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 The Science and
Technology of Chapatti and
Other Indian Flatbreads
 The Science and
Technology of Chapatti and
Other Indian Flatbreads

By
Anamika Banerji
Laxmi Ananthanarayan
S.S. Lele
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Dedication

This book is dedicated to all those women who from

time immemorial have prepared countless fatbreads
as a labour of love and service to their families.
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Biography ................................................................................................................. xv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Indian fatbreads ..........................................................1

1.1 Introduction to fatbreads...........................................................1
1.2 Indian traditional meals .............................................................1
1.3 Indian fatbreads ........................................................................4
1.3.1 Chapatti........................................................................9
1.3.2 Naan .............................................................................9
1.4 The changing dynamics of Indian fatbread preparation......... 10
References .......................................................................................... 10

Chapter 2 Preparation of chapatti, other fatbreads and ingredients used.......... 11

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 11
2.2 Preparation of chapatti ............................................................ 11
2.3 Preparation of other fatbreads: paratha, naan ....................... 13
2.4 Whole wheat four (atta) and refned wheat four (maida)
as major ingredients................................................................. 14
2.5 Wheat chemistry and role of constituents in chapatti/
fatbreads.................................................................................. 15
2.5.1 Wheat proteins ........................................................... 15
2.5.2 Wheat starch ............................................................... 16
2.5.3 Non-starch polysaccharides........................................ 17
2.5.4 Wheat lipids................................................................ 17
2.5.5 Enzymes in wheat ...................................................... 18
2.5.6 Pigment....................................................................... 18
2.5.7 Polyphenols ................................................................ 19
2.5.8 Antinutritional constituents ........................................ 19
2.5.9 Micronutrients ............................................................20
2.6 Other ingredients used in chapatti/naan preparation .............20
2.6.1 Water ..........................................................................20
2.6.2 Oil ...............................................................................20
2.6.3 Ghee, butter ................................................................ 21
2.6.4 Salt .............................................................................. 21
2.6.5 Sugar........................................................................... 21
2.6.6 Sodium bicarbonate .................................................... 21
2.6.7 Culture ........................................................................ 21
2.7 Conclusions.............................................................................. 21
References .......................................................................................... 22

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Characteristics and rheology of chapatti/fatbread dough .................25

3.1 Introduction to dough rheology ..............................................25
3.2 Importance of chapatti/fatbread dough rheology...................25
3.3 R heological testing of chapatti/fatbread dough:
empirical and fundamental methods .......................................26
3.4 Characteristics of chapatti/fatbread dough ............................26
3.4.1 Water absorption ........................................................26
3.4.2 Dough stickiness ........................................................ 29
3.4.3 Dough spreadability ................................................... 29
3.4.4 Dough hardness .......................................................... 30
3.5 Subjective assessment of chapatti/fatbread dough
characteristics .......................................................................... 30
3.6 Infuence of dough constituents and their interactions on
chapatti/fatbread dough rheology .......................................... 30
3.6.1 Wheat variety ............................................................ 30
3.6.2 Gluten (wheat protein) ................................................ 31
3.6.3 Starch and starch–gluten interaction ......................... 31
3.6.4 Damaged starch .......................................................... 32
3.6.5 Water, oil and salt ....................................................... 32
3.7 Infuence of additives on chapatti/fatbread dough
rheology ................................................................................... 33
3.7.1 Effect of hydrocolloids ............................................... 33
3.7.2 Effect of surfactants ...................................................34
3.7.3 Effect of improvers (enzymes, oxidising and
reducing agents) .........................................................34
3.8 Infuence of added ingredients on chapatti/fatbread
dough rheology ........................................................................ 35
3.8.1 Effect of fbre incorporation ....................................... 35
3.8.2 Effect of incorporating isolated constituents/
cereal four/legume four/other fours ......................... 36
3.9 Impact of dough preparation on dough rheology ................... 37
3.10 Conclusions.............................................................................. 38
References .......................................................................................... 38

Chapter 4 Chapatti/fatbread characteristics, measurement and affecting

factors ................................................................................................. 43
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 43
4.2 Chapatti/fatbread characteristics and their measurement ......44
4.2.1 Colour and appearance ...............................................44
4.2.2 Aroma, taste and favour ............................................ 45
4.2.3 Texture, pliability and mouthfeel ...............................46
4.2.3.1 Subjective method: sensory evaluation
for texture of chapatti .................................46
4.2.3.2 Objective method: texturimetry..................46
Contents ix

4.2.4 Puffng height ............................................................. 47

4.2.5 Microstructure ............................................................ 47
4.2.6 Other measurements ................................................... 47
4.3 Factors affecting chapatti/fatbread characteristics ................48
4.3.1 Milling of wheat, damaged starch and four
particle size................................................................. 48
4.3.2 Effect of wheat four constituents and added
constituents/ingredients on chapatti/fatbread
quality ......................................................................... 49
4.3.2.1 Wheat variety and genetics of wheat .......... 49
4.3.2.2 Wheat proteins ............................................ 52
4.3.2.3 Wheat polysaccharides ............................... 55
4.3.2.4 Wheat four lipids and added oils/
surfactants ................................................... 56
4.3.2.5 Other added constituents/ingredients ......... 58
4.3.3 Storage of wheat four ................................................ 58
4.3.3.1 Pest/fungal attack and presence of
afatoxins in wheat four .............................60
4.3.4 Method of preparation of chapatti/fatbread .............. 61
4.3.5 Storage of dough......................................................... 62
4.3.6 Storage of chapatti/fatbread ...................................... 62
4.4 Effect of wheat constituents/other chemical constituents
on chapatti/fatbread microstructure ....................................... 63
4.5 Conclusions..............................................................................64
References ..........................................................................................64

Chapter 5 Staling of chapatti and other Indian fatbreads.................................. 73

5.1 Introduction to staling ............................................................. 73
5.2 Measurement of staling in chapatti/fatbreads ........................ 74
5.2.1 Sensory evaluation ..................................................... 74
5.2.2 Moisture content ......................................................... 74
5.2.3 Water-soluble starch (WSS) and in vitro enzyme
digestibility (IVED) of starch..................................... 75
5.2.4 Texture-hardness, tear force, extensibility ................. 75
5.2.5 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) ................. 76
5.2.6 Other tests................................................................... 77
5.3 Studies in staling of fatbreads and chapatti ........................... 77
5.3.1 Basic studies in staling of chapatti/fatbreads............ 77
5.3.2 Impact of chapatti/fatbread formulation changes
(added ingredients/constituents) on staling ................ 79
5.3.3 Antistaling agents and their mechanism of action ..... 82
5.3.4 Staling inhibition in chapatti/fatbreads by
incorporation of antistaling agents (additives) ........... 83
5.4 Conclusions.............................................................................. 87
References .......................................................................................... 87
x Contents

Chapter 6 Nutritional and quality improvements in chapatti and other

fatbreads ............................................................................................ 93
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 93
6.2 Nutritional value of chapatti and other fatbreads .................. 93
6.3 Nutritional improvement of chapatti and other fatbreads ......94
6.3.1 Protein fortifcation ....................................................94
6.3.1.1 Studies in fortifcation with protein-
rich ingredients ...........................................94
6.3.1.2 Studies in fortifcation with legume four ... 95
6.3.1.3 Reduction in antinutritional factors and
improvement in protein digestibility...........97
6.3.2 Fibre fortifcation........................................................ 98
6.3.3 Micronutrient availability/fortifcation ..................... 100
6.3.4 Development of multigrain fatbreads ...................... 101
6.3.5 Development of gluten-free chapatti ....................... 103
6.3.6 Development of low glycaemic index chapatti ........ 105
6.3.7 Development of novel fatbread formulations by
incorporation of dehydrated fruit/vegetables ........... 106
6.4 Quality improvement of chapatti/fatbread through
inhibition/addition of enzymes .............................................. 110
6.4.1 Enzymes in wheat four and their effect on
dough/chapatti quality ............................................. 111
6.4.2 Inhibition of enzymatic browning in chapatti
dough ........................................................................ 112
6.4.3 Effect of added enzymes (extrinsic) on chapatti/
fatbread quality and nutritional value ..................... 115
6.4.3.1 Improvement of fatbread texture and
staling inhibition using added enzymes ... 115
6.4.3.2 Nutritional improvement using enzymes .. 116
6.5 Conclusions............................................................................ 117
References ........................................................................................ 117

Chapter 7 Preservation of ready-to-cook (RTC) and ready-to-eat (RTE)

chapatti and other fatbreads ............................................................ 127
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 127
7.2 Preservation of chapatti/fatbread dough (RTC) ................... 128
7.3 Preservation of partially cooked/baked chapatti/
fatbread ................................................................................. 130
7.4 Preservation of RTE chapatti/fatbread................................. 132
7.5 Newer approaches for preservation ....................................... 133
7.5.1 Modifed atmosphere packaging .............................. 133
7.5.2 Active packaging ...................................................... 134
7.5.3 Hurdle technology .................................................... 134
7.6 Challenges that remain in preservation of RTC/ RTE
chapatti/fatbread................................................................... 135
Contents xi

7.7 Conclusions............................................................................ 136

References ........................................................................................ 136

Chapter 8 Automation and mechanisation in chapatti/fatbread

preparation........................................................................................ 139
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 139
8.2 Steps in mechanised preparation of chapatti/fatbread ......... 139
8.3 Equipment innovations .......................................................... 141
8.3.1 Equipment for domestic use ..................................... 141
8.3.1.1 Milling equipment .................................... 141
8.3.1.2 Dough kneader.......................................... 142
8.3.1.3 Chapatti press and roti maker .................. 142
8.3.1.4 Rotimatic .................................................. 142
8.3.2 Equipment for small- and large-scale
commercial use......................................................... 143
8.3.2.1 Milling machine ....................................... 143
8.3.2.2 Dough mixer ............................................. 143
8.3.2.3 Dough balling machine ............................ 143
8.3.2.4 Dough sheeting machine .......................... 143
8.3.2.5 Baking set-up ............................................ 144
8.3.2.6 Chapatti puffer ......................................... 144
8.3.2.7 Semi-automated machines ........................ 144
8.3.2.8 Fully automated machines ........................ 144
8.3.2.9 Packing machines ..................................... 145
8.4 Challenges to be met in mechanised production of
fatbreads................................................................................ 146
8.5 Research on engineering aspects of chapatti preparation..... 146
8.6 Conclusions............................................................................ 148
References ........................................................................................ 148

Chapter 9 Atta formulations and new product development ............................. 151

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 151
9.2 Chapatti/fatbread as a functional food ................................. 152
9.3 Multigrain atta formulations ................................................. 152
9.4 Frozen RTC/RTE fatbreads .................................................. 153
9.5 Scope for development of novel atta and fatbread
formulations ........................................................................... 154
9.5.1 Opportunities............................................................ 154
9.5.2 Challenges ................................................................ 155
9.6 Conclusions............................................................................ 156
References ........................................................................................ 157

Index ...................................................................................................................... 159

Preface
This book was conceived to cover the most fundamental aspect of Indian diet,
namely fatbreads, which have served as common staples eaten by millions in the
Indian subcontinent over the centuries. The preparation of fatbread in households
has evolved from a primitive rural scenario wherein wheat harvested from the felds
was manually ground between stone-made grinding disks to generate four required
as the basic raw material for preparation of fatbreads. The four was then kneaded
into dough, shaped into fat discs which were cooked over wood/coal-lit fres and
served to the family during meals. Over time and depending on geographical loca-
tion, diversity in the selection of ingredients and the method of preparation, led to
the development of a great variety of fatbreads in the Indian subcontinent. In urban
settings, the wheat was milled in local mills called chakki and the resulting four
was used in preparation of fatbread at home. Further, ready-to-use whole wheat
four (atta) became available in the market contributing to convenience by eliminat-
ing the drudgery of procuring wheat and getting it milled. With changing lifestyles,
urban households started employing labour to prepare fatbreads at home while some
token attempts at mechanisation of preparation of fatbreads were also made. Several
local food outlets in urban centres started catering to ready-to-eat (RTE) fatbreads.
Medium- or large-scale manufacturers have also made available RTE fatbreads with
short shelf life and frozen versions with longer shelf life. Today the modern-day
urban consumer can buy RTE fatbreads and take them home to be simply heated
and eaten.
Thus, the changing dynamics of fatbread preparation and preservation, role of
four constituents and added ingredients on end product quality, the need to develop
healthier variants, the challenges offered by staling on storage and the need for large-
scale mechanised production demanding longer shelf life have all spawned a number
of research studies in this area. This book is a sincere effort by the authors to collate
all the knowledge available and present it in a form that will be clear and useful to
readers of different backgrounds. The authors have themselves spent several years
researching in this area and have therefore felt compelled to share their wide experi-
ence in this feld with the readers. The book promises to provide an in-depth cover-
age on all important aspects of Indian fatbreads like chapatti. It is a unique and
timely compilation of its kind to beneft a large readership base, including students,
researchers, academicians, food industry professionals, food-based entrepreneurs
and food catering service providers to name some.

xiii
Biography
Anamika Banerji holds a Ph.D. in food science, which she pursued at the Department
of Food Engineering and Technology, under the guidance of co-authors Prof. S.S.
Lele and Prof. Laxmi Ananthanarayan at Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT),
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. She has worked in the area of fatbreads for fve years
and has four international research publications. She has worked in areas like inhibi-
tion of enzymatic browning in stored multigrain dough, improvement of rheological
properties of dough, nutritional improvement of chapatti by fortifcation, inhibition
of staling and quality improvement of chapatti by use of enzyme-active germinated
wheat four, preservation of ready-to-cook (RTC) and ready-to-eat (RTE) naan and
development of nutritious, legume and vegetable–based premixes for fatbreads. She
graduated (B.Sc.) in Biotechnology in 2010 and completed post-graduation (M.Sc.)
in Food Science and Nutrition in 2012. Before joining the Ph.D. programme at ICT,
she briefy (one year) worked as food production co-ordinator at a well-known Indian
health and ftness company.

Prof. Laxmi Ananthanarayan is presently a faculty member at the Food

Engineering and Technology Department of Institute of Chemical Technology. She
has worked as an academician for about 34 years and has guided many research
students, including 85 masters and 19 doctoral students. She has 56 research publi-
cations in peer-reviewed journals of international repute. She has taught a variety of
subjects in the course of her teaching career and also explored many research areas
in varied felds of Food Science and Technology as well as Bioprocess Technology
and Food Biotechnology. In 2010, she was awarded doctoral degree for her research
work in the area of Indian fatbread and she has sustained her interest in working in
this area by guiding students working on related topics.

Prof. S.S. Lele, Director of ICT Marathwada Campus, Jalna, is a dynamic personality
with an exceptional career in research as well as academic administration. She is
well known for her outstanding contribution to the feld of food technology–engi-
neering for the last four decades. She has successfully handled sponsored projects
worth crores and is actively involved in research and translation. Prof. Lele has moti-
vated and guided farmers, students and youth with entrepreneurial aspirations in
setting up small-scale food processing units and minimising post-harvest losses. She
has been a guiding light for the conception and successful operation of several food
processing start-ups working on vegetable dehydration, retort processing (JustsipTM
and JusteatTM brands) and wine making from underutilised tropical fruits (FruitineR
brand). Prof. Lele has published over 100 international papers in refereed journals,
has authored 5 book chapters, 3 books and has 2 patents granted to her credit. She
has a keen interest in popularising science and developing scientifc temper which
she has achieved to a great extent by making short flms, writing books in regional
language and by giving interviews.

xv
xvi Biography

Prof. Lele has won several national and international awards, the recent ones being
the “Association of Food Scientists and Technologists (India)” Fellow Award (2017),
VASVIK (2017) Award in the category of Industrial Research Award for Women
Scientists, “Unch Maaza Zoka” Zee Marathi National Award (2016) for outstand-
ing contributions to the feld of fruit and vegetable processing in Maharashtra and
UDCT Alumni Association’s distinguished alumni award (2015) in academics. After
spending nearly a decade in the industry, she joined as Lecturer in ICT (formerly
UDCT) in 1986 and rose the ladder to be Professor of Biochemical Engineering.
After coordinating Bioprocess Technology Master’s programme for four years, she
took charge as the Head of Department of Food Engineering & Technology (Nov.
1, 2008, to July 31, 2012) and later worked as Controller of Examinations (August 1,
2012, to July 28, 2014). Later she was appointed as Registrar (July 29, 2014) and is
currently Director of ICT Marathwada Campus, Jalna.
 1 Introduction to
Indian fatbreads

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO FLATBREADS

Flatbreads have occupied a very special place in traditional cuisines of different parts
of the world since ancient times. They are popularly consumed even today as staples,
a few variants being savoured on festive occasions in various countries, particularly in
Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Flatbread preparation involves kneading of dough
comprising of four, water, salt and one or more additional ingredients like oil and sea-
sonings. The dough is divided into smaller portions (dough balls), rolled into sheets
and cooked by baking, which is usually done on a hot griddle (tawa) or in some cases
in clay oven (tandoor). Flatbreads include an array of diverse breads; all are relatively
thin with a thickness of a few millimetres. They are generally classifed as single lay-
ered or multilayered fatbreads and as leavened and unleavened fatbreads.
Flatbreads differ from pan breads in various aspects; they have lower specifc
volume and higher crust to crumb ratio as compared to pan breads. The baking con-
ditions are also different; higher temperature and shorter baking time are involved
in fatbread baking. Also the mode of baking differs depending on the type of fat-
bread; baking could be on a hot griddle or in a clay/electric/gas oven. Freshly baked
fatbreads are preferred since they are elastic and soft. When stored at room tem-
perature, they undergo rapid staling and become hard within a few hours (Gocmen,
Inkaya, and Aydin 2009). Tortilla, pita, arepa, focaccia and lavash are fatbreads
which are very popular globally. Indian fatbreads such as roti, chapatti, paratha,
naan and tandoori roti are also gaining popularity in different countries. Table 1.1
gives an overview of popular fatbreads from different parts of the globe.
Flatbreads are often an indispensable part of the daily meals of several ethnic
populations. Each country or region has its own set of fatbreads distinguished by
unique texture and favours. Flatbreads can be looked at as important foods from
the food security point of view. They ft into the context of a subsistence economy
since they can be made from cereals other than wheat. For example, fatbreads can
be made from pseudo-cereals and other minor grains which are locally produced
from marginal lands. Also, fatbreads do not necessarily require an oven and can be
dehydrated by a second baking process to extend shelf life (Pasqualone 2018).

1.2 INDIAN TRADITIONAL MEALS

India with its rich cultural diversity has many regional cuisines to boast about.
Majority of Indians follow a vegetarian diet. Populations, particularly those in coastal
areas incorporate fsh and meat in their meals. Typical Indian lifestyle involves three
meals a day comprising of a light breakfast, heavy lunch and simple dinner. Late

1
2 The Science and Technology of Indian Flatbreads

TABLE 1.1
World’s popular fatbreads
Item Name of
Type of four No. fatbread Country Characteristics
Wheat four a. Sangak Iran • leavened, single layered
(whole/refned) • sourdough based
• 70–80 cm long, 40–50 cm wide and
3–5 mm thick
• blisters on top and bottom crust
• poppy or sesame seeds usually
sprinkled on top crust
b. Taftoon/ Iran • leavened, single layered
Tanoor • round or oval shaped
• 40–50 cm long, 40–50 cm wide and
2 mm thick
• reddish brown crust
c. Pita Middle east • leavened, two layered
countries • circular
• 15 cm wide and 5–7 mm thick
• puffed at high temperatures during
baking to separate two layers
forming a “pocket”, varieties
without pockets are also available
• pockets can be flled with different
stuffng
d. Lavas Turkey • leavened, single layered
• elliptical shaped
• 20–30 cm long, 10–20 cm wide,
and 3–5 mm thick
e. Pide Turkey • leavened, single layered
• circular shaped
• 20–25 cm wide, 1.5–2 cm thick
f. Yufka Turkey • unleavened, single layered
• circular, thin
• cream coloured
• 40–50 cm wide, 1–2 mm thick
g. Focaccia/ Italy • leavened, single layered
boboli • circular
• 20 cm wide and 2 cm thick
• fatbread with various toppings;
rosemary herb is popularly used to
favour this bread
h. Chapatti India • unleavened, single layered
• thin, circular
• 15 cm wide and 2 mm thick
(Continued )
Introduction to Indian fatbreads 3

TABLE 1.1 (CONTINUED)

World’s popular fatbreads
Item Name of
Type of four No. fatbread Country Characteristics
Corn four a. Tortilla Central and • unleavened, single layered
(ground, South • thin, circular
nixtamilised, America • light coloured, fexible texture
whole grain / • 10 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick
partially b. Arepa Venezuela • unleavened, single layered
degermed, • disc shaped
precooked corn • 8.5 cm wide, 2.5 cm thick
four) • option of stuffng with fllings
Rye four a. Rye Scandinavian • unleavened/leavened bread
(along with optional fatbread countries • circular
fours: barley, oat • 5 cm wide, 5–10 mm thick
or wheat)

Gocmen, Inkaya and Aydin (2009), Padua and Maroun (1984) and Pasqualone (2018)

afternoon tea and snacks are also common. In urban population, dinner is a heavy
meal which the whole family enjoys together after returning home from work.
Traditionally, the Indian meal is very elaborate in nature; there is representation
from different food groups (cereals, pulses, vegetables, milk products, fsh/meat/
eggs) in the Indian platter. Side dishes and taste makers such as pickles, salads and
papads are a must. Figure 1.1 is a pictorial depiction of a typical traditional Indian
vegetarian meal called “thali” which translates to “platter” in English.

FIGURE 1.1 Traditional Indian vegetarian meal comprising of chapatti, rice, two types of
vegetable preparations, dal (lentil), curd, pickle and papad (grain-based cracker).
4 The Science and Technology of Indian Flatbreads

Modern Indians in urban areas, due to lack of time, energy and, in several
instances, lack of culinary skills, have simpler meals typically comprising of rice/
fatbread, lentil and vegetable/meat curry cooked with spices. Although American,
European and Oriental foods have gained tremendous popularity and have found a
huge market in urban India, their consumption is restricted to weekends and special
occasions. Indians by and large adhere to their traditional foods for daily meals. The
choice of grains, vegetables, spices, cooking oil and even style of cooking Indian
food varies from region to region depending on the native crops.
Rice and fatbread are staples eaten along with other dishes. An Indian meal in
any part of the country is incomplete without rice or fatbread. These carbohydrate-
rich staples constitute the major source of energy in the diet and are consumed in
fairly liberal amounts by the population.

1.3 INDIAN FLATBREADS

India can boast of a large variety of fatbreads such as roti, naan, paratha, roomali
roti, poli, phulka, chapatti, poori, bhakri, puran poli, etc., generally prepared from
fnely milled four of grains (wheat, millets, corn etc.). Wheat-based chapatti is the
most common staple; in several parts of India, a meal is considered to be incomplete
without this quintessential fatbread. Indian fatbread varieties with their description
are listed in Table 1.2.
Wheat is the major ingredient in most of the fatbreads consumed across the
country. It is used as whole wheat four (atta) or refned wheat four (maida). The
fatbreads vary with respect to shape and size, choice of ingredients and seasonings,
leavening and also the style of baking. Figure 1.2 includes pictures of some popular
Indian fatbreads. India is a large country with 29 states and 7 union territories.
These regions have different geographical conditions which lead to differences in
agricultural produce and local cuisines including fatbreads. Due to natural agricul-
tural practices, North Indians are mainly wheat consumers, relying on wheat-based
fatbreads like roti and parathas. Variants of parathas are also popular in North
India. Some are made with vegetable stuffng, most commonly seasoned potato
stuffng, and some are multilayered.
Millet-based fatbreads are popular in the western parts of the country where these
grains are cultivated in abundance. People in the eastern parts of India prefer rice,
but many people consume chapatti in addition to rice. South India has a predomi-
nantly rice-eating population; however, in recent times many people in the southern
states of India are shifting towards consumption of whole wheat–based fatbreads.
They may not consume fatbreads for both lunch and dinner like the north Indians,
but they include chapatti in the diet for at least one meal of the day. Infuence of food
cultures prevailing in other parts of the country and increasing health awareness
about the inclusion of fber-rich foods like whole wheat chapatti with lower glycemic
index than rice, especially for diabetics, has propelled this change in the dietary hab-
its of south Indians. Working persons as well as school and college-going students in
most parts of India prefer to carry home-cooked food in tiffns which they consume
for lunch at their workplace. Chapatti along with lentil or vegetable curry is the most
popular meal packed for lunch.
Introduction to Indian fatbreads 5

TABLE 1.2
Indian fatbreads
Type of Item Name of
four No. fatbread Region Characteristics
Wheat four a. Chapatti/ All over • unleavened
(whole/ roti/Phulka India • circular, thin
refned) • baked on a hot iron plate (tawa) followed
by puffng on a direct fame
• brown spots on surface
• 15 cm wide, 2 mm thick
b. Poori All over • unleavened
India • circular
• deep fried, puffs during frying
• 5 cm wide, 2 mm thick
c. Roomali North and • unleavened
roti Central • circular, thin
India • large diameter (30 cm), 1–1.5 mm thick,
can be folded like a handkerchief (roomal),
so-called roomali roti
• requires tremendous skill in preparation
• baked on an inverted hot griddle (convex
surface)
• tender and delicious
d. Tandoori North India • unleavened, single layered
Roti • baked in clay oven “tandoor”
• 15 cm wide, 3 mm thick
e. Naan North India • leavened, single layered
• drop shaped
• baked in tandoor
• 17 cm long, 12 cm wide, 3 mm thick
• many variants prepared including one with
egg
f. Parotta South India • unleavened, multilayered
• circular
• 15 cm wide, 2 mm thick
• shallow fried
• eggs and sugar are optional ingredients
• cream colour, soft pliable texture
• slightly oily
g. Paratha North India • unleavened
(plain) • single or multilayered; could be triangular
with 4 layers/square with 2 layers/round or
square with spiral layers
• 15 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick
• shallow fried on hot griddle
• variants with stuffng are popular
(Continued )
6 The Science and Technology of Indian Flatbreads

TABLE 1.2 (CONTINUED)

Indian fatbreads
Type of Item Name of
four No. fatbread Region Characteristics
h. Stuffed North India • unleavened
paratha • two-layered fatbread with stuffng of
(e.g.: popular cooked mashed vegetable(s) with spices
aloo/potato • circular
paratha) • 15 cm wide, 3 mm thick
• shallow fried on hot griddle
i. Laccha Punjab • unleavened, multilayered
paratha • circular dough sheet is plated like a fan,
coiled and then again rolled to a sheet
• multilayered sheet is shallow fried
• 15 cm wide, 3 mm thick
• crispy textured paratha
j. Bhatura North India • leavened with baking powder and yoghurt
• circular
• 15–20 cm wide, 2 mm thick
• deep fried
k. Kulcha Kashmir, • leavened, single layered
Punjab • circular
• 10–12 cm wide, 3–4 mm thick
• baked in tandoor
• many variants are popular with different
stuffngs and seasonings
l. Sheermal Kashmir • leavened, single layered
• circular, 15 cm wide, 3–4 mm thick
• sweetened, dough kneaded with warm milk
and sugar, addition of saffron and
cardamom is popular
• baked in tandoor/oven
m. Girda Kashmir • leavened, single layered
• circular
• 15 cm wide, 2 mm thick
• baked on a tandoor/griddle
n. Bati Rajasthan • unleavened, hard
• dough is not sheeted; dough balls are baked
• 5 cm wide, 1.5 cm thick, crusty exterior
• low moisture, high fat with long shelf life
o. Thepla Gujarat • unleavened, single layered
• circular, thin
• 15 cm wide, 1–2 mm thick
• contains gram four and fenugreek leaves
• baked on hot griddle, low moisture bread
with long shelf life
(Continued )
Introduction to Indian fatbreads 7

TABLE 1.2 (CONTINUED)

Indian fatbreads
Type of Item Name of
four No. fatbread Region Characteristics
p. Puran poli Maharashtra • unleavened, stuffed
• circular, 15 cm wide, 2 mm thick
• sweet fatbread with stuffng of bengal gram
and jaggery
• baked on hot griddle
q. Gul poli Maharashtra • unleavened, stuffed
• circular, 10–15 cm wide, 3 mm thick
• sweet, crispy fatbread with flling of
shredded coconut, jaggery, ground peanuts,
sesame seeds, poppy seeds, cardamom
• baked on hot griddle
Other fours a. Makki roti Punjab • unleavened, single layered
Corn four • circular, 15 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick
• corn-based fatbread topped with ghee (fat)
and served along with sarson ka saag
(mustard greens)
Chickpea b. Missi roti Punjab • unleavened, single layered
four + • circular, 15 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick
Wheat four • yellow coloured
• baked on hot griddle/tandoor
Jowar c. Bhakri Maharashtra, • unleavened, single layered
(sorghum)/ Gujarat, • circular, 15–20 cm wide, 3 mm thick
bajra (pearl Northern • dough is shaped with hands
millet)/ Karnataka • baked on a hot griddle
nachni
(fnger
millet)/
rice four
Whole d. Thalipeeth Maharashtra • unleavened, single layered
wheat four • circular, 15 cm wide, 2–3 mm thick
+ bajra • dough may be hand fattened
four + rice • multigrain, nutritious, spiced pancake-like
four + fatbread
gram four

Parimala and Sudha (2015) and Mir et al. (2014)

Flatbreads are used for scooping up accompaniments such as lentil or vegetable

and meat curries. There are some popular combinations which are traditionally con-
sumed in India. Missi roti (corn four–based fatbread) is always paired with a dish
called sarson da saag (mustard greens cooked in spices) in North India. Stuffed
vegetable parathas are paired with curd and pickles. Certain millet-based and rice-
based fatbreads called bhakri are savoured along with rich, spicy, meat gravies in
8 The Science and Technology of Indian Flatbreads

FIGURE 1.2 Popular Indian fatbreads (a) chapatti, (b) paratha, (c) laccha paratha, (d)
missi roti, (e) naan, (f) kulcha, (g) roomali roti, (h) tandoori roti, (i) puranpoli and (j) thepla.

western India. Bhakri also happens to be the food of lower-income groups in western
rural India and is often eaten with raw onion and thecha (spicy condiment made of
crushed green chillies, garlic, peanuts). The deep fried fatbread called puri is usu-
ally teamed with a potato gravy or a chickpea curry. Malabar parotta of south India
is relished with spicy coconut-based curry of vegetables or meat. Puran poli (sweet
fatbread of Maharashtra) is savoured with milk and thepla (fatbread of Gujrat) is
enjoyed with pickles. Indian cities are witnessing an increasing popularity and a
concomitant surge in the sale of wraps/frankies/rolls by street vendors. Flatbreads
Introduction to Indian fatbreads 9

are the main component of these foods. A fatbread is shallow-fried or baked on a hot
griddle, and a liberal serving of a spicy stuffng (vegetables/meat) along with one or
more sauces and garnishing is spread along the diameter of the bread, and then the
fatbread is wrapped or rolled around the stuffng. This is an easy-to-carry, easy-to-
eat approach by which a person can consume fatbread and vegetable/meat on the go.
Chapatti, paratha and puri are fatbreads that are routinely prepared in Indian
households. There are many Indian fatbreads (roomali roti, tandoori roti, naan,
kulcha) which are very popular but are rarely prepared at a domestic level. This is
because their preparation requires special skills and certain specifc equipment like
a clay oven (tandoor). These fatbreads are readily available in Indian restaurants.
People dining out like to indulge in a variety of such speciality fatbreads, which are
also popularly served in a basket of assorted Indian breads called “roti ki tokri”. In
recent times, the changing food culture of young urban Indians with busy lifestyles
has led to the emergence of newer food-catering options with online ordering and
home delivery. This enables consumers to order freshly baked fatbreads of their
choice at meal time. The popularity and demand for Indian fatbreads is also found
to be on the rise in western countries, where Indian expatriates as well as locals like
to order fatbreads in Indian restaurants or prefer to pick up frozen, heat-and-eat ver-
sions of the fatbreads from the supermarket.

1.3.1 CHAPATTI
Chapatti is the most widely consumed Indian fatbread and can be said to be the
Indian counterpart of the western pan bread. This staple bread is unique and has its
own defning characteristics; unlike bread, chapatti preparation does not involve
yeast addition and fermentation. It is a whole wheat four–based, unleavened fat-
bread baked on a hot griddle (tawa) followed by puffng on a direct fame. It is
savoured for its aroma and soft texture. Chapattis are prepared in households, can-
teens and restaurants twice a day for lunch and dinner. Their tendency to stale rapidly
on storage necessitates their preparation before every meal. Chapattis are usually
eaten with spicy accompaniments such as lentils (dal), cooked vegetables (sabji) and
condiments (chutni). One simple trick used traditionally to increase shelf life is to
reduce the moisture content, converting chapatti into khakra, a crispy dehydrated,
brittle product.

1.3.2 NAAN
Naan is a popular fatbread which holds a special place in cuisines of Central and
South Asia. This leavened fatbread, typically made of refned wheat four (maida), is
savoured for its pleasing aroma, taste and texture. It is leavened using yeast or curd and
is traditionally baked in a clay oven called tandoor. In India, it was earlier recognised
as a North Indian delicacy but is now enjoyed by people all over the country. However
its consumption is limited to special occasions, when it is purchased from restaurants
and food joints. There are two reasons for this: frst, naan preparation requires some
skill and involves the use of a tandoor; second, naan is not perceived to be very healthy
due to the lack of fbre in its major ingredient—maida (refned four from wheat).
10 The Science and Technology of Indian Flatbreads

1.4 THE CHANGING DYNAMICS OF INDIAN

FLATBREAD PREPARATION
Flatbread is an easy to carry and eat but tricky to make food in terms of both shape
and softness. Traditionally, fatbreads were made by women, starting from getting
the four milled to freshly preparing the fatbread every time before a meal. Chapatti
making is considered to be an art and a skill in Indian society. The ability to make a
uniform, circular, well-baked and fully puffed chapatti was traditionally considered
as one of the prerequisites for being accepted as an accomplished woman, suitable
for marriage. In modern times however, Indian women who are working profession-
als are not always profcient with chapatti making as they do not have the time or
inclination for this laborious task. They are ready to spend money to employ some-
one to make the fatbread or to purchase it in a ready-to-eat (RTE) form from the
supermarket. Over the last decade, several ready-to-cook (RTC) and RTE versions
of different popular fatbreads like roti, chapatti and paratha have found a place in
the urban markets.
Chapattis and sometimes a combination of chapatti and vegetable curry are
being sold by small- or medium-scale manufacturers and suppliers as well as cater-
ing services. The demand for fatbreads is soaring even in western countries inhab-
ited by people of Indian origin. Large-scale production of these convenient forms
of fatbreads is required to cater to this growing population of affuent consumers.
For doing so, a sound knowledge of the science and technology underlying fatbread
making is required. Producers need to be sensitised to aspects like choice of raw
material, processing parameters, end product quality controlling parameters, preser-
vation, nutritional value and much more.
Among the different Indian fatbreads, chapatti represents the staple food of the
masses. It is the Indian equivalent of bread. Hence, the main focus of this book is
wheat-based chapatti (roti). Naan and paratha/parotta are other Indian fatbreads
which are popular in the entire country; hence, some aspects of these fatbreads have
also been dealt with.

REFERENCES
Gocmen, D., A.N. Inkaya, and E. Aydin. 2009. “Flatbreads.” Bulgarian Journal of
Agricultural Science 15(4): 298–306.
Mir, Mohammad Maqbool, Mudassir Ahmad Bhat, Shabir Ahmad Mir, Manzoor Ahmad
Shah, Haroon Rashid Naik, and Muzammil Habib Wani. 2014. “Indian Flat Breads: A
Review.” Food and Nutrition Sciences 5(6): 549–61. doi:10.4236/fns.2014.56065.
Padua, M.R. de, and H. Padua Maroun. 1984. “Rhelogical Behavior of Venezuelan Arepa
Dough from Precooked Corn Flour.” Cereal Chemistry 61(1): 37–41.
Parimala, K.R., and M.L. Sudha. 2015. “Wheat-Based Traditional Flat Breads of India.”
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 55(1): 67–81. doi:10.1080/10408398.
2011.647121.
Pasqualone, Antonella. 2018. “Traditional Flat Breads Spread from the Fertile Crescent:
Production Process and History of Baking Systems.” Journal of Ethnic Foods 5(1):
10–19. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.002.
 2 Preparation of chapatti,
other fatbreads and
ingredients used

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapatti being a staple food is usually cooked fresh for every meal. It is prepared
from whole wheat four (atta), which is obtained from grinding wheat in a local stone
mill (called chakki). While kneading the dough from wheat four with the addition of
water, a gluten network is formed resulting in high viscoelasticity which facilitates
hand rolling into a sheet. The sheet is frst baked on a heated griddle (tawa) and
then puffed on a live fame to produce a chapatti. Various other fatbreads are also
consumed in India, among which paratha and naan are the most popular. These
fatbreads are made from atta or refned wheat four (maida) with variations in the
method of preparation. Maida is obtained by mechanical removal of bran and germ
from whole wheat grains, resulting in a four with lower fbre content and a whitish
appearance compared to atta.
The choice of wheat used in milling four for making fatbreads is crucial since the
variety of wheat, hardness of wheat and its constituents, such as gluten (protein), starch
and non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs), infuence the quality of the end product. The
four is stored in households for a few weeks in closed containers; however, nowadays
readymade ‘atta’ is available in urban markets with global players and Indian compa-
nies making a good impact. Apart from four, some other ingredients such as water,
oil, salt, sugar and baking soda are used in preparation of fatbreads. Each of these
ingredients infuences one or more quality parameters of these fatbreads.

2.2 PREPARATION OF CHAPATTI

Chapatti, also termed as roti and phulka, is prepared twice a day in almost every
Indian household. Chapatti dough is prepared from atta by addition of water (70–75
mL per 100 g four) while salt is added as per taste. Once the dough is prepared, oil
(approximately 5 mL for 100 g four) is added and mixed into the dough by knead-
ing. The dough is then covered and rested for some time (about 15–30 min) to allow
gluten formation to take place. It is then portioned into medium-sized balls (25–30 g
each). If dough prepared is in excess of requirement, the excess is stored in a closed
container in a refrigerator for use the next day.
The art of making chapattis is very different from that of several other western
fatbreads. In chapatti making, a rolling board, which is traditionally wooden, is kept
over the cooking counter. Each ball of dough minimally dusted with four is individu-
ally sheeted with the help of a cylindrical, long and slender, wooden rolling pin on the

11
12 The Science and Technology of Indian Flatbreads

smooth surface of the rolling board to form a circular shape of about 15 cm diameter
and 2 mm thickness. During rolling, shear is applied in such a manner that the dough
sheet gradually starts rotating by itself and expands radially into a circular form. If
required, some four may be dusted over the partially rolled sheet to facilitate smooth
rolling. This is where the art of making a good chapatti lies. Roti/chapatti making
machine which has gained popularity uses the principle of pressing to fatten the dough
into a circle, and hence it does not make an ideal, traditional chapatti.
The circular sheet of dough is cooked on a preheated griddle on both sides for a
short time. It is then puffed by heating directly over the burner fame on both sides
for a few seconds. The cooked chapatti is allowed to cool and small amount of ghee
may be applied over one surface. The chapattis are stacked over one another and the
stack is stored in a container till consumption. The steps involved in chapatti making
are explained pictorially in Figure 2.1.

FIGURE 2.1 Steps in chapatti making. (a) Set-up for chapatti making. (b) Dough ball
dusted with four and placed on rolling board. (c): Rolling dough into sheet. (d): Baking one
side of dough sheet on hot griddle and turning it to the other side. (e) Baking the other side of
dough sheet. (f) Puffng of chapatti on both sides directly over a fame.
Another random document with
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Recent
discussions on the abolition of patents for
inventions in the United Kingdom, France,
Germany, and the Netherlands
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Recent discussions on the abolition of patents for inventions in

the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the
Netherlands
Evidence, speeches, and papers in its favour

Compiler: R. A. Macfie

Release date: November 11, 2023 [eBook #72096]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer,

1869

Credits: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RECENT

DISCUSSIONS ON THE ABOLITION OF PATENTS FOR
INVENTIONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, FRANCE, GERMANY,
AND THE NETHERLANDS ***
 RECENT DISCUSSIONS
ON THE
ABOLITION OF PATENTS FOR
INVENTIONS
IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM, FRANCE,
GERMANY, AND THE NETHERLANDS.

Evidence, Speeches, and Papers in its

Favour
BY
Sir WILLIAM ARMSTRONG, C.B.; M. BENARD, Editor of the
“Siècle” and “Journal des
Economistes;” Count Von BISMARCK; M. CHEVALIER, Senator and
Member of the
Institute of France; M. FOCK; M. GODEFROI; Mr. MACFIE, M.P.,
Director, or
Member, of the Liverpool, Edinburgh, and Leith Chambers of
Commerce and Merchants’
House of Glasgow; Sir ROUNDELL PALMER, M.P., late Attorney-
General, &c.; Right
Hon. LORD STANLEY, M.P., Chairman of the late Royal Commission
on Patent-Law;
JAMES STIRLING, Esq., Author of “Considerations on Banks and
Bank-Management,”
“Letters from the South,” &c.; and others.
WITH SUGGESTIONS AS TO INTERNATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
REGARDING INVENTIONS AND COPYRIGHT.

LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER.
1869.
“La legislation des brevets d’invention peut avoir l’effet d’entraver
notre commerce d’exportation, et de priver l’industrie nationale de
débouches utiles.... Un brevet est un privilége et un monopole. Pour
que le monopole puisse être reconnu par la loi, il est indispensable
qu’il repose sur un droit certain ou sur une utilité publique
parfaitement établie. Le peu qui précède suffit ce me semble a
démontre que l’utilité publique n’existe pas.... Le brevet d’invention
a-t-il pour base un droit positif? Il semble pourtant que non....
“Telles sont les réflexions qui sont venues à un certain nombre
d’hommes éclairés depuis quelque années et qui ont l’assentiment
d’un bon nombre d’hommes des plus notables parmi les chefs
d’industrie. Elles ont de l’écho dans touts les pays civilisés, et en
Angleterre pour le moins autant qu’en France—(1) Elles ne tendent
à rien moins qu’à renverser le système même des brevets
d’invention, sauf à rémunérer par une dotation spéciale tout homme
ingénieux qui serait reconnu, après un certain temps d’expérience,
avoir rendu à la société un service signalé par quelque découverte.
C’est ainsi qu’il a été procédé en France à l’égard des inventeurs de
la photographie.”—From the Introduction to the “Rapports du Jury
International de l’Exposition 1862, publies sous la direction de M.
Michel Chevalier, President de la Section Française.”

“Selon moi donc, le char du progres social doit être mu par

l’industrie et dirigé par l’esprit chrétien. Il s’arrête à défaut de travail,
il déraille à défaut de charité.... Et s’il est prouvé que c’est industrie
qui nourrit l’humanité, que c’est elle qui la chauffe et la préserve
contre toutes les intemperies, n’est il pas juste de dire que pousser
au développement du travail, comme nous nous proposons,
répandre dans l’esprit des travailleurs des idées qu’ils peuvent
féconder pour arriver à une invention, a un perfectionment, a un
nouveau procédé quelconque diminuant le prix de ce qui entretient
la vie, que c’est là, messieurs, de la bienfaisance par excellence.”—
President’s Opening Address of the Industrial and Scientific Society
of St. Nicolas, 1866.
 CONTENTS.
PAGE
Prefatory Note v
Letter from Professor J. C. Thorold Rogers viii
Remarks on an Article in the Westminster Review 1
Petition of the Newcastle Chamber of Commerce 8
Notes of Mr. Macfie, M.P., for Speech upon Motion, 28th
May, 1868 9
Speech of Sir Roundell Palmer, M.P., on that Occasion 93
Speech of Lord Stanley, M.P., on same Occasion 109
Paper by James Stirling, Esq. 116
Papers by M. Benard, “Are Inventions Property?” 124-150
Speeches of M. Chevalier and M. Paul Coq 164
Papers by M. Benard, “Results of a Bad Law” 175-180
Message of Count von Bismarck to North German
Parliament 185
Debate in the Netherlands Second Chamber 197-204
Extracts from a Memorial of the Dutch Government 225
Other Extracts regarding Abolition in Holland 226-229
Speech of E. K. Muspratt, Esq., in Liverpool
Chamber of Commerce 231
Letter of Sir William Armstrong, C.B. 237
Letter of John Thomson, Esq. 238
Letter of Andrew Johnson, Esq., M.P. 239
On the Distinction between Copyright and Patent-right,
by Mr. Macfie, M.P. 241
On Patent Monopoly, by Mr. Macfie, M.P. 243
A Scheme for International Patents, by Mr. Macfie, M.P. 250
Article from the Times on the Debate in Parliament 251
” ” Economist ” ” 255
 ” ” Spectator ” ” 259
” ” Saturday Review ” ” 263
Extracts from Recent Periodicals 268
Report of the Cologne Chamber of Commerce 272
Extract from M. Bastiat’s “Harmonies Economiques” 276
Extract from a Letter of M. Paillottet, his Editor 277
Extract from M. Vermeire’s “Le Libre Travail” 277
Extracts showing Movements in Belgium, Germany, and
Holland 278
Extract on Perpetuity of Patent-right, by M. Boudron 281
Extracts on American and British Patent-Law 282
Classification of Patents 283
Illustrations Drawn from the Copper and Iron Trades 284
Note on Working Men as Inventors 286
Note on the Inventors’ Institute 287
Note on State Rewards 288
Note on the Patent-office 289
COPYRIGHT.
Observations on Remunerating Authors by Royalties 293
Suggestions How to Give Effect to this Mode 296
Extracts Showing Mr. Watts’ Opinions on this Mode 297
Chapter from M. Renouard’s “Traité des Droits
d’Auteurs” in Favour of it 301
Extract from Dr. Leavitt’s Cobden Club Essay on
International Copyright 305
Extracts on the State of the Question of Copyright in the
United States and Canada 307
Statement of Mr. Purday on Same Subject 313
Letter from the Same on International Copyright in
Musical Works 314
Extracts from Papers laid before the Canadian
Parliament 316
Tendencies of Copyright Legislation, and Extracts from 320
Recent Bill regarding Copyright in Works of Art, with
 Remarks on it
Duties on Books in Several Colonies on Behalf of
Authors 326
On Trade-Marks and the Customs Establishment 328
The Export Book Trade of Various Countries Exhibited 330-331
Extract from the “Beehive” 332
 To all who are serving their generation as employers and
employed, in the Arts, Manufactures, and Trades, of Leith,
Musselburgh, and Portobello, and have seen and felt the evils
inherent in the present State method of dealing with Inventions,
these pages are inscribed,—with congratulations that in the front
rank of statesmen, as well within the Cabinet as beyond it, there are
earnest advocates of that emancipation of British productive industry
from artificial restraints which is the needful accompaniment and the
complement of free trade;—and in hope that public attention will now
at length be turned towards procuring such a solution as will satisfy
at same time all just pretensions of meritorious inventors and men of
science.
My own bulky contribution to the attack on the last stronghold of
monopoly is to be regarded as but a rough-and-ready earthwork
thrown up by a pair of willing hands in front of powerful artillery
whose every shot is telling. It comprises the jottings and materials
which I collected for a speech intended to be delivered on 28th May,
when proposing a motion in favour of abolishing Patents for
Inventions.
Notwithstanding imperfections in execution, the present
compilation may acceptably supply a desideratum and prepare the
way for further discussions, and especially for the Committee which
Her Majesty’s Government continue to view with favour and will
heartily support.
R. A. M.
June 9, 1869.

While in the hands of the printer, fresh matter has, through the
kindness of honoured fellow-workers in the cause, reached me
almost daily, part of which is added. The reader will find in this
accession to the testimonies on behalf of freedom of industry,
besides some new arguments, such a striking concurrence and
oneness in the principles enunciated, and even in the illustrations
made use of, as, coming from various quarters independently, may
fairly be regarded as presumptive proof of their accuracy.
The Government has been so good as agree to produce, in
conformity with a request from Parliament, any documents in
possession of the Foreign-office which show the reasons or motives
of the Prussian and Dutch Governments for proposing the abolition
of Patents in Germany and the Netherlands. The adoption in the
latter country of abolition pure and simple, without (so far as I can
see) the slightest indication of a substitute, may well reconcile
professional inventors and all who unite with them to the propositions
with which I close my “speech.” Now that the continental stones are
dropping out of the arch which forms the System of Patents, the rest
cannot long keep their place. The antiquated fabric may be expected
to tumble. For public safety, the sooner Parliament and all concerned
set themselves to take it down, the better.
A communication from Professor Thorold Rogers, and remarks on
a recent Review, are given herewith, the former on account of its
value as a vindication of economic truth and justice, the latter by way
of correcting the reviewer’s accidental mistakes.
The Daily News, in a leading article on the 27th July, having
attached importance altogether undue to a small meeting called
under peculiar circumstances on the 24th, which was supposed to
express opinions and wishes of artisans and operatives,[1] I
addressed letters to that influential paper, which will be found in its
issues of the 29th, 30th, and 31st. Of course Sir Roundell Palmer,
who did the promoter of the meeting the honour to take the chair,
had not, any more than myself, the smallest connexion with its
origination and arrangements.
Appended are suggestions and information regarding Copyright,
which came in my way while in the press about Patent-right, and
which may be useful if international negotiations are contemplated
for one or other or both of these kindred subjects.
I hope imperfections of translation, which I regret, and errors of the
press, for which I take blame without correcting them, will be
indulgently pardoned, as well as faults entirely my own in the
unaccustomed part of advocate and compiler.
July 31.

⁂ No rights are reserved. Mr. Macfie will be glad to be favoured,

at Ashfield Hall, Neston, Chester, with a copy of any transcripts
made or any printed matter illustrating the question of Patents.

[1] When members of “Inventors’ Associations” ask mechanics

to join a crusade against freedom of industry, the best rejoinder is
to ask a statement in writing to show how it can be for the interest
of the millions to perpetuate fetters for the sake of investing a few
hundred individuals with a chance of obtaining personal
advantage by means of the power of fettering.
 LETTER FROM PROFESSOR
THOROLD ROGERS.
My dear Sir,—.... The fact is, no one, I presume, wishes to say that
an inventor is undeserving and should go unrewarded. All that the
opponents of the Patent system do say is, that the present
machinery gives the minimum advantage to the inventor, and inflicts
the maximum disadvantage on the public. Besides, in ninety-nine
cases out of a hundred, the patentee is only a simultaneous inventor
with a number of others, who lose their labour and ingenuity because
one man happens to get in first....
It has always seemed to me that the weakness of the inventor’s
case lies in the fact already alluded to, that he rarely is the sole
inventor. Hence the fundamental distinction between Invention and
Copyright, though I am no fanatical admirer of the latter privilege.
Now, if a law can confer a right on one person only by inflicting a
wrong on a number of other persons, it is intrinsically vicious, and
cannot be defended on the ground of its intentional goodness.
Yours faithfully,
James C. Thorold Rogers.
July 29.
 REMARKS ON A RECENT ARTICLE.
The Westminster Review for July contains an article on Patents.
Its proofs should have been corrected with more care. In my answer
to question 1947 in the Royal Commission’s Report, the word
“patented” in the following the Review misprints “neglected:”—

As a matter of fact, patentees have patented things of so

little value.

And in question 1954 a worse mistake is made by substituting

“some” for “none” in the following:—

There being 400 Patents now in existence affecting your

trade, none of which are made use of by you.

I have right also to complain of mistakes which do not originate

with the printer. The following opinions and arguments imputed to me
I disclaim:—

Had Mr. Macfie said this, we should not have been

surprised. It closely resembles his contention that a book
should be protected because it is something tangible,
whereas an invention is something which, if not invisible, is in
the nebulous condition of an idea.

What I wrote will be found below, page 241. My argument is, that
the subjects of Copyright being tangible can be identified as the
author’s production, and nobody else’s; and that the subjects of
Patent-right being modes or plans, belong to the region of ideas
which may easily occur to anybody besides the first inventor.
 Again: the reviewer says of Lord Stanley:—

The latter, while supporting Mr. Macfie on the main issue

distinctly repudiated his leading arguments.

This would be strange if true, seeing I coincide in all his Lordship’s

arguments. How, then, can he, twelve pages further on, say again:—

As for Lord Stanley, he did not hesitate to dissent from Mr.

Macfie’s arguments, while giving a qualified support to his
motion.

Perhaps I should object to the following representation:—

It has been proposed to replace Letters Patent by grants

from the national purse. This is to revert to an obsolete
custom. During the eighteenth century it was fairly tried, and
the result should serve as a warning now. Seventy thousand
pounds were distributed among plausible inventors in the
course of fifty years. The advantage to the public was nil. The
encouragement given to impostors was the only tangible
result. Johanna Stephens obtained 5,000l. for disclosing the
secret of her cure for the stone. A Mr. Blake got 2,500l. to
assist him in perfecting his scheme for transporting fish to
London by land, while a Mr. Foden was greatly overpaid with
500l., “to enable him to prosecute a discovery made by him of
a paste as a substitute for wheat-flour.” Give a man a sum of
money for his invention, and you run the risk of paying him
either too much or too little. Give him a Patent, and you
secure the invention for the public, while his remuneration in
money is absolutely determined according to its value.

The system of State-rewards has not been tried. The reviewer’s

cases do not apply. The scheme that I submit could never be abused
so as to sanction such follies. It may not be a generous and royal
way of dealing with inventions, but it is equitable and safe; whereas,
pace the reviewer, the remuneration from a Patent is not at all
“determined according to its value” (that of the invention).
This interesting article is remarkable for what it omits rather than
what it contains. Like almost every, if not every, defence of Patents
which I have seen, it ignores the grand objection to Patents—their
incompatibility with free-trade. From the beginning to the end there is
not in the article the slightest allusion to the hardship they inflict on
British manufacturers in competing with rivals in home, and
especially in foreign, markets. Reformers of the Patent system fail to
realise this—that no conceivable mere improvement, even, though it
should clear away the present encumbrance of a multiplicity of trifling
Patents, can be more than an alleviation of the mischief now done.
The remaining few would be the most important and valuable ones,
and therefore the most burdensome, because those which, on
account of the heavy royalties that will be legally claimed, must
subject British manufacturers to the largest pecuniary exactions—
exactions that they cannot, but their rivals often would, escape.
The writer of the article has a way of pooh-poohing adverse
arguments, even when he mentions them.

That no two men produce the same book is true. It is

almost as difficult for two men to give to the world two
inventions identical in every detail, and equally well-fitted to
subserve the same end. Much has been said about the ease
with which this may be done, but authentic proofs are lacking
of this having been done on a large scale.

And

Again, then, we ask for proofs of the allegation that six men
are often on the track of the self-same invention.

Why, the simultaneousness, or rapid succession, of identical

inventions is notorious.
 He goes in the face of the strongest evidence when he says—

It is doubtful even if these objectionable Patents do any real

harm. An invention which will answer no purpose is simply
useless, whether it be patented or not.

And, elsewhere,

The truth must not be blinked that, if a multiplicity of

worthless Patents be an evil, if the profits of manufacturers
are diminished owing to the battle they have to fight with
patentees, if the bestowal of Patent-right be the source of
mischief and the occasion of pecuniary loss, the like
complaint may be laid at the door of Copyright, and its
abolition might be demanded with as great a show of fairness.

How lightly he can regard arguments of his opponents is also seen

in the following passage:—

Another of Lord Stanley’s objections is that the right man

hardly ever gets the reward. As he puts it, litigation being
costly, and the grant of Patent-right merely amounting to
permission to take legal proceedings against infringers, the
poor man has no chance of asserting and defending his
rights. “If a poor inventor took out a Patent, and the Patent
promised to be productive, in nine cases out of ten he was
obliged to sell it to some one who could command capital
enough to defend it in a court of law.” We submit this proves
nothing more than that the poor inventor, in nine cases out of
ten, deserves our pity. But then, if these nine inventors are
unfortunate, that does not justify the ill-treatment of the tenth.

The source of the writer’s idea, that cessation of Patents is ill-

treatment, lies in the assumption which pervades the whole article,
that to inventors belongs property in inventions—i.e., exclusive right
of property; or, in other words, right to require the State to use its
power to prevent other persons from doing what they do, and what
every other man has a natural and inalienable right to do.
Still further: shutting his eyes to the difficulty of mollifying the
grievance of invention monopoly by means of “compulsory licences,”
which the Royal Commission declared they found no way of
rendering practicable—and, I add, if practicable, would be no cure of
the evils, which are radical—he writes—

If to this were added a system of compulsory licences, the

amount of royalty to be determined by a tribunal, in the event
of the parties failing to come to terms, nearly all the really
serious and valid objections to the working of a Patent-Law
would be obviated.

Yet, believing himself the friend of the public, in spite of all the
strong arguments against his views and the little he himself adduces
for them, he very complacently tells us—

Speaking on behalf of the public, we maintain that a Patent-

Law is necessary in any uncivilised community, because,
without its protection, industry cannot flourish, and ingenuity
can have no scope for its triumphs.

The reviewer can hardly have consulted any practical man when
he pronounces it—

absurd to plead that a Patent has been infringed in ignorance,

when it is certain that the ignorance, if not wilful, is wholly
inexcusable.

Undoubtedly, infringements often are not acts done blamelessly in

ignorance; still, I would be surprised in most cases if the infringer
knew he was infringing. He is not likely to know it in making trivial
improvements, for how can he know without subjecting himself to no
small trouble and expense, such as ought not to be laid upon him.
There is an important point as to which the reviewer and I perhaps
differ, “the extent to which Letters Patent give a monopoly in ideas.”
The fact is, that the whole breadth of a principle is patentable,
provided any single mode of applying it can be specified.
The reviewer, adverting to the changes which have taken place in
the Law of Patents since the days of Elizabeth, characterises them
as “changes towards greater freedom of action on the part of the
State, and greater liberty of choice on the part of the people.” This, I
confess, I do not understand, except so far as it may mean there has
been less and less control exercised by the State, and more and
more advantage taken of this supineness by all sorts of persons. I
am quite prepared to admit that in my speech I have exhibited rather
a popular than a strictly legal and logical view of the meaning and
legitimate applicability of the words in the statute, “nor mischievous
to the State by raising prices.” All that I maintain is this,—that the
spirit of the proviso is opposed to any individual Patent that keeps
prices up at a level below which, if there were no grant, they might,
by the natural progress of industry, be expected to fall, and to a
Patent system that characteristically has that effect and is also
chargeable with “hurt of trade” and “generally inconvenient.”