine Kumin, "A
Questionnaire," 1977, in To Make a Prairie, 1979More specifically, how are actual events deformed by the application to them
of metaphor, rhetorical comparison, prose rhythm, assonance, alliteration, allusion, and sentence structures and connectives
implying clear causality?— Paul Fussel, The Great War and Modern Memory, 1975
Metonymy
metonymy, (from Greek metōnymia, ‗change of name,‘ or ‗misnomer‘), figure of speech in which the name of an object
or concept is replaced with a word closely related to or suggested by the original, as ‗crown‘ to mean ‗king‘ (‗The power of
the crown was mortally weakened‘) or an author for his works (‗I‖m studying Shakespeare‘). A familiar Shakespearean
example is Mark Antony‖s speech in Julius Caesar in which he asks of his audience: ‗Lend me your ears.‘
Metonymy is closely related to synecdoche, the naming of a part for the whole or a whole for the part, and is a common
poetic device. Metonymy has the effect of creating concrete and vivid images in place of generalities, as in the substitution of
a specific ‗grave‘ for the abstraction ‗death.‘ Metonymy is standard journalistic and headline practice as in the use of ‗city
hall‘ to mean ‗municipal government‘ and of the ‗White House‘ to mean the ‗president of the United States.‘
Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Language and Literature
People use figurative language every day whether they realize it or not. Common examples of metonymy include in language
include:
1. Referring to the President of the United States or their administration as ‗the White House‘ or ‗the Oval Office‘
2. Referring to the American technology industry as ‗Silicon Valley‘
3. Referring to the American advertising industry as ‗Madison Avenue‘
4. Referring to the American film industry or celebrity culture as ‗Hollywood‘
5. Referring to the New York Stock Exchange as ‗Wall Street‘
6. Referring to a member of the British royal family as ‗the Crown‘
Many famous quotes from literature contain metonymy examples, too. In William Shakespeare‖s Julius Caesar, Antony
commands attention at Julius Caesar‖s funeral by saying: ‗Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.‘ Here, Antony is
using the word ‗ears‘ to refer to people‖s attention.
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