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The Complete

Herbal
Tutor
The Complete

Herbal
Tutor
The Definitive Guide to the Principles
and Practices of Herbal Medicine
Revised and Expanded Edition

Anne McIntyre
FNIMH, MCPP, MAPA
Published 2019 by
Aeon Books
12 New College Parade
Finchley Road
London
NW3 5EP
Copyright © 2019 by Anne McIntyre
The right of Anne McIntyre to be identified as the author of this
work has been asserted in accordance with §§ 77 and 78 of the
Copyright Design and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A C.I.P. for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-91159-745-2
Printed in Great Britain
www.aeonbooks.co.uk
Contents
Introduction 1

G l o b a l H e r b a l Tr a d i t i o n s 5

The Chemistry of Herbs 47

The Herbal Consultation 61

The Herbal Pharmacy 77

The Materia Medica 93

Tr e a t i n g C o m m o n A i l m e n t s 2 7 7

Growing, Harvesting and Storing Herbs 357

G l o s s a r y o f Te r m s 3 6 7
Introduction
Herbs are the most extraordinary plants. Their incredible
ability to heal on all levels of our being never ceases to
amaze and inspire me. Through my years in practice as
a herbalist I have been asked many times how I came
to be in this profession. The story actually begins in my
childhood.
Herbal Roots
I have loved herbs ever since I was a child. I was my life, I resolved to find a place to study herbal
intrigued by their delicious scents, all so unique, medicine. After four years of study I became a
and their beautiful shapes and forms. Brought member of the National Institute of Medical
up in the country, I loved being surrounded by
natural beauty, to the point that I have never been
able to live in a town or city. My mother gave me
a piece of her garden when I was little so I could
grow my own herbs and flowers. This was my
favourite occupation.

Studies in Herbalism
In my early twenties, while living in a cottage
on a small island off the east coast of England,
growing my own food and harvesting as much
from the wild as I could, I began to learn about
the wild herbs that were growing around me. I
realised that the earth provides all the raw ingre-
dients for our health and well being and that
herbs have the ability to keep us balanced in
body, mind, emotions and spirit, if we can only
understand the potential of their gifts to us to its
fullest extent. After travelling in many parts of
the world, looking for meaning in existence that
would guide me to finding the right direction in At work in my herb garden.
2 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Herbalists, a professional body of herbalists that prescribed after the taking of a full case history,
has existed since 1864. with the intention of aiding innate homeo-
Once in practice I continued to study, static mechanisms, while addressing the under-
constantly searching for more pointers towards lying problems that give rise to health problems
understanding the human organism and the keys including diet and lifestyle.
to health and harmony, so that I could better serve
my patients as well as my family and myself. Over Treatment Advice
the next few years I studied homoeopathy, aroma- While describing the herbal treatment of over
therapy, therapeutic massage and counselling. 100 common ailments, The Complete Herbal Tutor is
Finally I found Ayurveda, the system that not intended to replace medical care which may
resonated with me more that any other to date. require the greater knowledge and expertise of
Ayurveda is a body of knowledge and wisdom
from India that incorporates a complex system of
medicine, as well as guidelines for a way of living
that aims, not only for freedom from suffering
in mind and body, but for enlightenment itself.
Today, I continue to study both herbal medicine
and Ayurveda, and to incorporate the wisdom of
all I learn into my practice and my writing.

A Holistic Approach
The writing of The Complete Herbal Tutor is
motivated by the growing interest in using
herbal medicine, in a practical and informed
way, amongst healthcare practitioners and lay
people alike. There is a great need for contem-
porary information encompassing a holistic view
that acknowledges the intimate connection of
mind and body, and promoting health and health
education, rather than solely addressing illnesses
and how to treat symptoms arising from them.
This book provides a practical, easy reference
guide to the 150 most commonly used herbs in
the modern practice of Western herbal medicine
and their uses, and, by this measure, it highlights
the great contribution herbs can make to modern
medical care.
Throughout, I have endeavoured to emphasise
how herbs are used most effectively when they are My dispensary.
INTRODUCTION 3

the professional medical herbalist or mainstream declaring that everything natural had to be safe
healthcare practitioner. The format of the Ailments and free from the side effects of modern drugs,
section in the book follows a system approach, to the opposite view, which perhaps makes
including the main systems affected by common more exciting reading, alarming the public that
illness, and the health problems covered in the herbs have potential side effects and may even
text are those that I have commonly encountered be dangerous. Without sufficient real evidence
in my practice of nearly forty years as a profes- it is easy for lay persons and professionals alike
sional herbalist, and that I consider to be most to be susceptible to such hype, but with more
applicable to treatment using herbs. information it is possible to have a more realistic
understanding. I hope that this book will serve
Our Herbal Heritage those using herbs for themselves, their friends
A conventional medical view might take some and family, or their patients, and who wish to
exception to aspects of Western herbal philosophy learn more about the safe and effective use of
and approach to treatment which may follow herbal medicines in order to navigate themselves
some rather unorthodox lines. There may not through questions regarding dosage, interactions
be much scientific justification for the use of and contraindications, so that they can use herbs
“alterative” or cleansing herbs to clear the body with the confidence they deserve.
of toxins, or cooling herbs to clear “accumulated
heat”. The use of these, however, is integral to
the philosophies of ancient and respected systems
of medicine, such as the Chinese, Tibetan and
Ayurvedic, that have survived almost intact for at
least 5000 years, and still provide frameworks for
the healthcare of millions of people today. I think
we can greatly benefit from the great wisdom
and insight of these systems, which provide a
background and context for understanding how
herbs are used, and for this reason I have included
a chapter on Global Herbal Traditions.

Practical Guidance
The hedgerows, our gardens and the shelves
of health food shops and pharmacies alike are
lined with dazzling arrays of herbs which can
be overwhelming to many who feel they lack
the necessary knowledge to choose those appro-
priate to their needs with confidence. The media
presentation of herbs has shifted from extolling Plants and herbs profiled in Nicholas Culpeper’s Complete
the virtue of herbs and their “miraculous cures”, Herbal (1652) are still in use today.
Global Herbal
Traditions
Today’s herbalists draw on a variety of healing traditions, from
shamanic ritual to remedies proven by scientific trials. Many of the
world’s traditional systems of healing share a common thesis: that
everything in the universe, including plants and human beings, is
composed of energy and matter and manifested as five elements,
and that keeping them in balance is the key to ensuring health and
wellbeing. This is the basis of the humoral system of the ancient
Greek physicians, as well as Indian Ayurveda, traditional Chinese
medicine, Tibetan medicine and Islamic Unani Tibb. Herbs play
a central role in all these systems, preventing and treating a wide
range of health problems in mind and body.

The use of herbs as medicines on physical, as well as subtler,


levels is common to all cultures, and has been for as far back as
we know. We can trace the link between human life and healing
herbs to the Neanderthal era. In 1963, archeologists opened
the grave of a man in a cave in Iraq, who had been placed there
60,000 years ago. He had been buried with many herbs, including
horsetail, hollyhock, St Barnaby’s thistle, yarrow, grape hyacinth
and ephedra. The herbs appeared to have been chosen for their
symbolic and healing virtues, for amongst them were diuretics,
emetics, astringents, stimulants, and pain relievers.
6 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Ancient and Modern Medicine


With the vast network of communication that has
developed in recent decades has come a wealth of
information and wisdom concerning healing. This has
engendered a considerable amount of integration of
herbal traditions so that herbalists today can draw on
the knowledge of a number of medicinal systems and
philosophies, both ancient and modern, and can access
herbs from most corners of the world.

Some therapeutic traditions, such as Chinese, In recent decades, the scientific world has
Ayurvedic, Unani and Tibetan medicine, are identified specific constituents of herbs, as well as
based on systems of healing that have remained their properties and interactions. Modern studies
almost intact through thousands of years and into their efficacy using double-blind, clinically
still form the primary healthcare system for a controlled trials have proven that herbs can be
significant proportion of the population in those effective medicines, vindicating the ancient use of
countries today. Many students and practitioners such plants that goes back thousands of years.
of Western herbal medicine study these tradi-
tions, and incorporate their ancient wisdom and
practices into their own diagnostic methods and
treatments.
Other age-old systems of herbal healing,
particularly in the Western world, have largely
been broken and replaced by modern drugs and
allopathy (conventional medicine). The current
popularity of herbal medicine has inspired a
re-evaluation of our global medical roots, with their
rich source of effective medicines that certainly
have their place in modern medical practice.
Herbs such as garlic, ginkgo, ginseng, echinacea
and St John’s wort have proved themselves to the
world, becoming household names in the process, Traditional Chinese herbal treatment has been shown
and many are recommended by some doctors. to be effective in treating eczema.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 7

Shamanic Healing
The earliest known herbalists of every culture were
shamans – important men or women whose instincts were
raised to a highly intuitive level through years of training to
develop their inner eye. This deeper perception enabled
them to communicate directly with the plant and spirit
world, and to visit other realities through their own spirit
allies.
Origins in Africa, Central America and South America,
Shamanistic practices are said to predate all where it is an important part of the culture
organised religions, dating back to the Paleolithic and used alongside, or as an alternative to, any
and Neolithic periods. Many shamanic tradi- available modern medicine. Belief in witchcraft
tions, including European, Tibetan, Mongolian, and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America,
Korean, Japanese, and Native American from is still prevalent in many shamanic societies. Some
both North and South America, originally came cultures, including several from Africa, distinguish
from Siberia and metamorphosed as they traveled shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm,
to other parts of the world. African slaves took while others believe that all shamans have the
their shamanic traditions to America, where they power to both cure and kill. Shamanism is also
merged divination and other rituals with Christian still practiced in South Korea, Japan, Vietnam,
practices to produce, for example, Haitian voodoo Inuit and Eskimo cultures, Papua New Guinea,
(vodou), Cuban santería, and Brazilian candomblé. Australia and Tibet.
Elsewhere, shamanism became absorbed into
religion, clearly shown in, for example, Tibetan The Shaman’s Journey
Buddhism. In some cultures, the early shamans In some cultures the shaman’s powers are believed
were known as priest physicians. They were also to be inherited, while in others a shaman follows
sorcerers, magicians, diviners; intermediaries a “calling”, sometimes from their dreams, and
between the mortal and the spirit worlds. endures rigorous training. Initiation occurs often
through a transformational experience, which
Contemporary Shamanism could be a serious illness, or being struck by
Today, shamanism is still alive and well especially lightning. In North America, Native Americans
in Siberia. It exists in a variety of different forms, may seek communion with the spirit world through
mainly among indigenous peoples in rural areas, a “vision quest”, while an aspiring shaman in
often as the main form of treatment available. It is South America might apprentice themselves to a
also found in cities and shantytowns, particularly respected shaman.
8 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Shamans enter altered states of consciousness, spirit responsible. Incense and aromatic plants
often ecstatic trance states, journeying to the beat are often burnt as tools of transformation to help
of a drum or rattle, or using singing, music, sweat transport the minds of the participants to another
lodges, vision quests, or fasting to communicate dimension – the origins of modern aromatherapy.
with other realms of reality and the entities that Spells, incantations, amulets and ritual dances are
guide them (a teacher, a spirit guide from the used to dispel or placate the spirits thought to be
animal or plant world or a totem), asking for responsible for the patient’s ill health.
wisdom and guidance. In this way they gain their
knowledge and power. The shaman’s journey is Shamanism Today
intended to help the patient or community to There has been a surge of interest in shamanic
rediscover their connection to nature and spirit. culture in the past few years, and many contem-
In the Ecuadorian and Peruvian rainforests, porary therapists are incorporating some of the
shamans are known as curanderos. Some base their traditional practices into their work. Some are
healing work on the use of ayahuasca, a hallucino- attracted to healing practices from the East or
genic plant that can induce divine revelation and Native American traditions, while others access
healing, mental and emotional as well as physical. the roots of European shamanism, with its
Visiting an Ayahuasquero has become popular mystical beliefs and practices that were suppressed
among Western spiritual seekers who can now go by the Christian church.
on tours into the jungle for just this purpose. In their healing work, a shaman can bring
Other Native American shamans alter their about transformation of the energy and
consciousness through the use of mind altering experience of the patient. Loss of vital energy
plants such as psychedelic mushrooms, cannabis, from stress, trauma, illness, or accidents can cause
San Pedro cactus, peyote, datura, fly agaric and what is known as “soul loss” and this is remedied
salvia divinorum. In so doing, shamans can put by “soul retrieval” where the energy and part
themselves at risk. They therefore use rituals to
protect themselves from enemies and rivals in the
spirit and human world. Many of the plants they
use are poisonous in large doses, and not being
able to return from out of body experiences can
be fatal. These plants are best used under the
guidance of an authentic shaman.
Illness in shamanism is generally attributed to
spiritual causes. It could be the bad will of another
towards the patient, the work of evil spirits, witch-
craft or divine intervention, and both spiritual
and physical methods are used to heal, depending
on what is recommended in the spirit world. In
the healing rituals the shaman will “enter the A Tongan shaman in Zambia sits among his
body” of the patient to confront and banish the remedies, which include gourds and animal horns.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 9

of the patient’s life that has been traumatised enhancing their own relationship to their power
is returned and healed. Loss of power, caused animal and enable them to make changes in their
by stress, pressure, abusive relationships, lack of lives. Plant spirit medicine, in which the shaman
love and support for example, leading to feelings calls on the healing spirit of a plant to help the
of low self esteem, can be remedied through the patient, often forms part of the healing. Plant
shaman’s connection to their patient’s power spirits can be summoned by songs. Totem items
animal; they can re-empower the patient through like rocks with special powers are also used.

Peyote is used by Native American shamans to free


their minds from everyday consciousness.
10 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Humoral Medicine
Around the time of the development of the Ancient Greek
empire, the transition from hunter-gatherer to nomadic
tribes, and then into farming communities, meant the
development of trade and agriculture. At this time huge
advances in the development of medicine were taking
place.

As densely populated centres of trade developed, the influence of environmental factors, including
they incubated epidemics of diseases including diet, water, hygiene, climate and society.
malaria, tuberculosis, measles, digestive and chest Hippocrates has been called “the father of
infections, caused by the insanitary living condi- medicine” as he laid down many of the principles
tions. These presented challenges to shamans with of medicine and his work formed the basis
their ritualistic approaches to healing. Shamanic for medical theory and practice that has been
practice and control gave way to complex philo- developed until the present day. He emphasised
sophical systems of medical theory and practice the value of ethical medicine, working for the
arising from the increase in trade and travel, and benefit of the sick and not the physician’s pocket
the exchange of ideas between cultures of Egypt, alone and this is incorporated in the Hippocratic
Syria, Persia, China and India. oath still used in modern medical schools today.
He taught close observation of patients through
The Father of Medicine the senses, touch, smell, taste and sound and
The increasingly sophisticated and educated encouraged keeping written case histories and
clientele of the physicians expected good results and basing treatment on results. He promoted
a rationale behind their prescriptions. This was the addressing the whole person, not suppression
beginning of rational medicine, and theories were of the symptoms, and enhancing the ability of
developed to explain patterns of illness. Physicians the body to heal itself through herbs, fresh air,
studied studied anatomy, physiology and surgery exercise, bathing and diet. He is recorded as using
at the great medical school of Alexandria in around 400 herbs.
Egypt. One of the greatest legacies of this period
of learning was the development of holistic The Five Elements
medicine, largely inspired by the great 5th century Hippocrates’ humoral system of medicine paral-
BC philosopher and physician Hippocrates, who leled other great traditional systems with five
observed that the body was subject to natural laws element theory that existed at the time in India
and that susceptibility to illness depended on a and China. He saw that all matter could be
person’s constitution, hereditary tendencies, and explained by the five basic elements, ether, air, fire,
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 11

black bile and restore balance. Water corresponded


to phlegm and a phlegmatic temperament. Phlegm
had a cold and damp nature, epitomised by the
season of winter, and gave rise to illnesses such
as catarrh, respiratory infections, weight gain and
fluid retention. Warming and drying herbs such
as thyme, hyssop and ginger were used to clear
cold and damp symptoms, and thereby restore
the balance of the humours. Fire corresponded
to choler, or yellow bile, related to summer. A choleric
type would be hot tempered and prone to liver
and digestive problems. Cooling and moistening
herbs such as dandelion, violets and lettuce would
help to balance the excess heat and dryness of
the choleric temperament. Air corresponded to
blood and the sanguine temperament, epitomised
by spring. A sanguine type would be easy going
and good humoured, but prone to excesses and

Hippocrates, the ancient Greek physician and philosopher, is


widely regarded as the father of medicine.

water and earth, and the individuality of people


explained by the four humours arising from these
elements, blood, phlegm, choler (yellow bile) and melan-
choly. The proportions of these humours in each
person would determine their personality and
body type, and their susceptibility to particular
kinds of imbalance and illness. Hippocrates thus
perceived that illness was not a punishment of
the Gods, as believed by his forefathers, but arose
from imbalances of the elements that composed
everything in nature.
The element earth corresponded to the melan-
cholic humour or temperament, black bile and the
season of autumn. It had a cold and dry nature,
giving rise to symptoms such as constipation,
Thyme is a warming herb and was therefore used to clear
arthritis, depression or anxiety. Warming herbs cold and damp symptoms and restore the balance of the
such as ginger and senna would be used to clear humours in the body.
12 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

over-indulgence, giving rise to problems such developed here survived into medieval Europe
as gout and diarrhoea. Cool dry herbs such through the writers and scholars of the Arab
as burdock or figwort were used to balance the world.
humours. Galen (131-200 AD), another notable Greek
physician, studied at the Alexandrian school and
Great Greek Herbals later became renowned as surgeon to the gladi-
Another famous Greek physician was ators in Rome, and personal physician to the
Theophrastus (372-286 BC), a friend and pupil Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD). In his
of Aristotle, who inherited Aristotle’s garden herbal De Simplicibus he expanded on Hippocrates’
and library and wrote the first important herbal, philosophy and classification of herbs into the
Enquiry into Plants, which has survived until today. four humours. His works became the standard
He listed 500 healing plants, and the properties medical text of Rome and later of the Arab physi-
of oils and spices, basing much of his work on cians and medieval monks. His theories are still
Aristotle’s botanical writings that expanded much clearly to be found in Unani Tibb medicine today
of Hippocrates’ work. Another great source of (pages 20-23).
herbal knowledge derives from the Alexandrian Pedanius Dioscorides was a Greek physician
school, which enabled Greek medicine to flourish serving with the Roman army during the reign
– it drew on Greek herbal knowledge as well as of Emperor Nero, which allowed him to travel
Egyptian, Sumerian and Assyrian healing tradi- extensively in Asia Minor. Around 60 AD he
tions, and included knowledge brought back set himself the enormous task of collating all
from campaigns in Asia. The strong traditions the current knowledge on medicinal plants and

Taraxacum officinale, or dandelion, was believed to balance


the excess heat and dryness of the choleric temperament.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 13

healing substances in one work, De Materia Medica. the Dark Ages (around 200-800 AD) knowledge of
It included discussion of the components of herbs and the use of the great herbals was pushed
perfumes and their medicinal properties, and the underground and scientific research and writing
aromatic herbs used for these included balm, basil, in Europe came to a halt.
coriander, fennel, garlic, hyssop, marjoram, mint, However, the highly sophisticated Arab culture
myrtle, rosemary and violet. His famous herbal of the time maintained and developed the healing
provided the major source of herbal knowledge legacy of the Greeks, merging it with their ancient
for all the herbals that followed for the next 1500 folk medicine and surviving Egyptian traditions.
years and has been copied and quoted to the By 900 AD, all Greek herbal and botanical texts
present day. that had survived were translated into Arabic in the
cultural centres of Cairo, Damascus and Baghdad.
Continuing Legacy When Arab armies invaded North Africa and
Under the Romans the Catholic papacy grew Spain they took with them their knowledge of
more powerful, and the early Christians, feeling healing plants and medicine. In Spain, particularly
that the church, rather than physicians, should be in Cordoba, schools of medicine were established
responsible for health of mind and soul, started to that kept alive the Greek and Arabic medical
repress the use of many “pagan” herbs. In 529 AD traditions in the medieval period, spreading the
Pope Gregory the Great ruled that learning that teachings throughout Europe. Indeed, as late as
was not in accordance with the political ambitions the 18th century, the standard textbook in use in
of the papacy should be forbidden. Thus, during medieval schools across Europe, Avicenna’s Canon
Medicinae or The Canon of Medicine, was a fusion
of ancient Greek, Arabic and Indian systems of
medicine and herbal healing.
The knowledge of humoral medicine preserved
by the Arabic schools can be seen in some of today’s
practice of herbal medicine. Rudolf Steiner, for
example, derived many of his ideas of
anthroposophical medicine from Graeco-Arabic
thought. His four temperaments are related to
the dominance of one or more of the four levels
of self. Choleric with the ego (which Steiner
associates with warmth and “fire”), sanguine with
the astral body, phlegmatic with the etheric body,
and melancholic with the physical body. The
personality types described by Hans Eysenck
(basically extrovert and introvert) are also divided
into four different types resembling the
Steiner’s theory of temperaments divides personalities into
four types, and explains how each type relates to the others, influence of the humours. Introverted types tend
and the world. to be melancholic and phlegmatic, while
extroverts tend to be choleric and sanguine.
14 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Unani Tibb
Between the 9th and 13th centuries, Graeco-Roman
medicine from Hippocrates and Galen was assimilated
by the Arabs, and an Arabic tradition of medicine, known
as Unani Tibb, developed. The word Unani (meaning
“Ionian”) reflects the strong Greek influence to this
tradition, while Tibb means the knowledge of the states of
the human body in health and disease.

A succession of renowned Arab physicians Practice in India and Beyond


including Albucasis, Razis and Ibn Sina (also When the Mongols invaded Persia and Central
known as Avicenna) were particularly respon- Asia, many scholars and physicians of Unani fled
sible for the development of medicine at this to India. Once established in India, Unani Tibb
time, adding their own inventions and discov- then suffered setbacks under British rule, although
eries to the sum of herbal and botanical it still flourished unofficially. In the ensuing
knowledge. Avicenna (980-1037 AD) brought struggle against British colonialism a friend of
together all that was available on the nature of Mahatma Gandhi, Muhammad Ajmal Khan,
disease, plant medicines, aromatics and medical founded the Unani Tibb and Ayurvedic College
theories, including the teachings of Sushruta in Delhi in 1916, a landmark in its survival. Today
and Charaka from the Ayurvedic tradition, in his Unani is practiced in Iran, Pakistan, China, India,
Canon Medicinae. It was Avicenna who developed Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and other
the process of distillation originated in the parts of the Middle East. In India there are now
Alexandrian school around the 3rd century. He many Unani medical colleges where, after a five
invented the apparatus and method of alembic and half year course, graduates are awarded
distillation to extract essential oils from aromatic a BUMS (Bachelor of Unani Medicine and
plants – a great landmark in the history of aroma- Surgery) degree and can practice as government
therapy. Fragrant oils were particularly used for approved doctors. There are about 10 Unani
their purifying and restorative properties at this medical colleges awarding postgraduate degrees.
time and were thought to reduce the impact of There are also schools of Unani in Australia
destructive emotions such as grief and fear on the and the US. The American Institute of Unani
health of the body. Medicine was founded in 1986.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 15

The Seven Components According to Unani theory, the humours


According to Unani, the human body is composed develop in the liver from digested nutrients, and
of seven components called Umoor e Tabaiyah, which are carried around the body in the blood. Each
are responsible for maintenance of health. Changes person’s unique balance of these substances
to any of these can predispose to imbalance and determines his temperament, mizaj or individual
disease, and each need to be taken in to consid- metabolic constitution; a predominance of blood
eration in diagnosis and assessment of the correct
treatment. These are:
• Arkan (Elements)
• Mizaj (Temperament)
• Akhlaat (Humours)
• Aaza (Organs)
• Arwah (Vital forces or Neuro)
• Quwa (Faculties)
• Afaal (Functions)

The balance of one’s constitution can be


disrupted by emotional, psychological, social,
environmental or spiritual factors, or by diet.
Environmental and lifestyle factors that are vital
to good health are divided into five categories,
and any imbalance of these can predispose to
disturbance of the humours and lead to ill health.
They are:
• Fresh air
• Food and drink
• Movement and rest
• Sleep
• Emotions

The Four Humours


The four elements, known as Anasir-e-Arba (hava,
pani, mitti, and dhup), are earth, water, fire and
air. In varying combinations these four elements
constitute four bodily humours (akhlaat):
• Blood (dam)
• Phlegm (kafa)
• Bile (safra) Alembic distillation was perfected by Arab physicians to
• Black bile (souda) extract oil from plants.
16 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

gives a sanguine temperament; a predominance of and make observations of their skin, tongue, eyes,
phlegm makes one phlegmatic; yellow bile, bilious hands and nails. They will also take their pulse, as
or choleric; and black bile, melancholic. As long as a considerable amount of information about the
these humours are in balance, the human system patient’s state of health can be gleaned from this
is healthy; it is imbalance which leads to ill health in just minutes.
and disease. Unani classifies health in three different stages:
Each individual has their own innate healing health, disease and neutral. Neutral exists between
mechanisms, akin to ojas in Ayurveda and known health and disease when symptoms have not yet
in Unani as the tabiyat-e-muddabare badan, which is manifested. Disease occurs when the functions
considered the best physician, and it is this that associated with the vital, natural and psychic
maintains the equilibrium of the four humours or forces of the body are obstructed or unbalanced
akhlat so that we can be in good health and the due to some form of deviation.
happy state of mind that is our birthright. Symptoms of illness are seen in a positive
light, as an opportunity to cleanse and balance
Disciplines and Diagnoses us on physical, emotional, mental, as well as
There are eight branches of Unani medicine spiritual levels. Pain, for example, is a message
resembling those in the Ayurvedic system: that something is wrong, the underlying causes
• Internal medicine (moalijat) of which need to be addressed so that our health
• Gynaecology including obstetrics and can be better in the future. A “healing crisis”
paediatrics is simply tabiyat, or the homoeostatic mecha-
• Diseases of the head and neck nisms of the body attempting to eliminate toxins
• Toxicology through vomiting, diarrhoea, fevers, sweating,
• Psychiatry and increased urination in order to re-establish
• Rejuvenation therapy including geriatrics equilibrium of the humours, health and well
• Sexology being.
• Regimental therapy
• Dietotherapy
• Hydrotherapy

The diagnostic skills of practitioners of Unani,


known as hakims, include observation, pulse
taking, questioning, palpation and urine analysis.
Pulse diagnosis requires the hakim to be in a clear
state of spiritual awareness to enable him to
analyse the subtle qualities of the pulse. Practices
including breathing and voice exercises and
visualisations to help to calm and clear the mind.
In the initial consultation, the Tibb practitioner
will take a detailed case history from the patient The Tibb practitioner will always take the pulse of their patient.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 17

Treatment according to whether their therapeutic effects are


Unani healers follow strict ethical codes of mild (which can be used by anyone), moderate, or
conduct and practice, which are based on Islam. powerful (includes potential poisons for use only by
These include earning the respect of their patients, hakims). Qualities of hot, cold, wet and dry are also
proper cleansing routines, moderation in food and attributed to physical conditions, foods and herbs.
drink, and spiritual purification techniques. As in In common with Chinese, Tibetan and
Ayurvedic and Tibetan medicine, both prevention Ayurvedic systems, Unani Tibb emphasises the
and treatment of health problems are based on importance of tastes as well as the manner in which
each person’s body type, personality and mizaj, or food is prepared to adjust the imbalances which
individual metabolic constitution. contribute to ill health. There are five tastes: salty,
Treatment is aimed at rebalancing the patient sweet, bitter, pungent, and sour, each of which
physically, emotionally, mentally and spiritually. affects the humours in its own way. In addition
It is based largely on lifestyle advice, including appropriate warming and cooling spices and herbs
advocating bathing, fresh air, fresh food and codes are added to cooking to help address underlying
of conduct to promote and maintain health. imbalances of the humours. Even the aromas
Hakims also prescribe herbs, precious metals and from preparing, cooking, eating and digesting food
stones (gold, silver, gems and pearls), detoxification contribute to the healing benefit and are taken
and dietary regimes, minerals, and aromatherapy. into consideration in planning meals. Cooking
Oils or attars are extracted from herbs and given and eating are seen as rituals which, if containing
singly or in combinations, according to the needs the right foods and herbs and practiced with a
of the patient, to affect body, mind and emotions. pure heart, good intent and clear focus, can help
Some of the herbs, such as saffron, fennel, caraway, transform the energy of the meal and contribute
haritaki (Terminalia chebula), bibhitaki (Terminalia to the healing process.
bellerica), and amalaki (Emblica officinalis) are also
used in Ayurvedic and Tibetan traditions. Other
herbs used in the Unani tradition include guggulu HERBS COMMONLY USED IN
(Commiphora mukul), ashwagandha (Withania UNANI TIBB
somnifera), coriander, bacopa (Bacopa monnieri), violet,
liquorice, long pepper, and guduchi (Tinospora cordi- Althea officinalis (see page 104)
folia). Massage or cold/heat suction cups might be Cassia senna (see page 138)
used, as well as puncturing certain reflex points to Cinnamomum zeylanicum (see page 142)
release a few drops of blood in acute disease. Coriandrum sativum (see page 148)
Elettaria cardamomum (see page 159)
Food and Taste Emblica officinalis (see page 161)
Foods and herbs are categorised according to their Foeniculum vulgare (see page 169)
own miza, or balance of the humours and elements, Glycyrrhiza glabra (see page 178)
and appropriate treatments are prescribed to suit Mentha piperita (see page 201)
the imbalances of an individual’s constitution, Piper longum (see page 216)
which obviously vary from one person to another. Viola odorata (see page 266)
Substances in foods and herbs are also classified Zingiber officinale (see page 274)
18 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Tibetan Medicine
Tibetan Medicine is a highly evolved system of medicine
that developed as a synthesis of medical knowledge
and wisdom from Indian Ayurveda, Chinese medicine,
Greek medicine and Unani Tibb. Its origins can be traced
back to at least the 7th century. It also incorporated
Buddhist philosophy that was introduced to Tibet over
two thousand years ago. Being deeply rooted in Buddhist
philosophy, its perspective is that physical illness is
inextricably bound with mental, social and spiritual illness.
Tibetan medicine has developed into a sophisti- of five elements: earth, water, fire, wind and
cated and complex medical science with intricate space. These are symbols for matter, cohesion, energy,
theories about causes of disease, diagnosis and movement and space that affect the mind as well as
therapeutics, and has existed in its present form the body. The universe and the body are a result
for over one thousand years. Sangye Menla, the of the interplay of these five elements, which
“medicine Buddha”, is respected as the source of manifest themselves in the form of energy into
medical teachings and the inspiration for correct three humours or energies:
practice as a physician. The essential aspects of 1. Wind (rLung, pronunciation loong) is vital for
this teaching are summarised in the rGyud-Bzhi movement, responsible for breathing, circu-
(pronunciation giu shi) or the Four Medical Tantras, lation of bodily fluids including blood and
the twelfth century text in four volumes, which is lymph, mental activity like thinking, speech,
still taught today. The Tibetan system of healing, energy, and transmission of nerve impulses.
known as sowa rigpa, or the knowledge of healing, There are five subcategories of rLung each with
is still practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, different locations and functions: Srog-’Dzin
Sikkim, Ladakh, Siberia, China, Russia and rLung, Gyen-rGyu rLung, Khyab-Byed rLung,
Mongolia, as well as in parts of Europe and North Me-mNyam rLung, Thur-Sel rLung.
America.
2. Bile (mKhrispa, pronunciation Tripa) is heating
The Three Humours energy, which regulates digestion and metab-
Like other Asian systems of medicine, Tibetan olism, liver function and maintains body
medicine is based on the principle that everything temperature and the discriminating mind.
in the cosmos, including human life, is composed The five subcategories of mKhris-pa are Ju-Byed
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 19

mKhris-pa, sGrub-Byed mKhris-pa, mDangs-sGyur out of balance. The three energies are present
mKhris-pa, mThong-Byed, mKhris-pa, mDog-Sel in different proportions in each person and
mKhris-pa. determine their constitution including their body
shape, temperament, and susceptibility to specific
3. Phlegm (Badkan, pronunciation Beken) governs health problems.
the structure of the physical body such as bone
and muscle as well as mucous membranes. It is Balancing the Humours
responsible for some aspects of digestion, the Another important concept in Tibetan medicine
maintenance of our physical structure, joint is the dichotomy between warm and cold.
health and mental stability. The five subcat- Diseases, as well as remedies and food, are distin-
egories of Bad-kan are: rTen-Byed Bad-kan, guished as warm and cold or as warming and
Myag-byed Bad-kan, Myong-Byed Bad-kan, cooling respectively. mKhrispa is warm and badkan
Tsim-Byed Bad-kan, Byor-Byed Bad-kan. is cool. rLung is a special case and is basically
neutral, it can aggravate “warm” and “cold”,
Health depends on the equilibrium of the much like wind is able to boost a fire as well as
humours, so disease is caused when they are cool down the body. A rLung imbalance is at the
root of most diseases.
The understanding of physiology is governed
by the dynamic interaction of three humours
(rLung, mKhrispa and badkan). Health is a dynamic
equilibrium and is therefore relative because
all three humours must be in a corresponding
balance for each individual. The aim of Tibetan
therapy is thus to restore this equilibrium in the
patient.

Diagnosis and Treatment


As in Ayurveda and Unani medicine, the balance
of the humours determines the constitution of
each individual. This balance is influenced by
our external and internal environment, including
diet, lifestyle, relationships and emotional,
mental and spiritual influences. The dynamic
equilibrium of the humours also changes with
the climate, the seasons and the ageing process.
In Buddhist thought, all physical and mental
suffering, and hence all illness, is caused by the
Thangka painting on fabric, depicting the medicine Buddha three mental poisons: attachment, anger and
Sangye Menia. ignorance, as well as the effect of past karma.
20 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Tibetan medicine stresses the importance of and preventing unwanted side effects. Herbs that
compassion in healing. are used in the Tibetan tradition include amalaki,
Diagnosis of imbalance and disease involves roses, calendula, nettles, coriander, cinnamon,
observation and an in-depth interview of the cardamom, ginger, garlic, rhodiola, gentian and
patient, taking the pulse, and examining urine liquorice. Medicines are considered to be offerings
and faeces as well as the tongue. Once the to the Medicine Buddha and other medicine
imbalance of the humours has been ascertained, deities and are prepared with spiritual rituals by
treatment specific to the individual is recom- traditional methods of drying, grinding, mixing
mended, designed to re-establish mental harmony and pressing the plants to make pills, powders or
and equilibrium of the three humours. This can decoctions.
include advice on lifestyle, exercise, conduct and The annexation of Tibet by the People’s
behaviour, healing of the mind through mantras Republic of China (PRC) in the 1950s had
and meditation, yoga, moxibustion (burning of a great impact on Tibetan medicine. During
the herb mugwort), the use of herbs, vegetable the Cultural Revolution in particular, practi-
and mineral supplements, massage and inhala- tioners suffered great persecution, and clinical
tions with specially formulated herbal oils, practice, study and research largely censored by
bathing, cupping and occasionally acupuncture. the repressive Chinese. Nevertheless, Tibetan
Foods and herbs all consist of their own individual medicine has survived almost intact. His Holiness
balance of the five elements and three humours. the 14th Dalai Lama lives in exile in Dharamasala
Foods and diets appropriate to each patient and and has been a powerful influence in Tibetan
the balance of the humours are recommended,
and this includes quantities of food, and when
they are eaten. HERBS COMMONLY USED IN
TIBETAN MEDICINE
Herbal Medicines
If dietary and behavioural changes are not Allium sativum (see page 102)
sufficient to remedy the condition, herbs are Calendula officinalis (see page 132)
prescribed. The Tibetan Materia Medica consists Cinnamomum zeylanicum (see page 142)
largely of medicinal herbs, as well as minerals Coriandrum sativum (see page 148)
and, to a lesser extent, animal substances. As in Elettaria cardamomum (see page 159)
Ayurveda, medicinal substances are grouped Emblica officinalis (see page 161)
according to their properties, their taste (sweet, Gentiana lutea (see page 175)
sour, salty, bitter, pungent and astringent), their Glycyrrhiza glabra (see page 178)
potency (heavy/light, oily/rough, hot/cold Myristica fragrans (see page 204)
and blunt/sharp) and the effect of these on the Rhodiola rosea (see page 224)
humours. Tibetan medicines are frequently Rosa spp (see page 225)
composed of 20 or more different ingredients, and Urtica dioica (see page 257)
include one major group of ingredients and two Zingiber officinale (see page 274)
minor ones aimed at supporting the major group
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 21

medicine. In 1961 he founded the Men-Tsee- publication of medical and astrological texts.
Khang (the Tibetan Medical and Astrological There are other schools and clinics in Tibet, India
Institute – TMAI) which has a college of Tibetan and Nepal and recently huge pharmaceutical
medicine, a clinic, a pharmacy that produces and factories have started making traditional Tibetan
dispenses medicines, and carries out research and formulas in China.

Many herbs used in Tibetan medicine, for example garlic


and ginger, are already part of our daily lives.
22 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR

Ayurvedic Medicine
The name Ayurveda derives from two Sanskrit words:
ayur meaning life, and veda meaning knowledge or
science. Ayurveda is the knowledge or science of life.
More than just a system of medicine, Ayurveda is a way
of life encompassing science, religion and philosophy that
enhances well being, increases longevity and ultimately
enables self realisation. It aims to bring about a union
of physical, emotional and spiritual health or swasthya,
which is a prerequisite for attaining moksha or liberation.

The lotus flower, with its far reaching roots, symbolises the
Ayurvedic approach to deep individual healing.
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friend Bachman having found eggs, and young just hatched, as late
as the 28th of that month. In North Carolina, where only a few pairs
breed, it is later by a fortnight.
I have already expressed my opinion that birds which thus breed so
much earlier in one section of the country than in another, especially
when at great distances, may, after producing one or even two
broods, in the same year, still have time enough to proceed toward
higher latitudes for the purpose of again breeding. Actual
observations have moreover satisfied me that individuals of the
same species produced in warm latitudes have a stronger
disposition toward reproduction than those of more northern
climates. This being the case, and most birds endowed with the
power of migrating, having a tendency to exercise it, may we not
suppose that the pair of Anhingas which bred on the St John’s in
February, might be inclined to breed again either in South Carolina
or in the neighbourhood of Natchez, several months after. But, as
yet, I have not been able to adduce positive proof of the accuracy of
this opinion.
The nest of the Snake-bird is variously placed in different localities;
sometimes in low bushes, and even on the common smilax, not
more than eight or ten feet above the water, if the place be secluded,
or on the lower or top branches of the highest trees, but always over
the water. In Louisiana and the State of Mississippi, where I have
seen a goodly number of nests, they were generally placed on very
large and tall cypresses, growing out of the central parts of lakes and
ponds, or overhanging the borders of lagoons, bayous, or rivers,
distant from inhabited places. They are frequently placed singly, but
at times amidst hundreds or even thousands of nests of several
species of Herons, especially Ardea alba and A. Herodias, the Great
White and Great Blue Herons. As however in all cases the form,
size, and component materials are nearly the same, I will here
describe a nest procured for the purpose by my friend Bachman.
It measured fully two feet in diameter, and was of a flattened form,
much resembling that of the Florida Cormorant. The first or bottom
layer was made of dry sticks of different sizes, some nearly half an
inch in diameter, laid crosswise, but in a circular manner. Green
branches with leaves on them, of the common myrtle, Myrica
cerifera, a quantity of Spanish moss, and some slender roots,
formed the upper and inside layer, which was as solid and compact
as that of any nest of the Heron tribe. This nest contained four eggs;
another examined on the same day had four young birds; a third only
three; and in no instance has a nest of the Anhinga been found with
either eight eggs, or “two eggs and six young ones,” as mentioned
by Mr Abbott, of Georgia, in his notes transmitted to Wilson. Mr
Abbott is however correct in saying that this species “will occupy
the same tree for a series of years,” and I have myself known a pair
to breed in the same nest three seasons, augmenting and repairing it
every succeeding spring, as Cormorants and Herons are wont to do.
The eggs average two inches and five-eighths in length, by one and
a quarter in diameter, and are of an elongated oval form, of a dull
uniform whitish colour externally, being covered with a chalky
substance, beneath which the shell, on being carefully scraped, is of
a light blue, precisely resembling in this respect the eggs of the
different species of American Cormorants with which I am
acquainted.
The young when about a fortnight old are clad with a uniform buff-
coloured down; their bill is black, their feet yellowish-white, their
head and neck nearly naked; and now they resemble young
Cormorants, though of a different colour. The wing feathers make
their appearance through the down, and are dark brown. The birds in
the same nest differ as much in size as those of Cormorants, the
largest being almost twice the size of the smallest. At this age they
are in the habit of raising themselves by placing their bills on the
upper part of the nest, or over a branch if convenient, and drawing
themselves up by their jaws, which on such occasions they open
very widely. This habit is continued by young birds whilst in
confinement, and was also observed in the Cormorant,
Phalacrocorax Carbo, the young of which assisted themselves with
their bills while crawling about on the deck of the Ripley. The action
is indeed performed by the Anhinga at all periods of its life. At an
early age the young utter a low wheezing call, and at times some
cries resembling those of the young of the smaller species of
Herons. From birth they are fed by regurgitation, which one might
suppose an irksome task to the parent birds, as during the act they
open their wings and raise their tails. I have not been able to
ascertain the period of incubation, but am sure that the male and the
female sit alternately, the latter however remaining much longer on
the nest. Young Anhingas when approached while in the nest cling
tenaciously to it, until seized, and if thrown down, they merely float
on the water, and are easily captured. On the contrary, the young
Florida Cormorants throw themselves into the water, and dive at
once.
When they are three weeks old, the quills and tail-feathers grow
rapidly, but continue of the same dark-brown colour, and so remain
until they are able to fly, when they leave the nest, although they still
present a singular motley appearance, the breast and back being
buff-coloured, while the wings and tail are nearly black. After the
feathers of the wings and tail are nearly fully developed, those of the
sides of the body and breast become visible through the down, and
the bird appears more curiously mottled than before. The young
male now assumes the colour of the adult female, which it retains
until the beginning of October, when the breast becomes streaked
with dusky; white spots shew themselves on the back, the black of
which becomes more intense, and the crimpings on the two middle
feathers of the tail, which have been more or less apparent from the
first, are now perfect. By the middle of February, the male is in full
plumage, but the eyes have not yet acquired their full colour, being
only of a dull reddish-orange. In this respect also two differences are
observed between the Anhinga and the Cormorants. The first is the
rapid progress of the Anhinga towards maturity of plumage, the other
the retaining of its complete dress through the whole of its life, no
change taking place in its colours at each successive moult. The
Cormorants, on the contrary, take three or four years to attain their
full dress of the love season, which lasts only during that period of
excitement. The progress of the plumage in the female Anhinga is as
rapid as in the male, and the tints also remain unaltered through
each successive moult.
Like all other carnivorous and piscivorous birds, the Anhinga can
remain days and nights without food, apparently without being much
incommoded. When overtaken on being wounded, and especially if
brought to the ground, it seems to regard its enemies without fear.
On several occasions of this kind, I have seen it watch my approach,
or that of my dog, standing as erect as it could under the pain of its
wounds, with its head drawn back, its bill open, and its throat swelled
with anger until, when at a sure distance, it would dart its head
forward and give a severe wound. One which had thus struck at my
dog’s nose, hung to it until dragged to my feet over a space of thirty
paces. When seized by the neck, they scratch severely with their
sharp claws, and beat their wings about you with much more vigour
than you would suppose they could possess. Having witnessed the
singular means employed by this bird in making its escape on
sudden emergencies, I will here relate an instance, which evinces a
kind of reason. Whilst ascending the St John’s river in East Florida,
along with Captain Piercy of the U. S. Navy, our boat was rowed
into a circular basin of clear shallow water, having a sandy bottom;
such places being found occasionally in that country, produced by
the flowing of springs from the more elevated sandy parts into the
muddy rivers and lakes. We entered the cove by passing between
the branches of low trees, overhung by others of great height. The
first object that attracted my attention was a female Anhinga perched
on the opposite side of the cove, and, as I did not wish that it should
be shot, we merely advanced towards it, when it began to throw its
head about, and watch our motions. The place was small, and the
enclosing trees high. Though it might have flown upwards and
escaped, it remained perched, but evidently perturbed and
apprehensive of danger. When the boat was at a short distance,
however, it suddenly threw itself backward, cutting a somerset as it
were, and, covered by the branches, darted straight through the
tangled forest, and was soon out of sight. Never before nor since
have I seen or heard of Anhingas flying through the woods.
For the following description of the Snake-bird’s breeding grounds, a
few miles distant from Charleston in South Carolina, I am indebted to
my friend John Bachman:—“On the 28th of June 1837,
accompanied by Dr Wilson, Dr Drayton, and William Ramsay,
Esq., I went to Chisholm Pond, about seven miles from the city, for
the purpose of seeing the Anhingas while breeding. The day was
fine, and in about an hour our horses brought us to the margin of the
swamp. We soon discovered a bird flying over us, and making for
the upper part of the pond toward a retired place, rendered almost
inaccessible in consequence of its being a morass overgrown with
vines and rushes. As there was no other way of examining their
locality but by water, we hauled ashore a small leaky canoe which
we found in the pond, caulked it in the best manner we could, so as
to render it not unsafe, although after all we could do to it, we found
it still very leaky. It proved uncomfortable enough, and could hold
only two persons. So it was agreed that I should proceed in it,
accompanied by a servant, who understood well how to paddle it.
“The pond is artificial, and such as in this country is called a
“Reserve.” It is situated at the upper part of rice fields, and is
intended to preserve water sufficient, when needed, to irrigate and
overflow the rice. It is studded with small islands, covered by a thick
growth of a small species of Laurel (Laurus geniculata) and the
Black Willow (Salix nigra), all entangled by various species of Smilax
and other plants. These were at the time covered with Herons’ nests
of several kinds. Farther on the Night Herons also had formed a city.
As I proceeded onwards in my search I found the difficulties
increasing. The water became shallow, the mire deeper and softer,
and the boat required the best of management to be propelled along,
for now it was retarded by rushes and vines. Enormous live oaks and
cypress trees reared their majestic branches towards the pure sky
above, covered as they were with dangling masses of Spanish
moss, reaching to the very surface of the water, and turning day into
night. Alligators of great size wallowed in the mire, or were heard to
plunge into it, from the many logs which ever and anon intercepted
my progress, while terrapins, snakes, and other reptiles swarmed
around. My situation was thus not altogether so very pleasant, and
the less so as it was necessary for me to destroy as many
musquitoes as possible, and guard against being upset in such a
truly “dismal swamp.” We moved extremely slowly, yet advanced,
and at last, having reached an open space where the trees were of
small size and height, I espied the nest of the Anhinga before me!
The female was sitting on it, but on our coming nearer she raised
herself by her bill to a branch about one foot above, and there stood
with outstretched neck, like a statue. It was cruel thus to disturb her
in her own peaceful solitude; but naturalists, alas! seldom consider
this long, when the object of their pursuit is in their view and almost
within their grasp. Being now within twenty yards of the innocent and
interesting creature, I pointed my short rifle towards her, and
immediately fired; but the unsteadiness of the canoe, and perhaps
that of a hand not accustomed to this weapon, saved her life. She
remained in her statue-like posture, the rifle was reloaded, and thrice
fired, without touching her; but at last a bullet having cut through the
branch on which she stood, she spread her dark pinions, and
launching into the air, was soon beyond the reach of my eyes, and I
trust of further danger.”
The same kind friend having procured eggs and young of this
interesting bird, I will present you with his observations respecting
them. He writes thus:—“I brought home three young Snake-birds,
two of which I immediately undertook to raise and domesticate,
entrusting the third to the care of one of our mutual friends. I found
no difficulty in rearing one of them. The other, by neglect of my
servant, died a few weeks afterwards, during a short personal
absence. Whilst these two birds were yet in the same cage, it was
curious indeed to see the smaller one when hungry incessantly
trying to force its bill into the mouth and throat of the other, which,
after being thus teased for a short time, would open its mouth to
suffer the little one to thrust its whole head down the throat of its
brother, from which it would receive the fish that the latter had
previously swallowed. In this singular manner did the larger bird,
which after awhile proved to be a male, continue to act as if the
foster-parent of his little sister, which indeed seemed to be thrown
upon his protection. The one still in my possession is fed on fish,
which it picks up, tosses a few times in the air, and swallows at the
first convenient opportunity, that is when the fish falls towards its
mouth head foremost. At the onset, when the fish was large, I had it
cut into pieces, thinking that the apparent slenderness of the bird’s
neck could not expand enough to swallow it whole; but I soon
ascertained that this was unnecessary. Fish three times the size of
the neck were tossed in the expanded jaws and gobbled at once,
and immediately after, the bird would come to my feet, clicking its bill
in such an unequivocal manner that I never failed to give it more. My
pet was tame from the beginning of its captivity, and followed me
about the house, the yard, and garden, until I thought it quite
troublesome in consequence of its peculiar attachment to me. The
one given to our friend was fed on fish and raw beef; but although it
grew to its full size, never seemed to thrive as well as the one I had,
and finally died of an affection causing spasms. This was a female,
and although less bright in colour than the adult of the same sex, the
two middle feathers of her tail were partially crimped, and her
markings were the same. While in the young state I frequently
carried it to a pond, believing that it would relish the water, and would
improve in health; but I invariably found it to scramble towards the
shore as soon as possible, as if dreading the element in which it was
by nature destined to live. When thrown into the pond, it usually
dived at once, but the next instant arose to the surface, and swam
with all the buoyancy of a common duck. It is a fearless bird, keeping
at bay the hens and turkeys in the yard, and never sparing any dog
that chances to pass by it, dealing blows right and left with its sharp
bill, and occasionally placing itself at the trough where they are fed,
to prevent them from taking a morsel of food till he has tantalized
them sufficiently, when he leaves them to share whatever he does
not himself relish.
“It was not until my bird was fully fledged that I found it willing or
anxious to go to the water, and then, whenever it saw me go toward
the pond, it accompanied me as far as the gate of the garden,
seeming to say “Pray let me go.” On my opening this gate, it at once
followed me waddling along like a duck, and no sooner was it in sight
of its favourite element than it immediately let itself in, not with a
plunge or a dive, but by dropping from a plank into the stream, where
for a while it would swim like a duck, then, dipping its long neck, it
would dive for the purpose of procuring fish. The water was clear
enough to enable me to see all its movements, and after many
various windings it would emerge at the distance of forty or fifty
yards. This bird sleeps in the open air during warm nights, perched
on the highest bar of the fence, with its head under its wings, placed
there from above its back, and in rainy weather it often sits in the
same position for nearly the whole day. It appears to be very
susceptible of cold, retreating to the kitchen and near the fire,
battling with the dogs or the cooks for the most comfortable place on
the hearth. Whenever the sun shines, it spreads its wings and tail,
rustles its feathers, and seems delighted with our warmest sunny
days. When walking and occasionally hopping, it does not support
itself by the tail, as Cormorants sometimes do. When fishes are
presented to it, it seizes and swallows them greedily; but when these
cannot be procured, we are forced to feed it on meat, when it opens
its mouth, and receives the food placed in it. Occasionally it has
spent several days without any food; but in those cases the bird
became very troublesome, harassing all around by its incessant
croakings, and giving blows to the servants, as if to remind them of
their neglect.
“Once it made its escape, and flew off about a quarter of a mile into
the pond. Some boys happening to be there in a canoe, the bird
approached them with open mouth, for it was hungry and wanted
food. They seeing such a strange creature pursuing them with a
head somewhat like that of a snake, took alarm and paddled for the
shore; but my bird followed in their wake, and landed as soon as
they did. They now fled to the house, where the Anhinga also
arrived, and was recognised by some members of the family, who
sent it back to me; and I, to prevent its farther escape or loss, clipped
one of its wings.”
I saw the bird above mentioned at my friend’s house at Charleston in
the winter of 1836, when on my way to the Gulf of Mexico, and had
many opportunities of watching its habits. It was killed by a beautiful
retriever presented to me by the Earl of Derby, and its death
occasioned sorrow both to my friend and myself, as he had given it
to me for the purpose of being sent to that nobleman.
Ever since I have been acquainted with the Anhinga, I have thought
that in form and habits it is intimately connected with the
Cormorants, and was induced to compare their manners. In some
respects I found them similar, in others different; but when I
discovered that all these birds possess a remarkable peculiarity in
the structure of their feathers, I thought that their generic affinity
could not be denied. The Anhinga has its body and neck covered
with what I would call fibrous feathers, having a very slender shaft;
while its quills and tail-feathers are compact, that is, perfect in
structure, strong, and elastic. Now the shafts of all these latter
feathers are tubular from their bases to their very extremities, which,
in so far as I know, is not the case in any other bird, excepting the
Cormorants. They are all very elastic, like those in the tails of our
largest Woodpeckers, the shafts of which, however, are filled with a
spongy pith, as in all other land-birds, and in all the aquatic species
which I have examined, including Divers and Grebes, as well as
Plungers, such as Gannets, Kings-fishers, and Fishing Hawks. The
quills and tail-feathers of the Cormorants and Anhinga, in short, have
the barrel as in other birds, but the shaft hollow, even to the tip, its
walls being transparent, and of the same nature as the barrel.
Wilson, who, it is acknowledged, made his figures from stuffed
specimens in the Philadelphia Museum, had no positive proof that
the bird which he took for a female was one, for he had not seen the
Anhinga alive or recently killed. Even his continuator, Mr Ord,
procured only males during his visit to the Floridas. But the female
which I have represented was proved to be of that sex by dissection,
and was examined by myself nineteen years ago near Bayou Sara.
Since that time I have had numerous opportunities of satisfying
myself as to this point, by examining birds in various stages.
The substances which I have found in many individuals of this
species were fishes of various kinds, aquatic insects, crays, leeches,
shrimps, tadpoles, eggs of frogs, water-lizards, young alligators,
water-snakes, and small terrapins. I never observed any sand or
gravel in the stomach. On some occasions I found it distended to the
utmost, and, as I have already stated, the bird has great powers of
digestion. Its excrements are voided in a liquid state, and squirted to
a considerable distance, as in Cormorants, Hawks, and all birds of
prey.
The flesh of the Anhinga, after the bird is grown, is dark, firm, oily,
and unfit for food, with the exception of the smaller pectoral muscles
of the female, which are white and delicate. The crimpings of the two
middle tail-feathers become more deeply marked during the
breeding season, especially in the male. When young, the female
shews them only in a slight degree, and never has them so decided
as the male.

Plotus Anhinga, Linn. Syst. Nat., vol. i. p. 218.—Lath. Ind. Ornith., vol. ii. p.
895.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of the United States, p. 411.
Plotus melanogaster, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 895.
Black-bellied Darter, Plotus melanogaster, Wils. Amer. Ornith., vol. ix.
p. 75. pl. 74, fig. 1. adult, and p. 82. pl. 74, fig. 2. young.
Black-bellied Darter, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 507.

Adult male. Plate CCCXVI. Fig. 1.


Bill about twice the length of the head, almost straight, being very
slightly recurved, rather slender, compressed, tapering to a fine
point. Upper mandible with the dorsal outline slightly declinate, and
almost straight, being however somewhat convex, the ridge convex,
gradually narrowed, the sides sloping, the edges sharp, and beyond
the middle cut into minute slender-pointed serratures, which are
directed backwards; the tips very slender. Lower mandible with the
angle very long and narrow, the dorsal line beyond it straight and
ascending, the sides sloping slightly outwards, the edges sharp and
serrated like those of the upper, the point extremely narrow; the gape
line slightly ascending towards the end. No external nostrils.
Head very small, oblong. Neck very long and slender. Body
elongated and slender. Feet very short and stout. Tibia feathered to
the joint. Tarsus very short, roundish, reticulated all over, the scales
on the hind part extremely small. Toes all connected by webs; the
first of moderate length, the second much longer, the fourth longest
and slightly margined externally; the first toe and the first phalanges
of the rest, covered above with transverse series of scales, the rest
of their extent scutellate. Claws rather large, very strong,
compressed, curved, very acute; the outer smallest, the third
longest, with a deep groove on the inner side, and a narrow thin
edge, cut with parallel slits; those of the first and second toes nearly
equal.
There is a bare space at the base of the upper mandible, including
the eye; the skin of the throat is bare and dilated, like that of the
Cormorants. The plumage of the head, neck, and body, is close,
blended, and of a silky texture; the feathers oblong, rounded, with
the filament disunited toward the end. On each side of the neck, from
near the eye to half its length, is a series of elongated narrow loose
feathers, a few of which are also dispersed over the back of the
neck, and which in the breeding season are an inch and a quarter in
length. The scapulars, which are very numerous, are elongated,
lanceolate, tapering to a point, compact, stiffish, elastic, highly
glossed, gradually increasing in size backwards, the outer web of the
largest, crimped. Wings of moderate length and breadth; primaries
strong, firm, considerably curved, the third longest, the second
almost as long, the first a little shorter than the fourth; the second,
third, and fourth cut out on the outer web. Secondaries a little
decurved, broad, rounded and acuminate; the inner elongated,
straightish, acuminate, and resembling the posterior scapulars. Tail
very long, narrow, of twelve straight feathers having strong shafts,
and increasing in breadth from the base to the end, which is rounded
and very broad, the two middle feathers have their outer webs
curiously marked with transverse alternate ridges and depressions.
Upper mandible dusky olive, the edges yellow; lower mandible bright
yellow, the edges and tips greenish; bare space about the eye
bluish-green; gular sac bright orange. Iris bright carmine. Tarsi and
toes anteriorly dusky olive, the hind parts and webs yellow; claws
brownish-black. The general colour of the head, neck, and body, is
glossy blackish-green; of the scapulars, wings, and tail, glossy
bluish-black. The long loose feathers on the neck are purplish-white
or pale lilac. The lower part of the neck behind is marked with very
numerous minute oblong spots of white; which form two broad bands
extending backwards, and gradually becoming more elongated,
there being one along the centre of each feather including the
scapulars. The smaller wing-coverts are similarly marked with
broader white spots disposed in regular rows; the four last of which
have merely a central line towards the tip, while the inner has a
broad band extending from near the base over the outer half of the
inner web, and towards the end including a portion of the outer web;
the first row of small coverts, and the secondary coverts are white
excepting the portion of the inner web. The five inner elongated
secondaries are marked with a narrow white band, occupying the
inner half of the outer web, from about an inch from their base to the
extremity, near which it includes a part of the inner web. The tail-
feathers tipped with a band of brownish-red, fading into white.
Length to end of tail 35 3/4 inches, to end of wings 30 1/4, to end of
claws 28 1/2, to carpus 17 1/2; extent of wings 44; wing from flexure
14; tail 11 1/2; bill along the ridge 3 1/4, along the edge of lower
mandible 3 10/12; tarsus 1 4/12; hind toe 11/12, its claw 6/12; second toe
1 9/12, its claw 5 1/2/12; third toe 2 5/12, its claw 8/12; fourth toe 2 4 1/2/12,
its claw 5 3/4/12. Weight 3 1/4 lb.
Adult Female. Plate CCCXVI. Fig. 2. The female has the plumage
similar in texture to that of the male, but only a few inconspicuous
elongated feathers on the neck. The bill is lighter than in the male,
the naked part around the eye darker, the eye and gular sac as in
the male; as are the feet. The upper part of the head and the hind
neck are dull greenish-brown, lighter at the lower part, the fore part
of the neck is pale reddish-brown, tinged with grey, lighter on the
throat; this colour extends over part of the breast, an inch and a half
beyond the carpal joint, and terminates abruptly in a transverse band
of deep reddish-chestnut; the rest of the lower parts as in the male,
as are the upper, only the fore part of the back is tinged with brown,
and its spots less distinct.
Length to end of tail 34 inches, to end of wings 29 1/4, to end of
claws 27 1/2; to carpal joint 16 1/4; extent of wings 43. Weight 2 lb. 15
oz.
In external appearance and habits, the Snake-bird is very nearly
allied to the Cormorants. The structure of the feet is essentially the
same in both genera, as is that of the wings and tail, the latter
however being more elongated in the Anhinga, in correspondence
with the neck. If one might suppose a small Cormorant elongated
and attenuated, with the feet rather enlarged but shortened, the head
diminished in size, and the bill formed more on the model of that of a
Heron, being destitute of the distinct ridge and curved unguis, he
would form a pretty correct notion of this bird. Not only is the bill like
that of a Heron, but the vertebræ of the neck are very similar to
those of that family, and form the same abrupt curvatures between
the seventh and eighth vertebræ. But all the other bones are those of
the Cormorants and Pelicans. The sternum in particular is almost
precisely similar to that of the Crested Cormorant, so that without
entering very minutely into its description, no differences could be
pointed out.
Both mandibles are concave within; the palate flat, with two
longitudinal ridges; the posterior aperture of the nares linear and 9
twelfths long, the anterior or external aperture entirely obliterated.
The lower mandible has a distinct oblique joint at about a third of its
length, enabling it to be expanded to the extent of an inch and a half.
The pouch, which is small, is constructed in the same manner as
that of the Pelicans and Cormorants; its muscular fibres running from
the lower edge of the mandible downwards and backwards, and a
slender muscle passing from the anterior part of the hyoid bone to
the junction of the crura of the mandible. The tongue is reduced to a
mere oblong knob, 1 1/2 twelfth long, and 1/2 twelfth in height. The
aperture of the glottis is 3 twelfths long, with two roundish thin edged
flaps behind, destitute of papillæ. There is a small bone appended to
the occipital ridge, 1/4 inch in length, as in the Cormorants.

The œsophagus a b, is 17 inches long, exceedingly delicate and


dilatable, with external longitudinal fibres, the transverse fibres
becoming stronger towards the lower parts. Its diameter when
moderately dilated is 1 3/4 inch at the top, 1 inch farther down, at its
entrance into the thorax, 9 twelfths, and finally 1 1/2 inch; but it may
be dilated to a much greater extent. The proventricular glands,
instead of forming a belt at the lower part of the œsophagus, are
placed on the right side in the form of a globular sac, about an inch
in diameter, communicating with the œsophagus, b, and stomach, d.
For two inches of the lower part of the œsophagus, b, or at that part
usually occupied by the proventriculus, the transverse muscular
fibres are enlarged, and form an abrupt margin beneath; on the inner
surface there are four irregular series of large apertures of gastric
glandules or crypts. The proventriculus itself, c, is composed of large
crypts of irregular form, with very wide apertures, and covered
externally with muscular fibres. The stomach, d d, is roundish, about
an inch and three quarters in diameter, with two roundish tendinous
spaces, e, and fasciculi of muscular fibres; its inner coat thin, soft,
and smooth. It opens by an aperture a quarter of an inch in diameter
into a small sac, f, precisely similar to that of the Pelican, which has
a muscular coat, with a soft even internal membrane, like that of the
stomach. The pylorus has a diameter of 2 twelfths, is closed by a
semilunar valve or flap, and is surrounded by a disk of radiating
rugæ three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The intestine, g h, is 3 feet
4 inches long, its average diameter 2 1/4 twelfths, but only 1 twelfth
at its junction with the rectum, which is 3 1/2 inches long, 3 twelfths in
diameter. The cloaca globular, 1 1/2 inch in diameter. There are no
cœca properly so called, but a small rounded termination of the
rectum 2 twelfths in length as in the Herons.
The subcutaneous cellular tissue is largely developed, and the
longitudinal cells on the neck are extremely large, as in Gannets and
Herons. The olfactory nerve is of moderate size, and the nasal cavity
is a simple compressed sac 4 twelfths in its greatest diameter. The
external nares are closed, and there are no supraorbital glands. The
external aperture at the ear is circular, and not more than half a
twelfth in diameter.
The trachea is 13 1/2 inches long, much flattened, narrow at the
upper extremity, where it is 2 1/2 twelfths in breadth, enlarging
gradually to 4 1/2 twelfths, and toward the lower larynx contracting to
2 1/2 twelfths. The rings are very slender, unossified, and feeble; their
number 230; the bronchial half-rings 25. The contractor muscles
moderate; sterno-tracheales; and a pair of inferior muscles going to
the last ring.
In a young bird scarcely two days old, and measuring only 3 3/4
inches in length, the two most remarkable circumstances observed
refer to the nostrils and stomach. The posterior or palatal aperture of
the nares is of the same form, and proportional size, as in the adult;
the nasal cavity is similar; but there is an external nasal aperture, or
nostril, on each side, so small as merely to admit the mystachial
bristle of a Common Squirrel. The stomach is of enormous size,
occupying three-fourths of the cavity of the thorax and abdomen,
being 10 twelfths of an inch long, and of an oval shape. The
proventriculus is separated from the stomach and formed into a
roundish lobe, as in the old bird; and beside it is the lobe or pouch
appended to the stomach, and from which the duodenum comes off.
Even at this very early age, the stomach was turgid with a
pultaceous mass apparently composed of macerated fish, without
any bones or other hard substances intermixed.
Here then we have an instance of external nares in the young of a
bird in which they are entirely obliterated in the adult.
SURF DUCK.

Fuligula perspicillata, Bonap.


PLATE CCCXVII. Male and Female.

Although several years have elapsed since I visited the sterile


country of Labrador, I yet enjoy the remembrance of my rambles
there; nay, Reader, many times have I wished that you and I were in
it once more, especially in the winter season. I calculate indeed how
easily this wish might be accomplished, were I ten years younger.
Under the hospitable roof of Mr Jones, while the tempest might be
hurling southward the drifting snows, I could live in peaceful content,
cheered by the matchless hand-organ of my kind hostess. Then,
how pleasant it would be in calm weather to traverse the snowy
wastes, to trap the cunning fox and the Jer Falcon, allured by their
favourite winter food, the Rock Grous; with what delight should I
gaze on the dim red sun creeping along the southern horizon, or
watch the flittering beams of the northern aurora. Now, over the
glittering snow, Jones’s Esquimaux curs might swiftly convey us to
his friends, here crossing the ice-bound gulf, there traversing
fissures and crags impassable in summer. Then what long tales for
the long nights, and sports for the short days. The broad-antlered
Caribou might have scampered before me, but its bounds would
have been suddenly checked by the fleeter ball of my well-directed
rifle. The wolf might have prowled around us, until he had been
captured in the deeply dug and well-baited pit. Then Nature’s pure
mantle would be seen slowly to disappear, the low grounds would be
inundated with the snow-waters, the warm breezes would dry the
mountain ridges, and with the first appearance of verdure joy would
cause every heart to bound. Thousands of seals would be seen to
snuff the milder air, myriads of tiny fishes would approach the
shores, and millions of feathered wanderers would pass over on
whistling pinions. But alas! I shall never spend a winter in Labrador.
While proceeding towards that country in 1833, on board the Ripley,
I found the waters of the Gulf of St Lawrence alive with ducks of
different species. The nearer we approached the coast, the more
numerous did they become; and of the many kinds that presented
themselves to our anxious gaze, the Surf Duck was certainly not the
least numerous. It is true that in the noble bays of our own coast, in
the Sound, between New York and the Hook, on the broader waters
of the Chesapeake, and beyond them to the mouths of the
Mississippi, I had seen thousands of Surf Ducks; but the numbers
that passed the shores of Labrador, bound for the far north,
exceeded all my previous conceptions.
For more than a week after we had anchored in the lovely harbour of
Little Macatina, I had been anxiously searching for the nest of this
species, but in vain: the millions that sped along the shores had no
regard to my wishes. At length I found that a few pairs had remained
in the neighbourhood, and one morning, while in the company of
Captain Emery, searching for the nests of the Red-breasted
Merganser, over a vast oozy and treacherous fresh-water marsh, I
suddenly started a female Surf Duck from her treasure. We were
then about five miles distant from our harbour, from which our party
had come in two boats, and fully five and a half miles from the
waters of the Gulf of St Lawrence. The marsh was about three miles
in length, and so unsafe that more than once we both feared, as we
were crossing it, that we might never reach its margin. The nest was
snugly placed amid the tall leaves of a bunch of grass, and raised

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