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The Complete
Herbal
Tutor
The Complete
Herbal
Tutor
The Definitive Guide to the Principles
and Practices of Herbal Medicine
Revised and Expanded Edition
Anne McIntyre
FNIMH, MCPP, MAPA
Published 2019 by
Aeon Books
12 New College Parade
Finchley Road
London
NW3 5EP
Copyright © 2019 by Anne McIntyre
The right of Anne McIntyre to be identified as the author of this
work has been asserted in accordance with §§ 77 and 78 of the
Copyright Design and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A C.I.P. for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-91159-745-2
Printed in Great Britain
www.aeonbooks.co.uk
Contents
Introduction 1
G l o b a l H e r b a l Tr a d i t i o n s 5
Tr e a t i n g C o m m o n A i l m e n t s 2 7 7
G l o s s a r y o f Te r m s 3 6 7
Introduction
Herbs are the most extraordinary plants. Their incredible
ability to heal on all levels of our being never ceases to
amaze and inspire me. Through my years in practice as
a herbalist I have been asked many times how I came
to be in this profession. The story actually begins in my
childhood.
Herbal Roots
I have loved herbs ever since I was a child. I was my life, I resolved to find a place to study herbal
intrigued by their delicious scents, all so unique, medicine. After four years of study I became a
and their beautiful shapes and forms. Brought member of the National Institute of Medical
up in the country, I loved being surrounded by
natural beauty, to the point that I have never been
able to live in a town or city. My mother gave me
a piece of her garden when I was little so I could
grow my own herbs and flowers. This was my
favourite occupation.
Studies in Herbalism
In my early twenties, while living in a cottage
on a small island off the east coast of England,
growing my own food and harvesting as much
from the wild as I could, I began to learn about
the wild herbs that were growing around me. I
realised that the earth provides all the raw ingre-
dients for our health and well being and that
herbs have the ability to keep us balanced in
body, mind, emotions and spirit, if we can only
understand the potential of their gifts to us to its
fullest extent. After travelling in many parts of
the world, looking for meaning in existence that
would guide me to finding the right direction in At work in my herb garden.
2 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR
Herbalists, a professional body of herbalists that prescribed after the taking of a full case history,
has existed since 1864. with the intention of aiding innate homeo-
Once in practice I continued to study, static mechanisms, while addressing the under-
constantly searching for more pointers towards lying problems that give rise to health problems
understanding the human organism and the keys including diet and lifestyle.
to health and harmony, so that I could better serve
my patients as well as my family and myself. Over Treatment Advice
the next few years I studied homoeopathy, aroma- While describing the herbal treatment of over
therapy, therapeutic massage and counselling. 100 common ailments, The Complete Herbal Tutor is
Finally I found Ayurveda, the system that not intended to replace medical care which may
resonated with me more that any other to date. require the greater knowledge and expertise of
Ayurveda is a body of knowledge and wisdom
from India that incorporates a complex system of
medicine, as well as guidelines for a way of living
that aims, not only for freedom from suffering
in mind and body, but for enlightenment itself.
Today, I continue to study both herbal medicine
and Ayurveda, and to incorporate the wisdom of
all I learn into my practice and my writing.
A Holistic Approach
The writing of The Complete Herbal Tutor is
motivated by the growing interest in using
herbal medicine, in a practical and informed
way, amongst healthcare practitioners and lay
people alike. There is a great need for contem-
porary information encompassing a holistic view
that acknowledges the intimate connection of
mind and body, and promoting health and health
education, rather than solely addressing illnesses
and how to treat symptoms arising from them.
This book provides a practical, easy reference
guide to the 150 most commonly used herbs in
the modern practice of Western herbal medicine
and their uses, and, by this measure, it highlights
the great contribution herbs can make to modern
medical care.
Throughout, I have endeavoured to emphasise
how herbs are used most effectively when they are My dispensary.
INTRODUCTION 3
the professional medical herbalist or mainstream declaring that everything natural had to be safe
healthcare practitioner. The format of the Ailments and free from the side effects of modern drugs,
section in the book follows a system approach, to the opposite view, which perhaps makes
including the main systems affected by common more exciting reading, alarming the public that
illness, and the health problems covered in the herbs have potential side effects and may even
text are those that I have commonly encountered be dangerous. Without sufficient real evidence
in my practice of nearly forty years as a profes- it is easy for lay persons and professionals alike
sional herbalist, and that I consider to be most to be susceptible to such hype, but with more
applicable to treatment using herbs. information it is possible to have a more realistic
understanding. I hope that this book will serve
Our Herbal Heritage those using herbs for themselves, their friends
A conventional medical view might take some and family, or their patients, and who wish to
exception to aspects of Western herbal philosophy learn more about the safe and effective use of
and approach to treatment which may follow herbal medicines in order to navigate themselves
some rather unorthodox lines. There may not through questions regarding dosage, interactions
be much scientific justification for the use of and contraindications, so that they can use herbs
“alterative” or cleansing herbs to clear the body with the confidence they deserve.
of toxins, or cooling herbs to clear “accumulated
heat”. The use of these, however, is integral to
the philosophies of ancient and respected systems
of medicine, such as the Chinese, Tibetan and
Ayurvedic, that have survived almost intact for at
least 5000 years, and still provide frameworks for
the healthcare of millions of people today. I think
we can greatly benefit from the great wisdom
and insight of these systems, which provide a
background and context for understanding how
herbs are used, and for this reason I have included
a chapter on Global Herbal Traditions.
Practical Guidance
The hedgerows, our gardens and the shelves
of health food shops and pharmacies alike are
lined with dazzling arrays of herbs which can
be overwhelming to many who feel they lack
the necessary knowledge to choose those appro-
priate to their needs with confidence. The media
presentation of herbs has shifted from extolling Plants and herbs profiled in Nicholas Culpeper’s Complete
the virtue of herbs and their “miraculous cures”, Herbal (1652) are still in use today.
Global Herbal
Traditions
Today’s herbalists draw on a variety of healing traditions, from
shamanic ritual to remedies proven by scientific trials. Many of the
world’s traditional systems of healing share a common thesis: that
everything in the universe, including plants and human beings, is
composed of energy and matter and manifested as five elements,
and that keeping them in balance is the key to ensuring health and
wellbeing. This is the basis of the humoral system of the ancient
Greek physicians, as well as Indian Ayurveda, traditional Chinese
medicine, Tibetan medicine and Islamic Unani Tibb. Herbs play
a central role in all these systems, preventing and treating a wide
range of health problems in mind and body.
Some therapeutic traditions, such as Chinese, In recent decades, the scientific world has
Ayurvedic, Unani and Tibetan medicine, are identified specific constituents of herbs, as well as
based on systems of healing that have remained their properties and interactions. Modern studies
almost intact through thousands of years and into their efficacy using double-blind, clinically
still form the primary healthcare system for a controlled trials have proven that herbs can be
significant proportion of the population in those effective medicines, vindicating the ancient use of
countries today. Many students and practitioners such plants that goes back thousands of years.
of Western herbal medicine study these tradi-
tions, and incorporate their ancient wisdom and
practices into their own diagnostic methods and
treatments.
Other age-old systems of herbal healing,
particularly in the Western world, have largely
been broken and replaced by modern drugs and
allopathy (conventional medicine). The current
popularity of herbal medicine has inspired a
re-evaluation of our global medical roots, with their
rich source of effective medicines that certainly
have their place in modern medical practice.
Herbs such as garlic, ginkgo, ginseng, echinacea
and St John’s wort have proved themselves to the
world, becoming household names in the process, Traditional Chinese herbal treatment has been shown
and many are recommended by some doctors. to be effective in treating eczema.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 7
Shamanic Healing
The earliest known herbalists of every culture were
shamans – important men or women whose instincts were
raised to a highly intuitive level through years of training to
develop their inner eye. This deeper perception enabled
them to communicate directly with the plant and spirit
world, and to visit other realities through their own spirit
allies.
Origins in Africa, Central America and South America,
Shamanistic practices are said to predate all where it is an important part of the culture
organised religions, dating back to the Paleolithic and used alongside, or as an alternative to, any
and Neolithic periods. Many shamanic tradi- available modern medicine. Belief in witchcraft
tions, including European, Tibetan, Mongolian, and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America,
Korean, Japanese, and Native American from is still prevalent in many shamanic societies. Some
both North and South America, originally came cultures, including several from Africa, distinguish
from Siberia and metamorphosed as they traveled shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm,
to other parts of the world. African slaves took while others believe that all shamans have the
their shamanic traditions to America, where they power to both cure and kill. Shamanism is also
merged divination and other rituals with Christian still practiced in South Korea, Japan, Vietnam,
practices to produce, for example, Haitian voodoo Inuit and Eskimo cultures, Papua New Guinea,
(vodou), Cuban santería, and Brazilian candomblé. Australia and Tibet.
Elsewhere, shamanism became absorbed into
religion, clearly shown in, for example, Tibetan The Shaman’s Journey
Buddhism. In some cultures, the early shamans In some cultures the shaman’s powers are believed
were known as priest physicians. They were also to be inherited, while in others a shaman follows
sorcerers, magicians, diviners; intermediaries a “calling”, sometimes from their dreams, and
between the mortal and the spirit worlds. endures rigorous training. Initiation occurs often
through a transformational experience, which
Contemporary Shamanism could be a serious illness, or being struck by
Today, shamanism is still alive and well especially lightning. In North America, Native Americans
in Siberia. It exists in a variety of different forms, may seek communion with the spirit world through
mainly among indigenous peoples in rural areas, a “vision quest”, while an aspiring shaman in
often as the main form of treatment available. It is South America might apprentice themselves to a
also found in cities and shantytowns, particularly respected shaman.
8 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR
Shamans enter altered states of consciousness, spirit responsible. Incense and aromatic plants
often ecstatic trance states, journeying to the beat are often burnt as tools of transformation to help
of a drum or rattle, or using singing, music, sweat transport the minds of the participants to another
lodges, vision quests, or fasting to communicate dimension – the origins of modern aromatherapy.
with other realms of reality and the entities that Spells, incantations, amulets and ritual dances are
guide them (a teacher, a spirit guide from the used to dispel or placate the spirits thought to be
animal or plant world or a totem), asking for responsible for the patient’s ill health.
wisdom and guidance. In this way they gain their
knowledge and power. The shaman’s journey is Shamanism Today
intended to help the patient or community to There has been a surge of interest in shamanic
rediscover their connection to nature and spirit. culture in the past few years, and many contem-
In the Ecuadorian and Peruvian rainforests, porary therapists are incorporating some of the
shamans are known as curanderos. Some base their traditional practices into their work. Some are
healing work on the use of ayahuasca, a hallucino- attracted to healing practices from the East or
genic plant that can induce divine revelation and Native American traditions, while others access
healing, mental and emotional as well as physical. the roots of European shamanism, with its
Visiting an Ayahuasquero has become popular mystical beliefs and practices that were suppressed
among Western spiritual seekers who can now go by the Christian church.
on tours into the jungle for just this purpose. In their healing work, a shaman can bring
Other Native American shamans alter their about transformation of the energy and
consciousness through the use of mind altering experience of the patient. Loss of vital energy
plants such as psychedelic mushrooms, cannabis, from stress, trauma, illness, or accidents can cause
San Pedro cactus, peyote, datura, fly agaric and what is known as “soul loss” and this is remedied
salvia divinorum. In so doing, shamans can put by “soul retrieval” where the energy and part
themselves at risk. They therefore use rituals to
protect themselves from enemies and rivals in the
spirit and human world. Many of the plants they
use are poisonous in large doses, and not being
able to return from out of body experiences can
be fatal. These plants are best used under the
guidance of an authentic shaman.
Illness in shamanism is generally attributed to
spiritual causes. It could be the bad will of another
towards the patient, the work of evil spirits, witch-
craft or divine intervention, and both spiritual
and physical methods are used to heal, depending
on what is recommended in the spirit world. In
the healing rituals the shaman will “enter the A Tongan shaman in Zambia sits among his
body” of the patient to confront and banish the remedies, which include gourds and animal horns.
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 9
of the patient’s life that has been traumatised enhancing their own relationship to their power
is returned and healed. Loss of power, caused animal and enable them to make changes in their
by stress, pressure, abusive relationships, lack of lives. Plant spirit medicine, in which the shaman
love and support for example, leading to feelings calls on the healing spirit of a plant to help the
of low self esteem, can be remedied through the patient, often forms part of the healing. Plant
shaman’s connection to their patient’s power spirits can be summoned by songs. Totem items
animal; they can re-empower the patient through like rocks with special powers are also used.
Humoral Medicine
Around the time of the development of the Ancient Greek
empire, the transition from hunter-gatherer to nomadic
tribes, and then into farming communities, meant the
development of trade and agriculture. At this time huge
advances in the development of medicine were taking
place.
As densely populated centres of trade developed, the influence of environmental factors, including
they incubated epidemics of diseases including diet, water, hygiene, climate and society.
malaria, tuberculosis, measles, digestive and chest Hippocrates has been called “the father of
infections, caused by the insanitary living condi- medicine” as he laid down many of the principles
tions. These presented challenges to shamans with of medicine and his work formed the basis
their ritualistic approaches to healing. Shamanic for medical theory and practice that has been
practice and control gave way to complex philo- developed until the present day. He emphasised
sophical systems of medical theory and practice the value of ethical medicine, working for the
arising from the increase in trade and travel, and benefit of the sick and not the physician’s pocket
the exchange of ideas between cultures of Egypt, alone and this is incorporated in the Hippocratic
Syria, Persia, China and India. oath still used in modern medical schools today.
He taught close observation of patients through
The Father of Medicine the senses, touch, smell, taste and sound and
The increasingly sophisticated and educated encouraged keeping written case histories and
clientele of the physicians expected good results and basing treatment on results. He promoted
a rationale behind their prescriptions. This was the addressing the whole person, not suppression
beginning of rational medicine, and theories were of the symptoms, and enhancing the ability of
developed to explain patterns of illness. Physicians the body to heal itself through herbs, fresh air,
studied studied anatomy, physiology and surgery exercise, bathing and diet. He is recorded as using
at the great medical school of Alexandria in around 400 herbs.
Egypt. One of the greatest legacies of this period
of learning was the development of holistic The Five Elements
medicine, largely inspired by the great 5th century Hippocrates’ humoral system of medicine paral-
BC philosopher and physician Hippocrates, who leled other great traditional systems with five
observed that the body was subject to natural laws element theory that existed at the time in India
and that susceptibility to illness depended on a and China. He saw that all matter could be
person’s constitution, hereditary tendencies, and explained by the five basic elements, ether, air, fire,
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 11
over-indulgence, giving rise to problems such developed here survived into medieval Europe
as gout and diarrhoea. Cool dry herbs such through the writers and scholars of the Arab
as burdock or figwort were used to balance the world.
humours. Galen (131-200 AD), another notable Greek
physician, studied at the Alexandrian school and
Great Greek Herbals later became renowned as surgeon to the gladi-
Another famous Greek physician was ators in Rome, and personal physician to the
Theophrastus (372-286 BC), a friend and pupil Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD). In his
of Aristotle, who inherited Aristotle’s garden herbal De Simplicibus he expanded on Hippocrates’
and library and wrote the first important herbal, philosophy and classification of herbs into the
Enquiry into Plants, which has survived until today. four humours. His works became the standard
He listed 500 healing plants, and the properties medical text of Rome and later of the Arab physi-
of oils and spices, basing much of his work on cians and medieval monks. His theories are still
Aristotle’s botanical writings that expanded much clearly to be found in Unani Tibb medicine today
of Hippocrates’ work. Another great source of (pages 20-23).
herbal knowledge derives from the Alexandrian Pedanius Dioscorides was a Greek physician
school, which enabled Greek medicine to flourish serving with the Roman army during the reign
– it drew on Greek herbal knowledge as well as of Emperor Nero, which allowed him to travel
Egyptian, Sumerian and Assyrian healing tradi- extensively in Asia Minor. Around 60 AD he
tions, and included knowledge brought back set himself the enormous task of collating all
from campaigns in Asia. The strong traditions the current knowledge on medicinal plants and
healing substances in one work, De Materia Medica. the Dark Ages (around 200-800 AD) knowledge of
It included discussion of the components of herbs and the use of the great herbals was pushed
perfumes and their medicinal properties, and the underground and scientific research and writing
aromatic herbs used for these included balm, basil, in Europe came to a halt.
coriander, fennel, garlic, hyssop, marjoram, mint, However, the highly sophisticated Arab culture
myrtle, rosemary and violet. His famous herbal of the time maintained and developed the healing
provided the major source of herbal knowledge legacy of the Greeks, merging it with their ancient
for all the herbals that followed for the next 1500 folk medicine and surviving Egyptian traditions.
years and has been copied and quoted to the By 900 AD, all Greek herbal and botanical texts
present day. that had survived were translated into Arabic in the
cultural centres of Cairo, Damascus and Baghdad.
Continuing Legacy When Arab armies invaded North Africa and
Under the Romans the Catholic papacy grew Spain they took with them their knowledge of
more powerful, and the early Christians, feeling healing plants and medicine. In Spain, particularly
that the church, rather than physicians, should be in Cordoba, schools of medicine were established
responsible for health of mind and soul, started to that kept alive the Greek and Arabic medical
repress the use of many “pagan” herbs. In 529 AD traditions in the medieval period, spreading the
Pope Gregory the Great ruled that learning that teachings throughout Europe. Indeed, as late as
was not in accordance with the political ambitions the 18th century, the standard textbook in use in
of the papacy should be forbidden. Thus, during medieval schools across Europe, Avicenna’s Canon
Medicinae or The Canon of Medicine, was a fusion
of ancient Greek, Arabic and Indian systems of
medicine and herbal healing.
The knowledge of humoral medicine preserved
by the Arabic schools can be seen in some of today’s
practice of herbal medicine. Rudolf Steiner, for
example, derived many of his ideas of
anthroposophical medicine from Graeco-Arabic
thought. His four temperaments are related to
the dominance of one or more of the four levels
of self. Choleric with the ego (which Steiner
associates with warmth and “fire”), sanguine with
the astral body, phlegmatic with the etheric body,
and melancholic with the physical body. The
personality types described by Hans Eysenck
(basically extrovert and introvert) are also divided
into four different types resembling the
Steiner’s theory of temperaments divides personalities into
four types, and explains how each type relates to the others, influence of the humours. Introverted types tend
and the world. to be melancholic and phlegmatic, while
extroverts tend to be choleric and sanguine.
14 THE COMPLETE HERBAL TUTOR
Unani Tibb
Between the 9th and 13th centuries, Graeco-Roman
medicine from Hippocrates and Galen was assimilated
by the Arabs, and an Arabic tradition of medicine, known
as Unani Tibb, developed. The word Unani (meaning
“Ionian”) reflects the strong Greek influence to this
tradition, while Tibb means the knowledge of the states of
the human body in health and disease.
gives a sanguine temperament; a predominance of and make observations of their skin, tongue, eyes,
phlegm makes one phlegmatic; yellow bile, bilious hands and nails. They will also take their pulse, as
or choleric; and black bile, melancholic. As long as a considerable amount of information about the
these humours are in balance, the human system patient’s state of health can be gleaned from this
is healthy; it is imbalance which leads to ill health in just minutes.
and disease. Unani classifies health in three different stages:
Each individual has their own innate healing health, disease and neutral. Neutral exists between
mechanisms, akin to ojas in Ayurveda and known health and disease when symptoms have not yet
in Unani as the tabiyat-e-muddabare badan, which is manifested. Disease occurs when the functions
considered the best physician, and it is this that associated with the vital, natural and psychic
maintains the equilibrium of the four humours or forces of the body are obstructed or unbalanced
akhlat so that we can be in good health and the due to some form of deviation.
happy state of mind that is our birthright. Symptoms of illness are seen in a positive
light, as an opportunity to cleanse and balance
Disciplines and Diagnoses us on physical, emotional, mental, as well as
There are eight branches of Unani medicine spiritual levels. Pain, for example, is a message
resembling those in the Ayurvedic system: that something is wrong, the underlying causes
• Internal medicine (moalijat) of which need to be addressed so that our health
• Gynaecology including obstetrics and can be better in the future. A “healing crisis”
paediatrics is simply tabiyat, or the homoeostatic mecha-
• Diseases of the head and neck nisms of the body attempting to eliminate toxins
• Toxicology through vomiting, diarrhoea, fevers, sweating,
• Psychiatry and increased urination in order to re-establish
• Rejuvenation therapy including geriatrics equilibrium of the humours, health and well
• Sexology being.
• Regimental therapy
• Dietotherapy
• Hydrotherapy
Tibetan Medicine
Tibetan Medicine is a highly evolved system of medicine
that developed as a synthesis of medical knowledge
and wisdom from Indian Ayurveda, Chinese medicine,
Greek medicine and Unani Tibb. Its origins can be traced
back to at least the 7th century. It also incorporated
Buddhist philosophy that was introduced to Tibet over
two thousand years ago. Being deeply rooted in Buddhist
philosophy, its perspective is that physical illness is
inextricably bound with mental, social and spiritual illness.
Tibetan medicine has developed into a sophisti- of five elements: earth, water, fire, wind and
cated and complex medical science with intricate space. These are symbols for matter, cohesion, energy,
theories about causes of disease, diagnosis and movement and space that affect the mind as well as
therapeutics, and has existed in its present form the body. The universe and the body are a result
for over one thousand years. Sangye Menla, the of the interplay of these five elements, which
“medicine Buddha”, is respected as the source of manifest themselves in the form of energy into
medical teachings and the inspiration for correct three humours or energies:
practice as a physician. The essential aspects of 1. Wind (rLung, pronunciation loong) is vital for
this teaching are summarised in the rGyud-Bzhi movement, responsible for breathing, circu-
(pronunciation giu shi) or the Four Medical Tantras, lation of bodily fluids including blood and
the twelfth century text in four volumes, which is lymph, mental activity like thinking, speech,
still taught today. The Tibetan system of healing, energy, and transmission of nerve impulses.
known as sowa rigpa, or the knowledge of healing, There are five subcategories of rLung each with
is still practiced in Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, different locations and functions: Srog-’Dzin
Sikkim, Ladakh, Siberia, China, Russia and rLung, Gyen-rGyu rLung, Khyab-Byed rLung,
Mongolia, as well as in parts of Europe and North Me-mNyam rLung, Thur-Sel rLung.
America.
2. Bile (mKhrispa, pronunciation Tripa) is heating
The Three Humours energy, which regulates digestion and metab-
Like other Asian systems of medicine, Tibetan olism, liver function and maintains body
medicine is based on the principle that everything temperature and the discriminating mind.
in the cosmos, including human life, is composed The five subcategories of mKhris-pa are Ju-Byed
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 19
mKhris-pa, sGrub-Byed mKhris-pa, mDangs-sGyur out of balance. The three energies are present
mKhris-pa, mThong-Byed, mKhris-pa, mDog-Sel in different proportions in each person and
mKhris-pa. determine their constitution including their body
shape, temperament, and susceptibility to specific
3. Phlegm (Badkan, pronunciation Beken) governs health problems.
the structure of the physical body such as bone
and muscle as well as mucous membranes. It is Balancing the Humours
responsible for some aspects of digestion, the Another important concept in Tibetan medicine
maintenance of our physical structure, joint is the dichotomy between warm and cold.
health and mental stability. The five subcat- Diseases, as well as remedies and food, are distin-
egories of Bad-kan are: rTen-Byed Bad-kan, guished as warm and cold or as warming and
Myag-byed Bad-kan, Myong-Byed Bad-kan, cooling respectively. mKhrispa is warm and badkan
Tsim-Byed Bad-kan, Byor-Byed Bad-kan. is cool. rLung is a special case and is basically
neutral, it can aggravate “warm” and “cold”,
Health depends on the equilibrium of the much like wind is able to boost a fire as well as
humours, so disease is caused when they are cool down the body. A rLung imbalance is at the
root of most diseases.
The understanding of physiology is governed
by the dynamic interaction of three humours
(rLung, mKhrispa and badkan). Health is a dynamic
equilibrium and is therefore relative because
all three humours must be in a corresponding
balance for each individual. The aim of Tibetan
therapy is thus to restore this equilibrium in the
patient.
Tibetan medicine stresses the importance of and preventing unwanted side effects. Herbs that
compassion in healing. are used in the Tibetan tradition include amalaki,
Diagnosis of imbalance and disease involves roses, calendula, nettles, coriander, cinnamon,
observation and an in-depth interview of the cardamom, ginger, garlic, rhodiola, gentian and
patient, taking the pulse, and examining urine liquorice. Medicines are considered to be offerings
and faeces as well as the tongue. Once the to the Medicine Buddha and other medicine
imbalance of the humours has been ascertained, deities and are prepared with spiritual rituals by
treatment specific to the individual is recom- traditional methods of drying, grinding, mixing
mended, designed to re-establish mental harmony and pressing the plants to make pills, powders or
and equilibrium of the three humours. This can decoctions.
include advice on lifestyle, exercise, conduct and The annexation of Tibet by the People’s
behaviour, healing of the mind through mantras Republic of China (PRC) in the 1950s had
and meditation, yoga, moxibustion (burning of a great impact on Tibetan medicine. During
the herb mugwort), the use of herbs, vegetable the Cultural Revolution in particular, practi-
and mineral supplements, massage and inhala- tioners suffered great persecution, and clinical
tions with specially formulated herbal oils, practice, study and research largely censored by
bathing, cupping and occasionally acupuncture. the repressive Chinese. Nevertheless, Tibetan
Foods and herbs all consist of their own individual medicine has survived almost intact. His Holiness
balance of the five elements and three humours. the 14th Dalai Lama lives in exile in Dharamasala
Foods and diets appropriate to each patient and and has been a powerful influence in Tibetan
the balance of the humours are recommended,
and this includes quantities of food, and when
they are eaten. HERBS COMMONLY USED IN
TIBETAN MEDICINE
Herbal Medicines
If dietary and behavioural changes are not Allium sativum (see page 102)
sufficient to remedy the condition, herbs are Calendula officinalis (see page 132)
prescribed. The Tibetan Materia Medica consists Cinnamomum zeylanicum (see page 142)
largely of medicinal herbs, as well as minerals Coriandrum sativum (see page 148)
and, to a lesser extent, animal substances. As in Elettaria cardamomum (see page 159)
Ayurveda, medicinal substances are grouped Emblica officinalis (see page 161)
according to their properties, their taste (sweet, Gentiana lutea (see page 175)
sour, salty, bitter, pungent and astringent), their Glycyrrhiza glabra (see page 178)
potency (heavy/light, oily/rough, hot/cold Myristica fragrans (see page 204)
and blunt/sharp) and the effect of these on the Rhodiola rosea (see page 224)
humours. Tibetan medicines are frequently Rosa spp (see page 225)
composed of 20 or more different ingredients, and Urtica dioica (see page 257)
include one major group of ingredients and two Zingiber officinale (see page 274)
minor ones aimed at supporting the major group
GLOBAL HERBAL TRADITIONS 21
medicine. In 1961 he founded the Men-Tsee- publication of medical and astrological texts.
Khang (the Tibetan Medical and Astrological There are other schools and clinics in Tibet, India
Institute – TMAI) which has a college of Tibetan and Nepal and recently huge pharmaceutical
medicine, a clinic, a pharmacy that produces and factories have started making traditional Tibetan
dispenses medicines, and carries out research and formulas in China.
Ayurvedic Medicine
The name Ayurveda derives from two Sanskrit words:
ayur meaning life, and veda meaning knowledge or
science. Ayurveda is the knowledge or science of life.
More than just a system of medicine, Ayurveda is a way
of life encompassing science, religion and philosophy that
enhances well being, increases longevity and ultimately
enables self realisation. It aims to bring about a union
of physical, emotional and spiritual health or swasthya,
which is a prerequisite for attaining moksha or liberation.
The lotus flower, with its far reaching roots, symbolises the
Ayurvedic approach to deep individual healing.
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friend Bachman having found eggs, and young just hatched, as late
as the 28th of that month. In North Carolina, where only a few pairs
breed, it is later by a fortnight.
I have already expressed my opinion that birds which thus breed so
much earlier in one section of the country than in another, especially
when at great distances, may, after producing one or even two
broods, in the same year, still have time enough to proceed toward
higher latitudes for the purpose of again breeding. Actual
observations have moreover satisfied me that individuals of the
same species produced in warm latitudes have a stronger
disposition toward reproduction than those of more northern
climates. This being the case, and most birds endowed with the
power of migrating, having a tendency to exercise it, may we not
suppose that the pair of Anhingas which bred on the St John’s in
February, might be inclined to breed again either in South Carolina
or in the neighbourhood of Natchez, several months after. But, as
yet, I have not been able to adduce positive proof of the accuracy of
this opinion.
The nest of the Snake-bird is variously placed in different localities;
sometimes in low bushes, and even on the common smilax, not
more than eight or ten feet above the water, if the place be secluded,
or on the lower or top branches of the highest trees, but always over
the water. In Louisiana and the State of Mississippi, where I have
seen a goodly number of nests, they were generally placed on very
large and tall cypresses, growing out of the central parts of lakes and
ponds, or overhanging the borders of lagoons, bayous, or rivers,
distant from inhabited places. They are frequently placed singly, but
at times amidst hundreds or even thousands of nests of several
species of Herons, especially Ardea alba and A. Herodias, the Great
White and Great Blue Herons. As however in all cases the form,
size, and component materials are nearly the same, I will here
describe a nest procured for the purpose by my friend Bachman.
It measured fully two feet in diameter, and was of a flattened form,
much resembling that of the Florida Cormorant. The first or bottom
layer was made of dry sticks of different sizes, some nearly half an
inch in diameter, laid crosswise, but in a circular manner. Green
branches with leaves on them, of the common myrtle, Myrica
cerifera, a quantity of Spanish moss, and some slender roots,
formed the upper and inside layer, which was as solid and compact
as that of any nest of the Heron tribe. This nest contained four eggs;
another examined on the same day had four young birds; a third only
three; and in no instance has a nest of the Anhinga been found with
either eight eggs, or “two eggs and six young ones,” as mentioned
by Mr Abbott, of Georgia, in his notes transmitted to Wilson. Mr
Abbott is however correct in saying that this species “will occupy
the same tree for a series of years,” and I have myself known a pair
to breed in the same nest three seasons, augmenting and repairing it
every succeeding spring, as Cormorants and Herons are wont to do.
The eggs average two inches and five-eighths in length, by one and
a quarter in diameter, and are of an elongated oval form, of a dull
uniform whitish colour externally, being covered with a chalky
substance, beneath which the shell, on being carefully scraped, is of
a light blue, precisely resembling in this respect the eggs of the
different species of American Cormorants with which I am
acquainted.
The young when about a fortnight old are clad with a uniform buff-
coloured down; their bill is black, their feet yellowish-white, their
head and neck nearly naked; and now they resemble young
Cormorants, though of a different colour. The wing feathers make
their appearance through the down, and are dark brown. The birds in
the same nest differ as much in size as those of Cormorants, the
largest being almost twice the size of the smallest. At this age they
are in the habit of raising themselves by placing their bills on the
upper part of the nest, or over a branch if convenient, and drawing
themselves up by their jaws, which on such occasions they open
very widely. This habit is continued by young birds whilst in
confinement, and was also observed in the Cormorant,
Phalacrocorax Carbo, the young of which assisted themselves with
their bills while crawling about on the deck of the Ripley. The action
is indeed performed by the Anhinga at all periods of its life. At an
early age the young utter a low wheezing call, and at times some
cries resembling those of the young of the smaller species of
Herons. From birth they are fed by regurgitation, which one might
suppose an irksome task to the parent birds, as during the act they
open their wings and raise their tails. I have not been able to
ascertain the period of incubation, but am sure that the male and the
female sit alternately, the latter however remaining much longer on
the nest. Young Anhingas when approached while in the nest cling
tenaciously to it, until seized, and if thrown down, they merely float
on the water, and are easily captured. On the contrary, the young
Florida Cormorants throw themselves into the water, and dive at
once.
When they are three weeks old, the quills and tail-feathers grow
rapidly, but continue of the same dark-brown colour, and so remain
until they are able to fly, when they leave the nest, although they still
present a singular motley appearance, the breast and back being
buff-coloured, while the wings and tail are nearly black. After the
feathers of the wings and tail are nearly fully developed, those of the
sides of the body and breast become visible through the down, and
the bird appears more curiously mottled than before. The young
male now assumes the colour of the adult female, which it retains
until the beginning of October, when the breast becomes streaked
with dusky; white spots shew themselves on the back, the black of
which becomes more intense, and the crimpings on the two middle
feathers of the tail, which have been more or less apparent from the
first, are now perfect. By the middle of February, the male is in full
plumage, but the eyes have not yet acquired their full colour, being
only of a dull reddish-orange. In this respect also two differences are
observed between the Anhinga and the Cormorants. The first is the
rapid progress of the Anhinga towards maturity of plumage, the other
the retaining of its complete dress through the whole of its life, no
change taking place in its colours at each successive moult. The
Cormorants, on the contrary, take three or four years to attain their
full dress of the love season, which lasts only during that period of
excitement. The progress of the plumage in the female Anhinga is as
rapid as in the male, and the tints also remain unaltered through
each successive moult.
Like all other carnivorous and piscivorous birds, the Anhinga can
remain days and nights without food, apparently without being much
incommoded. When overtaken on being wounded, and especially if
brought to the ground, it seems to regard its enemies without fear.
On several occasions of this kind, I have seen it watch my approach,
or that of my dog, standing as erect as it could under the pain of its
wounds, with its head drawn back, its bill open, and its throat swelled
with anger until, when at a sure distance, it would dart its head
forward and give a severe wound. One which had thus struck at my
dog’s nose, hung to it until dragged to my feet over a space of thirty
paces. When seized by the neck, they scratch severely with their
sharp claws, and beat their wings about you with much more vigour
than you would suppose they could possess. Having witnessed the
singular means employed by this bird in making its escape on
sudden emergencies, I will here relate an instance, which evinces a
kind of reason. Whilst ascending the St John’s river in East Florida,
along with Captain Piercy of the U. S. Navy, our boat was rowed
into a circular basin of clear shallow water, having a sandy bottom;
such places being found occasionally in that country, produced by
the flowing of springs from the more elevated sandy parts into the
muddy rivers and lakes. We entered the cove by passing between
the branches of low trees, overhung by others of great height. The
first object that attracted my attention was a female Anhinga perched
on the opposite side of the cove, and, as I did not wish that it should
be shot, we merely advanced towards it, when it began to throw its
head about, and watch our motions. The place was small, and the
enclosing trees high. Though it might have flown upwards and
escaped, it remained perched, but evidently perturbed and
apprehensive of danger. When the boat was at a short distance,
however, it suddenly threw itself backward, cutting a somerset as it
were, and, covered by the branches, darted straight through the
tangled forest, and was soon out of sight. Never before nor since
have I seen or heard of Anhingas flying through the woods.
For the following description of the Snake-bird’s breeding grounds, a
few miles distant from Charleston in South Carolina, I am indebted to
my friend John Bachman:—“On the 28th of June 1837,
accompanied by Dr Wilson, Dr Drayton, and William Ramsay,
Esq., I went to Chisholm Pond, about seven miles from the city, for
the purpose of seeing the Anhingas while breeding. The day was
fine, and in about an hour our horses brought us to the margin of the
swamp. We soon discovered a bird flying over us, and making for
the upper part of the pond toward a retired place, rendered almost
inaccessible in consequence of its being a morass overgrown with
vines and rushes. As there was no other way of examining their
locality but by water, we hauled ashore a small leaky canoe which
we found in the pond, caulked it in the best manner we could, so as
to render it not unsafe, although after all we could do to it, we found
it still very leaky. It proved uncomfortable enough, and could hold
only two persons. So it was agreed that I should proceed in it,
accompanied by a servant, who understood well how to paddle it.
“The pond is artificial, and such as in this country is called a
“Reserve.” It is situated at the upper part of rice fields, and is
intended to preserve water sufficient, when needed, to irrigate and
overflow the rice. It is studded with small islands, covered by a thick
growth of a small species of Laurel (Laurus geniculata) and the
Black Willow (Salix nigra), all entangled by various species of Smilax
and other plants. These were at the time covered with Herons’ nests
of several kinds. Farther on the Night Herons also had formed a city.
As I proceeded onwards in my search I found the difficulties
increasing. The water became shallow, the mire deeper and softer,
and the boat required the best of management to be propelled along,
for now it was retarded by rushes and vines. Enormous live oaks and
cypress trees reared their majestic branches towards the pure sky
above, covered as they were with dangling masses of Spanish
moss, reaching to the very surface of the water, and turning day into
night. Alligators of great size wallowed in the mire, or were heard to
plunge into it, from the many logs which ever and anon intercepted
my progress, while terrapins, snakes, and other reptiles swarmed
around. My situation was thus not altogether so very pleasant, and
the less so as it was necessary for me to destroy as many
musquitoes as possible, and guard against being upset in such a
truly “dismal swamp.” We moved extremely slowly, yet advanced,
and at last, having reached an open space where the trees were of
small size and height, I espied the nest of the Anhinga before me!
The female was sitting on it, but on our coming nearer she raised
herself by her bill to a branch about one foot above, and there stood
with outstretched neck, like a statue. It was cruel thus to disturb her
in her own peaceful solitude; but naturalists, alas! seldom consider
this long, when the object of their pursuit is in their view and almost
within their grasp. Being now within twenty yards of the innocent and
interesting creature, I pointed my short rifle towards her, and
immediately fired; but the unsteadiness of the canoe, and perhaps
that of a hand not accustomed to this weapon, saved her life. She
remained in her statue-like posture, the rifle was reloaded, and thrice
fired, without touching her; but at last a bullet having cut through the
branch on which she stood, she spread her dark pinions, and
launching into the air, was soon beyond the reach of my eyes, and I
trust of further danger.”
The same kind friend having procured eggs and young of this
interesting bird, I will present you with his observations respecting
them. He writes thus:—“I brought home three young Snake-birds,
two of which I immediately undertook to raise and domesticate,
entrusting the third to the care of one of our mutual friends. I found
no difficulty in rearing one of them. The other, by neglect of my
servant, died a few weeks afterwards, during a short personal
absence. Whilst these two birds were yet in the same cage, it was
curious indeed to see the smaller one when hungry incessantly
trying to force its bill into the mouth and throat of the other, which,
after being thus teased for a short time, would open its mouth to
suffer the little one to thrust its whole head down the throat of its
brother, from which it would receive the fish that the latter had
previously swallowed. In this singular manner did the larger bird,
which after awhile proved to be a male, continue to act as if the
foster-parent of his little sister, which indeed seemed to be thrown
upon his protection. The one still in my possession is fed on fish,
which it picks up, tosses a few times in the air, and swallows at the
first convenient opportunity, that is when the fish falls towards its
mouth head foremost. At the onset, when the fish was large, I had it
cut into pieces, thinking that the apparent slenderness of the bird’s
neck could not expand enough to swallow it whole; but I soon
ascertained that this was unnecessary. Fish three times the size of
the neck were tossed in the expanded jaws and gobbled at once,
and immediately after, the bird would come to my feet, clicking its bill
in such an unequivocal manner that I never failed to give it more. My
pet was tame from the beginning of its captivity, and followed me
about the house, the yard, and garden, until I thought it quite
troublesome in consequence of its peculiar attachment to me. The
one given to our friend was fed on fish and raw beef; but although it
grew to its full size, never seemed to thrive as well as the one I had,
and finally died of an affection causing spasms. This was a female,
and although less bright in colour than the adult of the same sex, the
two middle feathers of her tail were partially crimped, and her
markings were the same. While in the young state I frequently
carried it to a pond, believing that it would relish the water, and would
improve in health; but I invariably found it to scramble towards the
shore as soon as possible, as if dreading the element in which it was
by nature destined to live. When thrown into the pond, it usually
dived at once, but the next instant arose to the surface, and swam
with all the buoyancy of a common duck. It is a fearless bird, keeping
at bay the hens and turkeys in the yard, and never sparing any dog
that chances to pass by it, dealing blows right and left with its sharp
bill, and occasionally placing itself at the trough where they are fed,
to prevent them from taking a morsel of food till he has tantalized
them sufficiently, when he leaves them to share whatever he does
not himself relish.
“It was not until my bird was fully fledged that I found it willing or
anxious to go to the water, and then, whenever it saw me go toward
the pond, it accompanied me as far as the gate of the garden,
seeming to say “Pray let me go.” On my opening this gate, it at once
followed me waddling along like a duck, and no sooner was it in sight
of its favourite element than it immediately let itself in, not with a
plunge or a dive, but by dropping from a plank into the stream, where
for a while it would swim like a duck, then, dipping its long neck, it
would dive for the purpose of procuring fish. The water was clear
enough to enable me to see all its movements, and after many
various windings it would emerge at the distance of forty or fifty
yards. This bird sleeps in the open air during warm nights, perched
on the highest bar of the fence, with its head under its wings, placed
there from above its back, and in rainy weather it often sits in the
same position for nearly the whole day. It appears to be very
susceptible of cold, retreating to the kitchen and near the fire,
battling with the dogs or the cooks for the most comfortable place on
the hearth. Whenever the sun shines, it spreads its wings and tail,
rustles its feathers, and seems delighted with our warmest sunny
days. When walking and occasionally hopping, it does not support
itself by the tail, as Cormorants sometimes do. When fishes are
presented to it, it seizes and swallows them greedily; but when these
cannot be procured, we are forced to feed it on meat, when it opens
its mouth, and receives the food placed in it. Occasionally it has
spent several days without any food; but in those cases the bird
became very troublesome, harassing all around by its incessant
croakings, and giving blows to the servants, as if to remind them of
their neglect.
“Once it made its escape, and flew off about a quarter of a mile into
the pond. Some boys happening to be there in a canoe, the bird
approached them with open mouth, for it was hungry and wanted
food. They seeing such a strange creature pursuing them with a
head somewhat like that of a snake, took alarm and paddled for the
shore; but my bird followed in their wake, and landed as soon as
they did. They now fled to the house, where the Anhinga also
arrived, and was recognised by some members of the family, who
sent it back to me; and I, to prevent its farther escape or loss, clipped
one of its wings.”
I saw the bird above mentioned at my friend’s house at Charleston in
the winter of 1836, when on my way to the Gulf of Mexico, and had
many opportunities of watching its habits. It was killed by a beautiful
retriever presented to me by the Earl of Derby, and its death
occasioned sorrow both to my friend and myself, as he had given it
to me for the purpose of being sent to that nobleman.
Ever since I have been acquainted with the Anhinga, I have thought
that in form and habits it is intimately connected with the
Cormorants, and was induced to compare their manners. In some
respects I found them similar, in others different; but when I
discovered that all these birds possess a remarkable peculiarity in
the structure of their feathers, I thought that their generic affinity
could not be denied. The Anhinga has its body and neck covered
with what I would call fibrous feathers, having a very slender shaft;
while its quills and tail-feathers are compact, that is, perfect in
structure, strong, and elastic. Now the shafts of all these latter
feathers are tubular from their bases to their very extremities, which,
in so far as I know, is not the case in any other bird, excepting the
Cormorants. They are all very elastic, like those in the tails of our
largest Woodpeckers, the shafts of which, however, are filled with a
spongy pith, as in all other land-birds, and in all the aquatic species
which I have examined, including Divers and Grebes, as well as
Plungers, such as Gannets, Kings-fishers, and Fishing Hawks. The
quills and tail-feathers of the Cormorants and Anhinga, in short, have
the barrel as in other birds, but the shaft hollow, even to the tip, its
walls being transparent, and of the same nature as the barrel.
Wilson, who, it is acknowledged, made his figures from stuffed
specimens in the Philadelphia Museum, had no positive proof that
the bird which he took for a female was one, for he had not seen the
Anhinga alive or recently killed. Even his continuator, Mr Ord,
procured only males during his visit to the Floridas. But the female
which I have represented was proved to be of that sex by dissection,
and was examined by myself nineteen years ago near Bayou Sara.
Since that time I have had numerous opportunities of satisfying
myself as to this point, by examining birds in various stages.
The substances which I have found in many individuals of this
species were fishes of various kinds, aquatic insects, crays, leeches,
shrimps, tadpoles, eggs of frogs, water-lizards, young alligators,
water-snakes, and small terrapins. I never observed any sand or
gravel in the stomach. On some occasions I found it distended to the
utmost, and, as I have already stated, the bird has great powers of
digestion. Its excrements are voided in a liquid state, and squirted to
a considerable distance, as in Cormorants, Hawks, and all birds of
prey.
The flesh of the Anhinga, after the bird is grown, is dark, firm, oily,
and unfit for food, with the exception of the smaller pectoral muscles
of the female, which are white and delicate. The crimpings of the two
middle tail-feathers become more deeply marked during the
breeding season, especially in the male. When young, the female
shews them only in a slight degree, and never has them so decided
as the male.
Plotus Anhinga, Linn. Syst. Nat., vol. i. p. 218.—Lath. Ind. Ornith., vol. ii. p.
895.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of the United States, p. 411.
Plotus melanogaster, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 895.
Black-bellied Darter, Plotus melanogaster, Wils. Amer. Ornith., vol. ix.
p. 75. pl. 74, fig. 1. adult, and p. 82. pl. 74, fig. 2. young.
Black-bellied Darter, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 507.