Histology!Lecture!

(1)

Introduction!to!Histology!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
and!Cell!Structure
Histology Team 432

Lecture'Objectives:

By!the!end!of!the!lecture,!you!are!expected!to!learn:

• What!is!histology!and!how!it!is!studied!
• Composition!of!the!cell!and!function!of!each!component:!
o Nucleus!
o Cytoplasm:!(organelles:!membranous!and!nonD
membranous,!inclusions)!
 !
Histology!Lecture!(1):!
Introduction!to!Histology!and!Cell!Structure!
!
!

note:!
• RED!=!Important!!
• Orange!=!Explanation!or!clarification!
• Purple!=!Extra!!
!
!
!

Introduction:+
!
• Histology:!!the!microscopic!study!of!normal!tissues.!
• Types!of!microscopes:!LM!(light!microscope)!&!EM!(electronic!microscope)"!EM!
is!used!for!high!magnifications!"!
• Organs!are!made!of!tissues!&!tissues!are!made!of!cells.!"!Cells!!A>!!tissues!A>!
organs!A>!system!"!
• Thin!sections!are!cut!and!mounted!on!glass!slides.!!
• Sections!are!stained!with!Hematoxylin!(H)!(basic!dye)!
and!Eosin!(E)!(acidic!dye)!
!
!
! Staining! Color! Reason! Image! Clarification!
! Nucleus! always!blue! Basophilic! ! Since!nucleus!
contains!DNA!and!
! (deep!blue)! (love!basic!dye)! RNA!which!are!
!
! acids!then!it's!
acidic!and!
!
attracted!to!basics.!!!
!
Cytoplasm! may!be!red! basophilic! ! Cytoplasm!
!
(or!deep! or!!acidophilic! mostly!basic!A>!!
!
pink)!! acidophilic!
!
or!blue! But!if!it!
!
contains!
!
ribosomes!(e.g.!
!
secretion!
!
cells)or!any!
!
acidic!particle!!
!
A>!basophilic!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
THE+CELL+
It!is!the!structural!&!functional!unit!of!all!living!tissues.!
Cells!have!different!shapes!&!sizes.!
THE!CELL!is!made!of:!!
! 1A!Nucleus!!
! 2A!Cytoplasm!
!
!
!
Shape+of+nuclei+(we+don’t+have+to+memories+them+..+it's+only+important+to+know+the+fact+
that+there+are+different+shapes)+
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Level+of+nuclei++
+
Dark!Nucleus!! Vesicular!(open!face)!Nucleus!(more!active)!
(DeeplyAstained!nucleus).!!
!

! !
We!can’t!see!the!nucleolus! the!nucleolus!is!clear!
!
!
!
!
!
Components!of!the!cell!in!correlation!with!their!functions:! !
H!Nucleus.!!
H!Cytoplasm:! !
 Membranous!cytoplasmic!organelles.!
 Non!membranous!cytoplasmic!organelles.!
 Specializations!of!the!cell!membrane.!
 MicrotubulesAcontaining!organelles.!
 Cytoskeleton.!
 Cytoplasmic!inclusions.!
!
NUCLEUS!
Formed!of:!
 Nuclear!envelope(has!pores)!
 Chromatin!
 Nucleolus!
 Nucleoplasm!!
!
*!Cytoplasm!surrounding!the!nucleus!from!outside,!but!Nucleoplasm!within!the!
nucleus.!
*!The!function!of!the!pores!is!to!allow!different!substances!to!pass!in!or!out!the!
nucleus!!
*!The!chromatin!is!either!attached!to!the!nucleolus!or!to!the!inner!nuclear!
envelope.!
Functions!of!the!Nucleus!:!
1A! It!is!essential!for!the!vitality!and!division!of!the!cell.!
2A! It!is!the!site!of!storage!of!genetic!information.!
3A! It!is!the!site!of!formation!of!the!three!types!of!RNA.!
Components!of!nucleus:!
1A Nuclear!Envelope!
Structure:!!
A!double!membrane!with!many!pores.!
a)! Outer!membrane.!(rough!due!to!ribosomes)!
b)! Inner!membrane.!(rough!due!to!presence!of!peripheral!chromatin)!
c)! Nuclear!pores.!
function!of!Nuclear!pores:!
provide!communication!between!nucleus!and!cytoplasm.!
2A Chromatin!
Structure:!
Formed!of!DNA.!
2!Forms:!!
–! Euchromatin:!Extended!active!chromatin!A>!(pale).!
–! Heterochromatin:!condensed!inactive!chromatin!A>!(dark)!
Functions:!
–! Carries!genetic!information.!
–! Directs!protein!synthesis!!
!
3A!Nucleolus!
Structure:!
It!is!a!spherical!dark!basophilic!mass!not!surrounded!by!a!membrane.!
Usually!one.!
Function:!formation!of!ribosomal!RNA!(rRNA),!which!is!responsible!for!protein!
synthesis!in!the!cytoplasm.!
So!:(nucleolus!A>rRNA!A>!protein!*in!the!cytoplasm*)!
!
!
!
4A!Nucleoplasm!
Structure:!
It!is!a!clear!fluid!medium!in!which!all!the!contents!of!the!nucleus!are!
embedded.!!
Function:!
Provides!a!medium!for!movement!of!3!types!of!RNA!(ribosomal,!messenger!and!
transfer!RNA)!from!the!nucleus!to!the!cytoplasm.!
!
Sex!Chromatin!(Barr!Body)!*Clinical!Application*!
 A!dark!stained!mass!of!chromatin,!usually!adherent!to!the!
inner!aspect!of!the!nuclear!envelope!of!female!somatic!cells!
 e.g.!Buccal!epithelial!cells.!
 A!drumstick!mass!protruding!from!the!nucleus!of!neutrophils.!
 Represents!one!of!the!two!X!chromosomes!which!is!inactive!
(condensed)!in!normal!female.!
 Seen!in!normal!female!cells.!!!(XX)!
 Absent!in!females!with!Turner’s!syndrome!XO.!
 Seen!in!males!with!Klinefelter’s!syndrome!XXY.!
Normal!female!=!one!Barr!body.!
Normal!male!=!no!Barr!body.!
!
CYTOPLASM!
is!formed!of:!
1AINCLUSIONS:!!"#‫"ﺎ‬#‫ﻟ‬%
They!are!not!essential!for!vitality!of!cells.!may!be!present!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
or!absent.!!
Examples!are!lipids,!glycogen!and!pigments!like!melanin!!
&!lipofuscin!(remnant!waste!product!of!long!living!cells).!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
 2AORGANELLES:!They!are!specialized!structures,!essential!for!vital!processes!of!
the!cell:!(organelles!are!existed!in!ALL!cells!but!in!different!amounts!e.g.!
mitochondria!exist!excessively!in!liver!cells,!also!existed!in!skin!cells!but!in!
smaller!amount)!!
!!
!!!!A.!Membranous:!(surround!by!membrane)!
o Cell!membrane.!
o Mitochondria.!
o Endoplasmic!reticulum!
(rough!&!smooth).!
o Golgi!apparatus.!
o Lysosomes.!
o Secretory!vesicles!
!
!!!B.! NonAmembranous:!
o Ribosomes.!
o Centrioles.!
o Cilia!&!Flagella.!
o Filaments:!Actin,!Myosin!&!Intermediate!filaments.!
o Cytoskeleton!(actin,!intermediate!filaments!!&!microtubules).!
Cell!Membrane!
Structure:!
• A!very!thin!membrane!that!surrounds!the!cell.!
• LM:!Not!visible.!
• EM:!appears!as!2!dark!lines,!separated!by!a!light!one!
(trilaminar!appearance)!=!3!layers.!
Function:!selective!barrier.!
Chemical!Structure:!!
1A! Phospholipid)molecules:!
! arranged!in!2!layers.!
2A! Protein!molecules:!
! a)! Peripheral!protein!
! b)! Integral!protein!
3A! Carbohydrate!molecules:!!
Carbohydrate!+!proteins!=(glycoproteins)!&!
Carbohydrate!+!lipids!=(glycolipids)!!forming!the!
surface!or!cell!coat!
(glycocalyx):!
! a)! Protection!of!the!cell.!
b)! Cell!recognition!and!adhesion.!A>!act!as!a!
receptor!!
!
!
!
!
!
  Cell!Membrane!specializations!
!
1)!Cilia:!
• Long!motile!hair!like!structures!surrounded!by!cell!membrane.!
• Their!core:!microtubules.!
• Function!:!movement.!!
!
!
2)!Microvilli!(Brush!border):!
• Cylindrical!cytoplasmic!projections!of!apical!
surface!to!increase!surface!area.!
• Their!core:!actin!filaments.!
• Function!:!increase!the!surface!area.!!
!
!
3)!Intercellular!Junctions:!
!
!
Intercellular!
Junctions!
!
!
! 1
1HOccluding!(Tight)! 2HAdherening!
3HGap!junction:!Allow! !
free!communication!
Junction:!seals the Junction:!fixes! between!the!cells.! ! 2a
intercellular space. ! adjacent!cells!together!
! !
! 2b
b.Desmosome!
(Macula!Adherening! a.Zonula!Adhering! ! b
Junction.!
Junction).! !
(just!on!one!side)! (all!around)!
! 3
!
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!
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!!
A!When!a!combination!of!1!,!2a!and!2b!is!present,!this!is!called!a!junctional!complex.!
!
 Membranous!cytoplasmic!organelles!!
!
1)!Mitochondria!
Structure:!
• rodAshaped!.!
• The!wall!is!composed!of!2!membranes.!!
• The!outer!(regular!shaped)!is!smooth;!the!inner!(not!
regular)!is!folded!to!form!cristae.!!
• The!cavity!is!filled!with!mitochondrial!matrix,!which!
contains!enzymes.!Also!contains!its!own!DNA.!
Functions:!
1A! Generation!of!!ATP!which!is!the!source!of!energy!for!the!
cell.!They!are!called!the!powerAhouse!of!the!cell.!
2A !!!!!They!can!form!their!own!proteins!and!undergo!self!
replication.!!
*(Mitochondria!is!the!only!organelle!contains!DNA)!
!!!!!!!!!!!*(the!number!of!folds!in!mitochondria!is directly proportional with its activity)!
!
!
2)!Endoplasmic!Reticulum!(ER)!
It!is!a!system!of!communicating!membranous!tubules,!
vesicles,!and!flattened!vesicles!(cisternae).!
There!are!2!types:!
Rough!(rER).!
Smooth!(sER).!
!
!
! rER! sER!
structure! Membranous!sheets!of!flattened!tubules!&!vesicles! Membranous!tubules!and!
with!ribosomes!on!the!surface! vesicles,!with!no!ribosomes!on!
the!surface.!
!
function! 1.Synthesis!of!proteins!by!ribosomes!on!its!outer! Synthesis!of!lipids!&!
surface.! cholesterol.!
2.Transfer!vesicles!transfer!the!formed!protein!to! Synthesis!of!steroid!hormones,!
Golgi! e.g.!cortisone.!
Helps!muscle!contraction,!by!
acting!as!a!calcium!pump.!
Detoxification!of!drugs!&!
toxins.!
image!

! !
!
!
Q!:!mention!one!or!two!sites!for!this!organelle!?!(!sER!)!
1A Muscles!!
2A 2A!liver!!!
!
3)!Golgi!Apparatus!
!
Structure:!
• The!secretory!apparatus!of!the!cell.!
• Consists!of!stacked!saucerAshaped!flattened!
vesicles.!
• Each!vesicle!has!two!faces:!
Convex!(forming)!face,!receives!(from!rER)!
transfer!vesicles.!
Concave!(mature)!face,!forms!secretory!!
vesicles!
Functions:!
1. Sorting,!modification!&!packaging!of!
proteins.!
2. Secretory!vesicles!formation.!(secretory!
vesicles!would!go!outside!the!cell)!
3. Formation!of!lysosomes.!(lysosomes!remain!
inside!the!cell)!
!
!
4)!Lysosomes!
Structure:!
• The!digestive!apparatus!of!the!cell.!
• Contain!hydrolytic!enzymes.!
• Originate!from!mature!surface!of!the!Golgi!
apparatus,!while!their!hydrolytic!enzymes!are!
formed!in!the!rough!endoplasmic!reticulum.!!
Function:!intracellular!digestion!of!ingested!
material!or!old!organelles.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
  Non!membranous!cytoplasmic!organelles.!
!
1)!Ribosomes!
!
• LM:Basophilic!cytoplasm!is!due!to!numerous!ribosomes.
!
• Consist!of!ribosomal!RNA!(rRNA),!combined!with!
proteins.ribosomes=rRNA+protiens!
• EM:Formed!of!2!subunits.!
• free!in!the!cytoplasm!(may!form!polyribosomes)!or!
attached!to!rER.!(When!Ribosomes!are!in!the!
cytoplasm!they!are!found!either!scattered!or!in!
groups!which!is!called!polyribosomes)!!
• Formed!in!the!nucleolus.!
Function:!
Protein!synthesis!
!
!
2)!Centrioles!
Structure!:!
• 2!cylinders,!perpendicular!to!each!other.!
• Wall!is!made!of!9!triplets!of!microtubules!(9x3=27!
microtubules).!
Functions:!
1A! Essential!for!cell!division.!
2A! Formation!of!cilia!and!flagella.!
!
*!centrioles!exist!in!all!types!of!cells!except!nerve!cells!and!
that’s!why!they!are!unable!to!divide!
*!They!are!consist!of!9!bundles!each!is!formed!of!3!microtubules!attached!together!by!
protein!called!dynein!!
!
!
 MicrotubulesHContaining!Organelles!
!
1.!Centrioles:!see!before.!
!2.!Cilia:!
• HairAlike!striations!on!the!free!surface!of!some!
cells.!
• Basal!body!is!similar!to!centriole.!
• Shaft!is!formed!of!9!doublets!and!2!central!
singlets!of!microtubules,!i.e.!20!
microtubules.(9x2=18!!+2!!=20)!
Function:!movement!of!particles!or!fluids on!the!free!surface!of!the!cell!in!one!
direction.!!
!
!
!
!
3.!Flagella:!
• Longer!and!larger!than!cilia.!
• Form!the!tails!of!sperms.!
Function:!important!for!movement!of!the!
sperms.!
!
!
Immotile!Cilia!Syndrome!(Kartagener's!Disease)!)*clinical!app.*:!
!
 Disorder!that!causes:!
o Infertility!in!male!!
o Chronic!respiratory!tract!infection!in!both!sexes!
!
 It!is!caused!by!immobility!of!cilia!and!flagella!induced!by!deficiency!of!dynein.!
!
 Dynein!protein!is!responsible!for!movements!of!cilia!and!flagella.!
!
!
!
 Cytoskeleton!
!
It!is!the!structural!skeleton!of!the!cell.!
Functions:!
• Maintains!shape!of!the!cell.!
• Helps!transport!of!material!within!the!cell.!
Consists!of:!
• Microfilaments!(actin).!
• Intermediate!filaments,!e.g.!Keratin.!
• Microtubules.!
*Side!Note:!Microfilaments!are!weak!(not!as!strong!as!
microtubules)!and!that’s!why!they!always!appear!in!
bundles!and!not!single)!
!
!
!
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!
Table!for!the!functions!from!Modhi Al Dughaither:

! functions! ! !
Nuclear!pores! provide!communication!between!nucleus!and!
cytoplasm!
Chromatin! –Carries!genetic!information.!
–Directs!protein!synthesis.!!
Nucleolus! formation!of!ribosomal!RNA!(rRNA),!which!is!
responsible!for!protein!synthesis!in!the!
cytoplasm!
Nucleoplasm! Provides!a!medium!for!movement!of!3!types!of!
RNA!(ribosomal,!messenger!and!transfer!RNA)!
from!the!nucleus!to!the!cytoplasm.!
!
Nucleus! 1AIt!is!essential!for!the!vitality!and!division!of!
the!cell.!
2AIt!is!the!site!of!storage!of!genetic!
information.!
3AIt!is!the!site!of!formation!of!the!three!types!
of!RNA.!!
!
Cell!Membrane! Selective!barrier.!
Mitochondria! 1AGeneration!of!!ATP!which!is!the!source!of!
energy!for!the!cell.!They!are!called!the!powerA
house!of!the!cell.!
2AThey!can!form!their!own!proteins!and!
undergo!selfAreplication.!!
!
Rough!Endoplasmic!Reticulum! 1.Synthesis!of!proteins!by!ribosomes!on!its!
outer!surface.!
2.Transfer!vesicles!transfer!the!formed!protein!
to!Golgi.!
!
Smooth!Endoplasmic!Reticulum! 1.Synthesis!of!lipids!&!cholesterol.!
2.Synthesis!of!steroid!hormones,!e.g.!cortisone.!
3.Helps!muscle!contraction,!by!acting!as!a!
calcium!pump.!
4.Detoxification!of!drugs!&!toxins.!
!
Golgi!Apparatus! 1.Sorting,!modification!&!packaging!of!
proteins.!
2.Secretory!vesicles!formation.!
3.Formation!of!lysosomes.!
!
Lysosomes! Intracellular!digestion!of!ingested!material!or!
old!organelles.!
Ribosomes! Protein!synthesis!
Centrioles! 1A! Essential!for!cell!division.!
2A! Formation!of!cilia!and!flagella.!
Cilia:& Movement!of!particles!or!fluids!on!the!free!
& surface!of!the!cell!in!one!direction.!
Flagella! ! Important!for!movement!of!the!sperms.!
!
!
!
!