Bonding in Carbon - The Covalent Bond

Element Carbon

Atomic Number 6

Electronic Configuration 2, 4

Valence Electrons 4 (Carbon is tetravalent because it has 4 valence electrons)

Valency 4

Carbon neither gains nor loses 4 electrons to attain the noble gas electronic
configuration because:
 It could gain four electrons forming C 4– anion. But it would be difficult
for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four
extra electrons.
 It could lose four electrons forming C 4+ cation. But it would require a
large amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a
carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two
electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms
of carbon or with atoms of other elements.

The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outermost shells of both the atoms and lead to
both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.

Formation of Hydrogen molecule (H2)

Formation of Oxygen Molecule (O2)

Formation of Nitrogen Molecule (N3)

Formation of Methane (CH4)

Electron dot structure of methane

Formation of Ethane (C2H6)

Electron dot structure of ethane

Formation of Ethene (C2H4)

Electron dot structure of ethene

Covalent Bond

Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms
are known as covalent bonds.

Features of Covalent Compounds

 Covalent compounds do not form ions, hence they are bad conductors
of electricity.
 The forces of attraction between the molecules are not very strong.
Hence, covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points.
Versatile Nature of Carbon
The two properties of carbon that led to the huge number of carbon compounds are:

1. Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of
carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This property is
called catenation.
(Carbon exhibits catenation much more than silicon or any other element
due to its smaller size which makes the C-C bonds strong while the Si-Si
bonds are comparatively weaker due to their larger size.)
2. Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four
other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element
(Tetravalency).
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

1. Compounds of carbon having only a 1. Compounds of carbon having double or

single bond between their carbon atoms are triple bonds between their carbon atoms are
called saturated hydrocarbons. called unsaturated hydrocarbons.

2. Less reactive than unsaturated

2. More reactive than saturated hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbons.

3. General formula is CnH2n (alkenes) or CnH2n-

3. General formula is CnH2n+2.
2 (alkynes).

4. It burns with a clean flame. 4. It burns with a yellow sooty flame.

5. Substitution reaction is the characteristic 5. Addition reaction is the characteristic

property of these hydrocarbons. property of these hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons: Carbon compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are
called hydrocarbons.

Alkanes: The saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.

Alkenes: The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds
are called alkenes.
Alkynes: The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more triple bonds are
called alkynes.
Structural isomers: They have the same molecular formula but they differ in their
structures.
Structural isomers of C4H6 are
  HC ≡ C - CH2 - CH3
 H3C - C ≡ C - CH3
 H2C = C = CH - CH3
 H2C =CH - CH =CH2

Saturated Ring: Example: cyclohexane (C6H12)

Structure of cyclohexane

Unsaturated Ring: Example: benzene (C6H6)

Structure of benzene
Some functional groups in carbon compounds

Homologous Series: A series of compounds in which the same functional group

substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
Example: CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, C4H9OH, ….

Characteristics of homologous series:

1. It has a general formula in terms of the number of carbon atoms.
2. It has the same functional group.
3. The members of a homologous series i.e., homologues, have similar
chemical properties.
4. The members of a homologous series i.e., homologues, show a
gradation in physical properties with an increase in molecular mass.
5. Formulae of two successive homologues differ by -CH 2- unit.
6. The difference in molecular mass between two successive homologues
is 14 u.
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds
Combustion

Carbon burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and
light.

 C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light

 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
 CH3CH2OH (ethanol) + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light

Oxidation

Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion.

Reactions in which alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids.

Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate are oxidising

alcohols to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting material. Hence they are
known as oxidising agents.

Addition Reaction

Hydrogenation: The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to get a

saturated hydrocarbon in presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst is called
hydrogenation.

This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a nickel
catalyst.

Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have
saturated carbon chains.
Vegetable oils are ‘healthy’. Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which
are said to be harmful for health. Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be
chosen for cooking.

Substitution Reaction

In the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction.

Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one.

CH + Cl → CH Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)

4 2 3

Some Important Carbon Compounds –

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
Properties of Ethanol

 Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.

 Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all
alcoholic drinks.
 Ethanol is used to make cough syrups, tincture of iodine, etc.
 It is also used as a fuel as an additive to petroleum.
 Ethanol is soluble in water in all proportions.

Reactions of Ethanol
1. Reaction with sodium

2Na + 2CH CH OH → 2CH CH O Na (sodium ethoxide) + H

3 2 3 2
– +
2

Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of hydrogen. With ethanol, the
other product is sodium ethoxide.

2. Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon

Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in the
dehydration of ethanol to give ethene.
The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent which
removes water from ethanol.

Properties of Ethanoic Acid

 Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of

acids called carboxylic acids.
 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used
widely as a preservative in pickles.
 The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often
freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial
acetic acid.
 Carboxylic acids are weak acids.

Reactions of ethanoic acid

1. Esterification reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an

acid and an alcohol. Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence
of an acid catalyst to give an ester.

 Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making

perfumes and as flavouring agents.
 Saponification is the process of converting esters into salts of
carboxylic acids and ethanol by treating them with a base.

2. Reaction with a base

Ethanoic acid reacts with a base to give salt and water.

NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa (sodium ethanoate/sodium acetate) + H2O

3. Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give rise to salt, carbon dioxide, and water.

 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa (sodium acetate) + H2O + CO2

 CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa (sodium acetate) + H2O + CO2

Ethanol Ethanoic Acid

(Difference in Physical properties)

1. It exists only in liquid form. 1. It can exist both in liquid and solid form.

2. Functional group is alcohol. 2. Functional group is carboxylic acid.

3. It has a specific smell but not

3. It smells like vinegar.
like vinegar.

(Difference in Chemical properties)

4. Does not react with sodium 4. Reacts with sodium bicarbonate to form salt,
bicarbonate. carbon dioxide, and water.

5. No effect on litmus paper. 5. It turns blue litmus paper red.

Soaps and Detergents

Cleansing action of soaps

Most dirt is oily in nature and

oil does not dissolve in water.

The molecules of soap are

sodium or potassium salts of
long-chain carboxylic acids.

The ionic end of soap interacts

with the water while the carbon
chain interacts with oil.
The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles where one end of the
molecules is towards the oil droplet while the ionic end faces outside.

This forms an emulsion in water. The soap micelle thus helps in pulling out the dirt in
water and we can wash our clothes clean.

Soap Detergents

1. Molecules of soap are sodium or 1. Detergents are generally sodium salts of

potassium salts of long-chain sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with
carboxylic acids. chloride or bromide ions.

2. Not so effective in hard water. 2. It is effective even in hard water.

3. It forms scum in hard water. 3. Does not form scum in hard water.

4. It has poor foaming capacity. 4. It has a rich foaming capacity.

5. Most of the detergents are non-

5. Soaps are biodegradable.
biodegradable.

 The soluble salts of calcium and magnesium make the water hard.

 Scum is formed by the reaction of calcium or magnesium ions with

soap molecules. These ions react with soap molecules forming calcium
or magnesium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids which are insoluble
and precipitate out.

 Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium

salts with chlorides or bromides ions, etc.

 The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble

precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus,
they remain effective in hard water.