Public Disclosure Authorized

Public Disclosure Authorized

Public Disclosure Authorized

UNDERSTANDING GENDER IN AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAINS:

THE CASES OF GRAPES/RAISINS, ALMONDS AND SAFFRON IN
Public Disclosure Authorized

AFGHANISTAN

Agriculture and Rural Development Unit

Sustainable Development Department
South Asia Region
The World Bank

May 2011

Report No. 62323-AF

 CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

(Exchange rate effective as of July 2010)

Currency unit = Afghani (Af)

US$ 1.00 = 46.2 Af

FISCAL YEAR
March 21 – March 20

UNITS OF MEASURE

1 jerib 0.4942 acres or 2,000 square

meters
1 ser 7 kilograms

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AAIDO Afghanistan Almond Industry Development Organization

ACCI Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce and Industries
Af Afghani (currency)
AFSA Afghanistan Farm Service Alliance
AMIP Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project
ANDS Afghanistan National Development Strategy
ANSA Afghanistan National Standardization Authority
APPRO Afghan Public Policy Research Organization
APTTA Afghanistan - Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement
AREDP Afghanistan Rural Enterprise Development Program
ASAP Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program
ASMED Afghanistan Small and Medium Enterprise Development
AWBC Afghan Women's Business Council
AWBF Afghan Women's Business Federation
b Billion
CDC Community Development Council
CSO Central Statistics Organization (Afghanistan)
DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees
ECO Economic Cooperation Organization
EPA Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits and Vegetables Export Promotion Agency
EPAA Export Promotion Agency of Afghanistan
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FGD Focus group discussion
FOD Farmer Organization Development
g Gram
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
ha Hectare
HLP Horticulture and Livestock Project
ISO Information Organization for Standardization
KAIIFC Khulm Agriculture Islamic Investment Finance and Cooperative
Kg Kilogram

i
M Million
MAIL Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock
MBDFA Mazar Sharif Balkh Dry Fruits Processing Association
MEDA Mennonite Economic Development Associates
MFI Microfinance institution
MOC Ministry of Commerce
MOWA Ministry of Women's Affairs
MRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development
NGO Nongovernmental organization
NSDP National Skills Development Program
NSP National Solidarity Program
PRT Provincial Reconstruction Team
PTA Preferential Trade Agreement
Rs Rupees
SAARC South Asia Association of Regional Countries
SAFTA South Asia Free Trade Agreement
SDO Sanayee Development Organization
t Metric ton
TTGG Through the Garden Gate Project
UAE United Arab Emirates
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USA United States of America
VF Village facilitator
WOCCU World Council of Credit Unions
WTO World Trade Organization
yr Year

Vice President: Isabel Guerrero

Country Director: Nicholas J. Krafft
Sector Director: John Henry Stein
Sector Manager: Simeon Ehui
Project Team Leaders: Jennifer Solotaroff, Mio Takada

ii
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. vii

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................ viii

Chapter 1: Understanding Gender in Afghanistan’s Agricultural Value Chains: Context,

Methodology, and Case Studies .................................................................................................1

1.1 The Context..........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Study Objectives ..................................................................................................................2

1.3 Methodology ........................................................................................................................2

1.4 Selecting Value Chains for the Case Studies .......................................................................4

1.5 Organization of this Policy Note..........................................................................................7

Chapter 2: Afghanistan’s Expanding Export Markets and Women’s Potential to

Participate ....................................................................................................................................9

2.1 Exports and Export Partners in Regional and International Markets ..................................9

2.2 Gender Dimensions in the Agricultural Sector ..................................................................12

2.3 Conclusion: Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of Gender in Agricultural Value

Chains ................................................................................................................................14

Chapter 3: Women’s Constraints and Opportunities in the Grape/Raisin, Almond, and

Saffron Value Chains................................................................................................................15

3.1 Women’s Roles in the Grape/Raisin, Almond and Saffron Value Chains ........................15

3.2 Constraints and Opportunities for Women Producers .......................................................23

Chapter 4: Policy Recommendations ......................................................................................31

4.1 Promoting Opportunities For Women Producers ...............................................................31

4.2 Conclusion: Developing Value Chains That Work for Rural Women ..............................33

References ..................................................................................................................................35

ANNEXES
Annex 1: Grape and Raisin Value Chain
Annex 2: Almond Value Chain

iii
Annex 3: Saffron Value Chain
Annex 4: Meetings with Key Value Chain Participants
Annex 5: Interview Data
Annex 6: Stakeholder Workshop

TABLES
Table 1.1: List of key export products with women’s involvement in value chains
Table 1.2: Value chain selection
Table 1.3: Export of raisins and almonds by Afghanistan
Table 2.1: Afghanistan’s exports by country, 2004–09
Table 2.2: Afghanistan’s participation in multilateral trade and trade-related organizations
Table 2.3: Preferential tariffs on Afghan raisins, almonds, and grapes by the Government of
India
Table 3.1: HLP farmers’ sals and income from grapes, raisins, and almonds
Table A1.1: World’s top 10 fresh grape exporters and Afghanistan, 2006–09
Table A1.2: World’s top 10 fresh grape importers, 2006–09
Table A1.3: World’s top 10 raisin exporters, 2006–09
Table A1.4: Major importers of Afghan raisins, 2006–09
Table A1.5: World’s top 10 raisin importers, 2006–09
Table A1.6: Differences in fresh grape yields, sales volumes, and income among HLP producer
households
Table A1.7: Differences in raisin yields, sales volumes, and income among HLP producer
households
Table A1.8: Prices and costs along the value chain for fresh grapes and raisins
Table A2.1: World’s top 11 almond exporters, 2006–09
Table A2.2: Major importers of Afghan almonds, 2006–09
Table A2.3: World’s top 10 almond importers, 2006–09
Table A2.4: Differences in almond yields, sales volumes, and income among HLP producer
households
Table A2.5: Prices and costs along the value chain for almonds
Table A3.1: World’s top saffron exporters, 2006–09
Table A3.2: World’s top 10 saffron importers, 2006–09
Table A3.3: Prices of imported and domestically produced saffron, Afghanistan, 2010

FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Afghanistan’s exports in 2008
Figure 3.1: Raisin subsector map
Figure 3.2: Red raisin value chain
Figure 3.3: High-quality, in-shell almond value chain
Figure 3.4: Constraints tree: Raisins
Figure 3.5: Gender constraints in the raisin subsector
Figure A1.1: Fresh grape subsector map
Figure A1.2: Raisin subsector map
Figure A1.3: Trade values: Fresh grapes (in-season and off-season)
Figure A1.4: Trade values: Red raisins
Figure A1.5: Trade values: Green raisins

iv
Figure A1.6: Trade values: Golden raisins
Figure A1.7: Constraints tree: Fresh grapes
Figure A1.8: Constraints tree: Raisins
Figure A1.9: Gender constraints in the fresh grape subsector
Figure A1.10: Gender constraints in the raisin subsector
Figure A2.1: Almond subsector map
Figure A2.2: Value chain: High-quality, in-shell almonds
Figure A2.3: Value chain: Medium-quality, shelled and in-shell almonds
Figure A2.4: Value chain: Low-quality, shelled and in-shell almonds
Figure A2.5: Constraints tree: Almonds
Figure A2.6: Gender constraints in the almond subsector
Figure A3.1: Saffron subsector map
Figure A3.2: Value chain: Saffron
Figure A3.3: Constraints tree: Saffron
Figure A3.4: Gender constraints in the saffron subsector

BOXES
Box 2.1: Afghan women’s land ownership
Box 3.1: The Kabul Women Farm Store
Box 3.2: Providing extension services to women: The HLP experience
Box 3.3: Two saffron producer associations for Afghan women
Box 3.4: The Afghan Pride Association: A women-owned processing company
Box 3.5: Through the Garden Gate: A project mobilizes women in the vegetable value chain
Box 3.6: Developing the saffron value chain with women producers

MAP
Map 1.1: Main production areas and trade routes in Afghanistan for grapes/raisins, almonds, and
saffron

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report was prepared by a team led by Jennifer Solotaroff and Mio Takada, with the core
team comprising Miki Terasawa, Cornelia Staritz, and Najla Sabri. The report was developed
under the overall guidance of Simeon Ehui, Sector Manager, Agriculture and Rural Development
Department, South Asia (SASDA), and Maria Correia, Sector Manager, Social Development
Department, South Asia (SASDS). Venkat Ramachandran, Wahida Obaidy, and Wazhma Khalili
provided administrative assistance.

The major contribution to this report was made by the Mennonite Economic Development
Associates (MEDA), with a team of consultants led by Ann Gordon with the participation of
Catherine Sobrevega, Deepa Swaminathan, Zainab Wahidi, Mohibullah Mohmand, Simrat
Mand, and Parinaz Hissami. The MEDA team undertook extensive field and desk research and
data analysis for two value chains (grapes/raisins and almonds). MEDA also carried out desk
research and data analysis on the saffron value chain, building on the field research conducted by
the Afghan Public Policy Research Organization (APPRO). Miki Terasawa converted MEDA’s
field report into the policy document contained in these pages.

The team wishes to thank the peer reviewers, Stephen Jaffee, Asta Olesen, and Riikka Rajalahti
for helpful comments and guidance; and counterparts in the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation,
and Livestock (MAIL) and the Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) team for their valuable
assistance. The team also extends its thanks to the women; entrepreneurs; service providers;
producer and/or trade organizations; the Ministries of Rural Rehabilitation and Development
(MRRD), Public Works (MPW), Women’s Affairs (MOWA), and Commerce (MOC);
nongovernmental organizations, in particular Roots of Peace and the Danish Committee for Aid
to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR); and donors in Afghanistan who provided valuable input to the
study through interviews and the stakeholder workshop.

The study was made possible through assistance from the Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Trade and
Development, and its dissemination is supported by a Gender Action Plan Just-in-Time grant.
The team wishes to take this opportunity to express its appreciation for the supporting donors.

vi
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. Afghanistan has comparative and competitive strengths in agriculture, which accounts for
approximately half of its gross domestic product. An estimated 54 percent of Afghanistan’s
agricultural workforce is female, and women are especially prominent in horticulture. More than
half of Afghanistan’s official exports—not including informal or illicit trade—are fresh or
processed horticultural crops, especially fresh grapes and raisins (approximately 40 percent of
Afghanistan’s horticultural exports) and almonds (20 percent). Exports of saffron, although still
very small, have the potential to become quite significant, and women are heavily involved in
growing and processing this extremely high-value crop.

2. Recognizing women’s predominance in agricultural production, harvesting, and

processing, the National Agriculture Development Framework of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Irrigation, and Livestock (MAIL) stipulates that gender mainstreaming must form an important
cross-cutting element of its work in economic regeneration, agricultural production, and natural
resource management (MAIL 2009). This study supports gender mainstreaming in horticulture
by developing a better understanding of constraints and opportunities shaping women’s
prospects for moving up the value chains for grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron. The study
maps the placement and roles of women and men in the value chains of these key horticultural
exports. It identifies constraints and opportunities influencing the value chains in general and
women’s roles in particular. The analysis combines a vertical perspective (focusing on sectoral
dynamics and commercial actors) with a horizontal perspective (focusing on institutions and
structures in the Afghan context). The study involved extensive field research in Kabul, Parwan,
Balkh, and Herat Provinces.

3. Women are generally concentrated at the lower levels of the grape/raisin, almond, and
saffron value chains, where they perform irrigation, weeding, harvesting, and minimal
processing, such as drying and packing raisins and almonds, at the household level. Men, on the
other hand, link households with the market to obtain input supply and sell the products, in
addition to their substantial engagement in production. Most of these activities also involve
heavy lifting, such as carrying 50 plus kilogram bags to the local market. Men also serve as the
actors in the upper levels of the value chains, including middlemen or village-level traders and
processors, wholesalers, retailers, or exporters. This division of labor is largely a reflection of
social and cultural norms, which do not allow women to interact with men, travel by themselves,
or own land. These factors severely curtail women’s access to resources and services, including
credit, training, extension, inputs, and trading and marketing networks. Women do not have
collateral to apply for credit or opportunities to participate in extension training because selection
for these opportunities is often based on land ownership. Moreover, there are few or no women
service providers in extension, credit, input supply, or marketing. Despite the key roles women
play in harvesting and post-harvest processing, there is little or no training on quality control,
including hygiene, sanitation, and higher-value varieties.

4. Because men and women perform different functions, the difference in their wages is not
comparable. Rural women perform harvesting and post-harvest processing of raisins, almonds,
and saffron as a part of household chores; thus, their work goes unpaid. In the case of saffron,
however, some women (most likely from women producer associations) are hired by small- or

vii
large-scale farmers at Af 200-300 per day, because these activities are highly labor intensive as
well as time bound. A similar wage (Af 100-200 per day, or Af 100 per 50-kilogram processed)
is paid to women in urban or peri-urban areas, who are hired by processors or wholesalers to
clean, sort, grade, and package raisins or almonds for national, regional, and international
markets. Post-harvest processing is among the lowest paid work, in which men—who have other
opportunities—would not be interested. For example, male laborers, who are hired by exporters
to harvest, pack, and load crates of fresh grapes, are paid Af 400 per day.

5. The case studies show that in developing value chains that work for women, it is vital for
women producers to (i) remain in charge of harvesting and post-harvest processing and (ii) be
provided with women-to-women service delivery. These conditions can be achieved by (a)
providing training on quality control in harvesting and post-harvest handling, including hygiene,
sanitation, sorting, and grading; (b) mobilizing women producer associations; (c) developing a
pool of women para-professionals at the village level, who would work in critical areas such as
input supply, extension, quality control, credit, and trade/market linkages; (d) facilitating
women’s access to credit by developing MFI linkages; (e) facilitating women’s access to
medium and high-end export markets by providing certification and supporting research on
high-end market preferences; (f) using information technology in service provision. In support of
women’s movement up in the grape/raisin, almond, and saffron value chains, this study offers
the following policy recommendations:

6. Develop value chain action plans that would enhance women’s participation. MAIL
should develop value chain action plans for key horticulture export products, including
grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron. These plans should be developed in consultation with all
stakeholders, such as women producers, other key value chain actors, the private sector, relevant
ministries and agencies, NGOs, and donors. Developing and implementing the plans would
require honest brokers, such as NGOs already active in promoting the value chains. These
brokers should also monitor impacts on household dynamics as well as increases in household
income.

7. In supporting the action plans, MAIL also should develop a marketing strategy for each
product to access key regional and international markets. The strategy would help identify
quality standards and certification requirements, which need to be addressed by extension
packages. This would have to be developed in consultation with export support agencies, such as
the Export Promotion Agency of Afghanistan (EPAA) and the Afghanistan Chamber of
Commerce and Industries (ACCI), and the private sector.

8. Support mobilization of women’s producer groups and their aggregation with

men’s groups at the cluster or district level. In forming producer groups, the Community
Development Councils (CDCs) developed by the National Solidarity Program (NSP) should be
the entry point and provide a governance mechanism by ensuring transparency and
accountability in the selection and management of producer groups. The human capacity and
knowledge of CDC members (in subproject management, accounting, and procurement capacity,
for example) could support producer groups in undertaking select group activities.

viii
9. Female and male producer groups should be aggregated at the cluster or district level,
which would enable producers to reach economy of scale to attract regional or international
buyers. Global experiences indicate that by encouraging women to stay in charge of harvesting
and post-harvest processing, there could be opportunities for the cluster organizations to market
their products with those international buyers, who are willing to pay premium for women-
managed value addition or businesses.

10. Improve rural outreach by developing a pool of women para-professionals. MAIL

could support creating a pool of women para-professionals at the producer or cluster/district
level by training women high school graduates. In addition to providing extension services, these
para-professionals could develop entry points for service delivery, such as by (i) mobilizing
group formation and accounting support for savings and credit and/or (ii) developing linkages
with MFIs and markets. Following good practices identified in livelihood development projects
elsewhere in South Asia, these para-professionals could be contracted by NGOs or eventually
work for producer groups and associations for a fee per business case. The latter would shift
quality control from NGOs to producers themselves, thus ensuring sustainability.

11. Develop a certified training program for women extension service providers. MAIL
should develop a systematic extension training program in collaboration with the Ministries of
Education and Higher Education. The program would provide women extension workers with
current knowledge, in particular of harvesting, post-harvest handling, quality control, and market
information. Another program should also be developed for women para-professionals, who
would require less technical but more pedagogical training on the value chains. These programs
would also offer regular opportunities for re-training to update their skills. The National Skills
Development Program (NSDP) could support development of a certification program and
identify training providers. The Faculties of Agriculture in Kabul, Balkh, and Herat Universities
could potentially expand their curricula to deliver the program for extension workers and para-
professionals. It is recommended that MAIL support these universities to strengthen research and
development of grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron value chains.

12. Improve rural road infrastructure to enable access by women service providers.
Poor public infrastructure, particularly for rural connectivity, is one of the major constraints on
the ability of women service providers, including extension workers and village-level traders or
sales agents, to reach women producers. The World Bank-financed National Emergency Rural
Access Project has been upgrading tertiary roads to improve access to and from rural areas. Even
so, more investments are necessary to upgrade farm roads, and MAIL and key ministries should
continue investigating alternatives. In building access roads, the hub approach is recommended.
A good practice is also to carefully consult the value chain actors—in particular, processors—on
the appropriate locations for raw material/processed product acquisition. This may further guide
infrastructure investment to the economically most appropriate locations.

13. Provide value chain innovation grants for women. A grant facility could be set up to
specifically support women’s producer groups, female service providers in a cluster
organization, or women-managed processing companies, in innovation and entrepreneurship to
promote the value chains of key horticulture export products for Afghanistan. This incentive
could finance women’s producer groups in accessing value addition tools and infrastructure,

ix
scholarships for women service providers, women-to-women exchanges through exposure visits,
women’s participation in regional or international exhibitions, or marketing extension. MAIL
could manage the grant facility in collaboration with other key ministries as a gender
mainstreaming effort. In approving grants, MAIL and the ministries must ensure the
implementation and sustainability of these activities. Their support should include training on
extension and/or entrepreneurism and helping provide market linkages. Because the availability
of grants would be limited, MAIL should also seek opportunities to collaborate with other
projects for financing, including the Afghanistan Rural Enterprise Development Project
(AREDP) implemented by the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD).

14. Use information technology (IT) to enhance women’s involvement in value chains.
MAIL, trade associations, NGOs, and other key ministries are encouraged to integrate women
more directly into market systems.1 The service delivery model could be built around the use of
IT, such as a mobile accessible interactive extension or market information systems that are
accessible by women producers, para-professionals, service providers, and buyers (wholesalers,
processors, and exporters). Marketing databases being developed by ACCI, etc. could eventually
be expanded to include data that is pertinent to women’s other home-based economic
development initiatives, such as embroidery or other non-farm products.

1
Howe (2010).

x
 CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING GENDER IN AFGHANISTAN’S AGRICULTURAL VALUE
CHAINS: CONTEXT, METHODOLOGY, AND CASE STUDIES

1.1 The Context

1. Agriculture accounts for approximately half of Afghanistan’s gross domestic product,

and the country has comparative and competitive strengths in horticultural and livestock
production. Orchard fruits (fresh and dried) are key exports, whereas poultry products (both eggs
and meat) could substitute for imports, which amount to US$ 78.2 million per annum. Until the
late 1970s, Afghanistan supplied 20 percent of the raisins on the global market, held a dominant
position in pistachio and dried fruit production, and produced livestock and wool products for
regional markets. Since the late 1970s, intermittent conflict and periodic drought have provoked
the flight of capital, displaced farming communities, caused the neglect of irrigation channels,
diminished technical and market support, and ultimately eroded market share. Agriculturally
productive land was lost and productive capacity weakened.

2. Throughout South Asia, women produce 70–80 percent of food crops (Samson 2006).
They raise chickens and collect eggs, water and weed crops, clean and dry fruits and vegetables,
and process and package agricultural produce or products. Women form an estimated 54 percent
of Afghanistan’s agricultural workforce (NRVA 2007/08, ICON-INSTITUTE. 2008). Women’s
domestic chores encompass most harvesting and post-harvest processing, but women rarely
market or trade in the finished agricultural products. As a result, men remain the main financial
beneficiaries of the process. Two key factors contribute to these divisions of labor: gender bias,
based on deeply ingrained cultural and societal norms (Byravan 2008), and the highly informal
agricultural economy.

3. Gender equality is one of the most important themes of the Afghanistan National
Development Strategy (ANDS) 2008–2013. Through this strategy, the Government of
Afghanistan commits to fostering measurable improvements in women’s economic opportunities
and access to and control over productive assets and income. The National Agriculture
Development Framework 2009, developed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and
Livestock (MAIL), identifies gender mainstreaming as an important cross-cutting element in
economic regeneration, agricultural production, and natural resource management (MAIL 2009).

4. Mainstreaming women in agricultural production requires a systemic understanding of

the organization of production, based on local geography, institutions, gender norms, and other
local factors.2 Any forms of economic organization introduced in Afghanistan to increase the
gender balance in agricultural production must be cognizant of, and resonate with, centuries-old
structures of economic organization and gender roles. At the same time, gender mainstreaming
interventions must challenge some of the existing social and economic institutions to pursue
progressive economic and social change.

5. Recognizing the centrality of agriculture to national reconstruction and to economic

growth based on regional as well as international trade, donors and aid agencies have undertaken
2
Blake and Hanson (2005), cited in Byravan (2008).

1
a number of global value chain studies; identified national, regional, and international markets;
and provided revenue assessments at each point of the value chains.3 None of these studies has
explicitly and comprehensively analyzed the gender dimension of value chains, however. To
enable gender equality in the way that ANDS aspires to do—that is, by facilitating women’s
access to and control over assets and income—will require truly comprehensive value chain
research, in which a gender perspective permits the exploration of constraints and opportunities
for women’s participation in various segments of value chains.

1.2 Study Objectives

6. This study seeks to: (i) understand the constraints and opportunities affecting women’s
capacity to take significant control over the value chains of key export products in Afghanistan
and (ii) provide MAIL with policy recommendations to strengthen its gender mainstreaming
strategy in the World Bank-supported Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP). The study’s
unique contribution is to develop and apply an integrated approach to understanding gender in
value chains. The key questions addressed in the study include:

 Which activities do women and men perform, and thus which roles/positions do women
and men have in the specific value chains analyzed? Why do women have these
particular roles/positions as opposed to those held by men?
 How can the value-added activities fulfilled by women increase? How can women
upgrade to new activities with higher value-added? What opportunities do men and
women have to access markets and undertake higher-value activities? What are the
specific opportunities for women to do so? At what point(s) in the value chains do
women have the potential to gain financially and/or assume more responsibilities in
making decisions related to production and/or marketing?
 What constraints prevent women and men from accessing markets at the local, national,
regional, and, if appropriate, international levels? What constrains their ability to move
up to higher value-added activities in the value chains under study? Which specific
constraints apply to women? Are there policy constraints on women’s roles in these value
chains, in addition to cultural and social constraints?
 How can Afghan producers, specifically Afghan women, increase their household
income? How could women improve their position in the value chain? Within the value
chains analyzed, what key steps and potential interventions could improve women’s
position?

1.3 Methodology

7. The study incorporates a gender dimension in the global value chain approach. The value
chain approach maps and analyzes each step of the production and distribution process (for
example, input supply, production, harvest, post-harvest processing, marketing, and trade),
supporting services such as retailing, storage, and transport, and the position and role of different
actors (McVay and Snelgrove 2007). The analysis is extended by mapping the specific positions
and roles of women and men in value chains and identifying their specific constraints and

3
Millns, J. 2007. ―Value chains for Agricultural Products in Afghanistan.‖

2
opportunities (Rubin et al. 2009). This ―gendered value chain approach‖ needs to incorporate an
institutional perspective that takes account of the context in which each value chain is embedded.

8. To understand the constraints on women’s participation and capture of higher value-

added in value chains and identify their opportunities, the analysis combines a vertical
perspective (focusing on sectoral dynamics and commercial actors) with a horizontal perspective
(focusing on institutions and structures in the specific context of Afghanistan). In this way, the
study integrates findings related to women’s improved positions in value chains with those
pertaining more broadly to gender and economic development to provide insights into vertical
constraints on women in value chains (particularly on women’s access to markets and various
services) and horizontal constraints (such as gender dynamics in the household and community
and the institutional context in Afghanistan, including norms, rules, and values as well as the
specific situation of a post-conflict country) (Mayoux and Mackie 2009).

9. The qualitative analysis relied on more than 75 semi-structured interviews with

commercial and institutional actors and women’s focus group discussions in Kabul, Parwan,
Balkh, and Herat Provinces. Overall, the sample of commercial and institutional actors, including
women producers, was fairly representative:

 Commercial actors included input suppliers, processors, service providers, middlemen,

traders, wholesalers, retailers, exporters, and, where possible, importers, buyers, and
middlemen operating in regional and international export markets. For each value chain
studied, commercial actors were carefully mapped and selected for interviewing to ensure
fair representation from varying sizes and networks among the actors.
 Institutional actors were composed of government and line ministries at the national,
provincial, and district levels, such as MAIL, the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and
Development (MRRD), the Ministry of Commerce, and the Ministry of Women’s Affairs
(MOWA); nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), aid agencies, and donors providing
support to women producers in the value chains; and private organizations supporting
business development, such as the Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce and Industries
(ACCI), Export Promotion Agency of Afghanistan (EPAA), Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits,
and Vegetables Export Promotion Agency (EPA), Afghanistan Almond Industry
Development Organization (AAIDO), and the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID)-financed Afghanistan Small and Medium Enterprise
Development Project (ASMED). Almost all of these institutional actors were
interviewed.
 Women focus groups. Discussions with women’s focus groups involved female
producers, women’s producer groups or associations, and other groups of women, such as
the Community Development Councils (CDCs) formed through the World Bank-financed
National Solidarity Project (NSP), savings and credit groups, and women’s business
associations. Women from both small- and large-farmer households were interviewed,
including female heads of households who participate in women producer associations.

10. For the vertical dimension of the analysis, the study obtained information and data on a
range of issues, largely through interviews with the commercial actors listed earlier:

3
  Demand at local, national (Kabul and other major urban centers), regional, and
international markets and market access (specifically, tariff and nontariff barriers in
regional and international markets).
 Standards and certification necessary to enter or to improve positions in regional and
international markets.
 Costs, productivity, and margins at all levels of the value chains.
 Competitiveness issues, focusing on price and quality.
 Enabling factors such as policy, the regulatory system, access to land and infrastructure
(for example, irrigation), and the business environment (especially administrative
procedures, licenses, and taxes).
 Support services (such as marketing support, telecommunications, transport, and
logistics) and training institutions.

11. For the horizontal dimension of the analysis, interviews with representatives of
government and ministries, associations, groups, cooperatives, agencies, councils, NGOs, and
donors helped capture the institutional context for the value chains. Talking with both women’s
and men’s producer and/or trade organizations was also a priority.

12. The qualitative analysis mapped value chains and developed constraints trees to identify
the main steps in production and distribution, the key commercial and institutional actors along
the respective value chains, and their relationships. The gender perspective applied throughout
the mapping helped to identify the relative positions and roles of women and men along the
value chains. Aside from the commercial actors in each value chain—the input suppliers, service
providers, producers, traders, buyers, and retailers—the institutional actors who played a role in
the value chain were mapped at the local, provincial, and national levels. Value chain mapping
focused on the vertical dimensions described earlier to determine the key challenges facing
women and men producers as well as the challenges and opportunities of particular relevance for
women producers. The mapping also took the horizontal dimensions into account to understand
the institutional context and constraints for each value chain.

1.4 Selecting Value Chains for the Case Studies

13. Several criteria were developed to select the agricultural value chains for the case studies:

 The value chain was located in a relatively secure area with good physical access to
export corridors to neighboring countries and to provincial capitals or major urban
markets.
 The higher levels of the value chain showed potential for a high level of women’s
involvement.
 Products were currently exported or had high potential for regional and/or international
export.
 Production was relatively sophisticated and complex.
 Products were already promoted or would potentially be promoted by HLP.

14. Desk reviews and consultations with World Bank gender and trade specialists helped to
identify nine products: grapes and raisins, almonds, apricots, saffron, pomegranates, pistachios,

4
embroidery, carpets, and poultry. Table 1.1 indicates key production areas and estimated trade
values per annum:

Table 1.1: List of key export products with women’s involvement in value chains
Product Key production areas Estimated trade values
Farm (horticulture and livestock)
Grapes and raisins Kabul, Parwan, Kapisa, and US$ 116 million
Panjshir (US$ 100.7 million dried, US$ 15.5 million fresh)
Almonds Balkh, Samangan, and Kabul US$ 50 million
Pistachios Balkh, Herat, Logar, and Paktia US$ 41 million
Apricots Kabul, Balkh US$ 16 million
(US$ 15.8 million dried, US$ 0.5 million fresh)
Pomegranates Kandahar US$ 15 million
Saffron Herat US$ 160,000
Poultry Bamyan and other sites No data on export; however, US$ 78.2 million
imported in 2007.
Non-farm
Carpets Balkh, Herat, and other sites US$ 150 million
Handicrafts, Baghlan and other sites US$ 29 million
including
embroidery
Source: Central Statistics Office 2008/09, except for saffron (UN comtrade) and poultry (MRRD 2007)

15. The nine products were assessed in light of the criteria mentioned previously, and the
four with the highest scores were chosen for the case studies. Table 1.2 presents the weight
assigned to each criterion and the results of the selection process. Higher weights were assigned
to the first three criteria in the table. Security and access to production areas are not only a
prerequisite for extensive fieldwork, but are essential to any service providers and aid agencies
potentially involved in programs and assistance for the value chains. The other two heavily
weighted criteria are crucial with regard to the central focus of this study: women’s involvement
and export value chains.

Table 1.2: Value chain selection (score by key subsector: X = full credit; O = half credit; -- = no credit)
Criterion
Raisins/grapes

Pomegranates

Embroidery
Pistachios
Almonds

Apricots

Carpets

Poultry
Saffron
Weight

Located in relatively secure areas 2 X X X X -- -- X X X

to allow unimpeded fieldwork
and data collection
Potential for a high degree of 2 X X O X O O X -- X-
women’s involvement at the
higher levels of the value chain
Products already exported or have 2 X X X X X X X X --
high potential for export
Relatively high degree of 1 X O X X -- O X X X
sophistication/complexity in the
organization of production
Good physical access to export 1 O O O X X X X X --
corridors to neighboring

5
 countries, such as Pakistan, Iran,
and Uzbekistan
Relatively good physical access 1 X X X X X X X X X
to provincial capitals or other
major urban centers
Product is preferably promoted or 1 X X X -- X -- -- -- X
potentially promoted by HLP
Score 10 9.5 9 8.5 9 6 5.5 9 7 7

Source: APPRO.

16. The four highest-scoring subsectors were grapes/raisins, almonds, saffron, and
embroidery.4 Based on their considerable potential as export commodities in the regional market
and/or women’s substantial involvement in the value chains, grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron
were ultimately selected for the case studies. According to UN Comtrade statistics5, Afghanistan
is the world seventh largest exporter of raisins and 11th largest exporter of of almonds. Below
table 1.3 summarizes Afghanistan’s position in the global trade between 2006 and 2009. The
major importers of these two products are neighboring countries in Central and South Asia,
including Russian Federation and India, both of which are key players in the global market.
Russian Federation is the fourth largest importer of raisins with the total trade value of US$ 260
million (details on the global market is available in the Annex 1). Likewise, India is the third
largest importer of almonds with the total trade value of US$ 838 million. India is also the largest
importer of in-shell almonds (60 percent), which Afghanistan has the fifth-largest share in export
(details on the global market is available in the Annex 2).6 Therefore, raisins and almonds have
high potential for export growth in the regional market.

Table 1.3: Export of raisins and almonds by Afghanistan

Product Trade Value World Share Key Importers and Trade Value (Share)
Raisins US$ 150 million 3.4 percent  Russian Federation: US$ 52 million (34.7 percent)
(7th largest exporter)  Pakistan: US$ 51 million (34 percent)
 India: US$ 31 million (21 percent)
Almonds US$ 110 1.1 percent  Pakistan: US$ 63.3 million (57.5 percent)
million, of (11th largest exporter,  India: US$ 42.6 million (38.8 percent)
which US$ 38 while 5th largest
million is in- exporter of in-shell
shell almonds)
Source: UN Comtrade

17. On the other hand, Afghanistan exports small amounts of fresh grapes and saffron. The
data from the UN Comtrade indicate its export of fresh grapes amounted to US$ 22 million,
which is about 0.1 percent of the world exports. Afghanistan’s primary export partners were
Pakistan (83 percent) and India (17 percent). A promising market for fresh grapes is the Russian

4
Despite women’s significant involvement in embroidery, the potential for export growth was much greater for the
horticultural products. Nor was poultry considered for the final group of case studies, even though HLP had formed
13,000 poultry units operated by women as of September 2010, and 90 percent of the women involved continued to
engage in poultry production. Locally produced poultry has considerable potential to substitute for imports but is
less likely become a key export.
5
Data between 2006 and 2009.
6
About 35 percent of Afghanistan’s almond export is in-shell, with a trade value of US$ 38 million.

6
Federation, which is the fifth world largest importer with the trade value of US$ 1.7 billion
(details on the global market available in the Annex 1).

18. Unlike grapes/raisins or almonds, saffron is a relatively new crop for Afghanistan. It was
brought by Afghans returning from Iran, where they had sought refuge during the conflicts of the
past decades. In 2008, Herat Province produced 1,500 kilograms of saffron, and is beginning to
export it formally to Spain, Italy, and the USA, and informally to Iran (details available in Annex
3). Saffron was selected for the case study because women have a substantial role in its value
chain in harvesting and post-harvest processing, and some of them are organized in producer
associations.

19. For all of the case study commodities, map 1.1 depicts trade routes, major production
areas, and Afghanistan’s five market centers, which form the wholesale connections and hubs for
export outside the country. The study undertook extensive field research in key producing
provinces, including Kabul and Parwan (grapes and raisins), Balkh (almonds), and Herat
(saffron) Provinces.7 While Kandahar is also the major producer of the high value grape variety,
it was not considered for field research because of security and difficulty in access for the study
as well as any future potential projects.

1.5 Organization of this Policy Note

20. This chapter has described the rationale for the study, the methodology, and the selection
of cases. Chapter 2 provides more detailed information on the importance of the horticultural
sector in Afghanistan’s economy and the main regional export partners for the case study
commodities. The chapter also examines factors affecting gender dimensions in Afghanistan’s
horticultural value chains and constraints to increasing women’s involvement. Chapter 3
discusses how women are occupied in the value chains of grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron
and what roles they play. It also identifies the main constraints and opportunities for women in
moving up in these value chains. The final chapter provides policy recommendations related to
the issues that are particularly relevant for enhancing women’s roles in the three value chains.
The annexes contain detailed descriptions of three value chains and background documents (lists
of meetings, interview data, and recommendations from the stakeholder workshop).

7
These products could also provide alternative livelihoods for poppy farmers with improved production practices. It
is estimated that trellised grapes could earn nearly nine times more than poppies, whereas almonds, when the trees
of high-value varieties mature, could offer earnings nearly eight times higher than those from poppies (Kuhn 2009).

7
 Map 1.1: Main production areas and trade routes in Afghanistan for grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron

ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
OF IRAN

Source: Adapted from Altai Consulting 2004.

8
 CHAPTER 2
AFGHANISTAN’S EXPANDING EXPORT MARKETS AND
WOMEN’S POTENTIAL TO PARTICIPATE

21. Afghanistan’s formal exports have risen by almost 80 percent8 since 2004, following new
trade and transport agreements with neighboring countries. Women are heavily involved in
producing, harvesting, and processing some of Afghanistan’s key export commodities, including
fresh and dried fruits and nuts, yet given the prevailing gender roles in agriculture and in Afghan
society more generally, questions remain about women’s prospects for moving up the value
chains for these commodities. This chapter reviews recent trends in Afghanistan’s formal exports
against the background of gender roles in agriculture and constraints on women’s potential for
undertaking higher-value activities in agricultural value chains. The chapter highlights the social
and cultural norms limit women’s growing entrepreneurship, because these norms have
restrictions on women’s land ownership, mobility and rural access, and access to services.

2.1 Exports and Export Partners in Regional and International Markets

22. Horticultural crops were a large component of Afghanistan’s formal exports in 2008/09,
which according to the CSO totaled US$ 545 million and consisted of dried fruits (45 percent),
carpets (27 percent), fresh fruit (8 percent), medicines and botanicals (4 percent), and skins (4
percent) (CSO 2008/09).9 United Nations (UN) Comtrade statistics, on the other hand, place the
total value of exports from Afghanistan at US$ 443 million; fruits and nuts account for the
largest share of Afghanistan’s exports (almost 34 percent) (figure 2.1).

23. The nation’s key export partners are mostly within the region: Pakistan, India, Russia,
Iran, and UAE. In 2008/09, approximately 50 percent of Afghanistan’s official exports went to
Pakistan, followed by India (25 percent). Between 2004/05 and 2008/09, official exports to
Pakistan remained stable at around US$ 250–300 million, whereas exports to UAE, Russia,
India, and Iran increased significantly: by 1,800 percent for UAE, 825 percent for Russia, 580
percent with India, and almost 300 percent with Iran. Other export partners include Belgium,
Finland, Germany, the UK, USA, and Uzbekistan. Overall, official exports from Afghanistan
rose by about 80 percent in these five years (table 2.1). The picture presented by UN Comtrade
statistics is somewhat different; in 2008, Afghanistan’s largest export partner was India (26.2
percent), followed by the USA (17.1 percent), Pakistan (16.9 percent), and Nigeria (13.9
percent). These figures are indicative, however. Given the debilitated Afghan economy and poor
physical and trade infrastructure, most trade between Afghanistan and other countries, especially
Iran and Pakistan, is informal, occurring via small traders and exporters.

8
Source: CSO 2009.
9
These numbers do not reflect the region’s significant informal trade. Nor do they reflect trade in illicit commodities
such as opium, which accounts for approximately 60 percent of Afghanistan’s exports (AREDP, ―A Competitive
Afghanistan,‖ 2007). In 2000–01, unofficial exports to Pakistan and Iran were 10 times higher than the official
exports to these countries (World Bank 2004).

9
Figure 2.1: Afghanistan’s exports in 2008

Edible fruit and nuts

Iron and steel

22.5% Plastics and articles

33.8% Lac; gums, resins & other vegetable

Aircraft, spacecraft
2.9%
Edible vegetables and certain roots
3.8%
Oil seed, oleagi fruits
4.1%
Mineral fuels, oils
6.2% Nuclear reactors, boilers
4.6% 5.2%
5.8% Furskins and artificial fur
5.4% 5.7%
Rest

Source: UN Comtrade statistics.

Table 2.1: Afghanistan’s exports by country, 2004–09 (US$ m)

2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09
Pakistan 258 298 265 301 264
India 20 23 79 81 136
Russia 4 13 29 22 37
UAE 1 13 4 7 19
Iran 4 3 5 9 18
Other 18 34 34 34 71
Total 305 384 416 454 545
Source: CSO, Afghanistan (http://www.cso.gov.af/economics/services/trade.html).

24. Afghanistan is a member of several multilateral trade and trade-related organizations,

including the South Asia Association of Regional Countries (SAARC) and the Economic
Cooperation Organization (ECO) of Central Asian countries (table 2.2). Through SAARC,
Afghanistan participates in the South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA), which would
facilitate better access to Pakistan and India.10 ECO also has a Trade Agreement (ECOTA) and
the Transit and Transport Framework Agreement, which would also facilitate better access to
Pakistan, Iran, and Uzbekistan.

25. Afghanistan has entered into at least three key bilateral trade agreements: (i) the
Afghanistan–Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA) (October 2010); (ii) the Preferential
Trade Agreement (PTA) with India (2003);11 and (iii) a 2003 agreement with Iran related to the
Chabahar Port and Chabahar Free Trade Zone, which covers reciprocal measures for business
licenses issued to each nation’s traders and businesses and improvements in transit route security
(World Bank 2004). The PTA with India contributed significantly to the 580 percent increase in
exports to India between 2004/05 and 2008/09; Afghanistan was granted preferential tariffs for

10
See text at http://www.saarc-sec.org/userfiles/saftaagreement.pdf, accessed December 2010.
11
Text of agreement available at http://commerce.nic.in/india_afghan.htm, accessed December 2010.

10
38 commodities—largely horticultural products, several spices, and minerals—the duty on which
varies from 30 to 105 percent. The horticultural products include grapes, raisins, almonds, figs
(dried), pistachios, walnuts, plums and mulberries (dried), pine nuts, apricots (fresh and dried),
apricot nuts, cherries (dried), melons, apples, and pomegranates. All varieties of fresh grapes,
raisins (green, black, red, and golden), and almonds have a 50 percent margin of preference,
making India a very attractive market for Afghan produce (table 2.3). Accessing the Indian
market remains a core problem for Afghan traders, however, as air freight remains expensive.

Table 2.2: Afghanistan’s participation in multilateral trade and trade-related organizations

Organization Region Number of Participating countries
member
countries
SAARC South Asia 8 Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
ECO Central Asia 10 Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
UN Economic and Social Asia and Pacific 52 Among commission members, Afghanistan’s key
Commission for Asia and export partners are Iran, India, Pakistan, Russia,
the Pacific and Uzbekistan
World Customs Worldwide 174 Among organization members, Afghanistan’s key
Organization export partners are Belgium, Finland, Germany,
Iran, India, Pakistan, Russia, UAE, UK, USA,
Uzbekistan
World Trade Organization Worldwide 153 Afghanistan is an observer, as are Iran, Russia,
(WTO) and Uzbekistan. The following key export
partners are WTO members: Belgium, Finland,
Germany, India, Pakistan, UAE, UK, USA
Source: World Customs Organization (http://publications.wcoomd.org/media/upload/Members_table_174_EN.pdf); World Trade
Organization (http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm); and World Bank 2004.

Table 2.3: Preferential tariffs on Afghan raisins, almonds, and grapes by the Government of India
Product Duty Margin of preference (%)
Raisins
Green raisins 105% 50
Black raisins 105% 50
Red raisins 105% 50
Golden raisins 105% 50
Almonds
Thin shelled Rs 65/kg 50
Hard shelled Rs 65/kg 50
Shelled Rs 65/kg 50
Grapes, fresh, all types 40% 50
Source: South Asia Association of Regional Countries (http://www.saarc-sec.org/userfiles/saftaagreement.pdf).

26. APTTA is expected to improve trade between Afghanistan and Pakistan and ease
Afghanistan’s overland access to India via Pakistan. Yet, Afghan traders often have to pay high
taxes to export their products to Pakistan because of the informal nature of trade. These taxes are
variable and often informally imposed. For example, in 2009, high informal taxes were imposed
on most agricultural products from Afghanistan, particularly on fresh produce such as grapes.
According to EPAA and several exporters and traders, such activities delayed customs clearance,
reduced the quality of the grapes, and resulted in high wastage and losses for traders and farmers.

11
2.2 Gender Dimensions in the Agricultural Sector

27. Decades of conflict and instability in Afghanistan have constrained many aspects of
women’s lives (Abirafeh 2005). Socio-cultural norms and religious attitudes (including sharia)12
limit their involvement in the household, community, and economy. Aggressive quotas for
women’s representation in parliament13 have not directly translated to either increased decision
making for women in government positions or improved living standards for ordinary citizens.
Despite many interventions to address gender inequality, Afghanistan remains among the lowest-
ranking nations in the UN Human Development Index and the Gender Development Index.

28. Afghan women’s roles in agriculture are critical to their well-being, given the lack of
other income-generating opportunities that are geographically suitable (that is, within or near the
village) (Grace 2005). Rural women have few or no incentives to increase their productivity
within agriculture, however, because (a) their agricultural labor is typically unremunerated; and
(b) household responsibilities affect their time management.14 Moreover, socio-cultural norms
prohibit women from (i) interactions with persons outside the family; (ii) work outside the home
without a permission from a male family member (i.e., father, brother, or husband); and (iii)
travel outside the village. Although there are regional variations depending on the degree of
traditionalism in the communities, these norms have substantial impacts on women’s land
ownership, mobility and rural access, and access to services. In particular, they can severely limit
women’s access to inputs, extension services, and markets, as those who are service providers in
these areas tend to be male.

29. (a) Land Ownership. The vast majority of Afghan women do not own land. Societal
factors dictate that women should not own property, especially land, although they can inherit
land as widows and as children of landowners. Despite national land inheritance laws giving
daughters and widows the right to claim land inheritance, many factors discourage such claims,
and women and men generally have little awareness of women’s property rights (Grace 2005)
(box 2.1). Women traditionally rely on their brothers to ―take care of them‖ and as a result are
often reluctant to pursue land inheritance claims that would reduce brothers’ share. Given social
norms dictating that it is a man’s responsibility to provide for a woman, many women believe
that men have a greater need for land than women do. Finally, women and men often share
deeply-rooted cultural beliefs that land is inappropriate for women to own (Grace 2005).

Box 2.1: Afghan women’s land ownership

The Afghanistan Constitution states that ―no law can be contrary to the beliefs and provisions of the sacred religion
of Islam.‖ Islamic law (sharia) therefore cannot be separated from the civil code. The implementation of sharia is
often left up to members of a community-based mechanism such as a jirga or shura. Some variation can thus be
expected in community-resolved land disputes and women’s land rights. Furthermore, women are often reluctant to
claim land in land disputes because of cultural factors dictating that men are responsible for being the breadwinners

12
Sharia is Islamic law extracted from the Qur’an and Sunna (sayings and deeds of the Prophet).
13
In the September 2010 election for the Lower House of Parliament, 68 of 249 seats (27.3 percent) were allocated
for women (UNAMA undated).
14
In addition to agriculture labor, women are also responsible for (i) other non-farm income-generating activities,
(ii) household tasks and child rearing, and (iii) community work, such as caring for the elderly.

12
and ensuring supporting income.

Inheritance law in Afghanistan derives from the Civil Code of 1978 and sharia, which dictates that daughters are
entitled to half of brothers’ share of land and widows are entitled to one-eighth (one-fourth if there are no children).
Although this law protects women’s rights, its inherently unequal division of land adversely affects women.

Widows in particular face a multitude of obstacles to land ownership. A widow must consider whether to remarry
and give up her children to her deceased husband’s family or to forego marriage and be unable to provide for her
children. Land ownership would allow greater choice within these constraints and potentially provide an opportunity
for widows to support their own families. Land ownership can have significant positive consequences for women,
including greater decision-making power within the household (as a result of control over the income gained from
the land), security for older women (who can use land as bargaining tool to obtain greater care from relatives), and
access to financial services (when institutions require title-based collateral).

Primary and secondary research for this study indicates that while Afghan women have the legal right to own land,
significant barriers to ownership remain in the form of cultural practices, poor awareness of land rights, corruption,
and illiteracy. Overcoming such barriers will involve long-term efforts and significant societal change. Although
specific recommendations are beyond the scope of this study, key findings indicate that national advocacy,
coordination, and awareness are needed among men and at several levels of government, including the Ministry of
Interior, Governors, municipalities, and MOWA for women’s land ownership to increase in any substantive way.

Source: Deschamps and Roe 2009.

30. (b) Mobility and Rural Access. Rural women’s mobility outside the home or village is
also restricted by security concerns. Poor roads and the lack of transport services affect the entire
population’s mobility in general, but women are particularly affected by the need to adhere to
strict standards for socially acceptable behavior. Women may be prohibited from traveling
outside the village, required to have an escort, and unable to interact (including proximity
seating) with men outside the family.15 Limitations on traveling longer distances preclude rural
women from easily accessing other villages and cities, especially when walking is their only
consistent means of transportation (it is socially acceptable for women to walk on their own or
with others). Rural transport services usually include three-wheelers (auto-rickshaws), pickup
trucks, minibuses, and estate cars, which may be suitable for a family but not for women, who
would have to share space with men who are not from the family. Financial costs can be greater
for women entrepreneurs than for men if women must hire chaperones, cars, and drivers (it is
socially unacceptable for a woman to drive herself) (Boros 2008).

31. These patterns of travel and transport constrain women’s participation in economic
activity, making it challenging for women to access financial services outside their immediate
neighborhoods and communities (dTS 2005). This in turn has significant repercussions on
women’s entrepreneurship and success in business. By limiting where women are permitted to
go to sell their wares, restrictions on mobility also influence the terms of sale for their products.
In a few instances, women have gained greater mobility with acceptable escorts and affordable,
suitable means of transport. There is also some acceptance of the strength-in-numbers approach,
and women travelling in groups may be an effective means of circumventing mobility problems.

15
Howe, J. 2010. Rural Access and Mobility in Afghanistan: A Gender-Sensitive Analysis.

13
32. (c) Access to Services. Access to credit from financial institutions often depends on the
ability to demonstrate ownership of traditional forms of collateral property such as land,
machinery, and housing. Women, who generally lack title to land and other property, thus have
less opportunity to access financial services (dTS 2005). Moreover, social mobilization of
producers by aid agencies is often based on proof of land ownership or to ―head of household‖
rules that enable only one family member to register with an association (Rubin et al. 2009).

33. More broadly, restrictions on mobility and interaction with men limit women’s access to
additional services or resources, including inputs, extension services, marketing, education, and
information (Mayoux and Mackie 2009). The lack of such access limits women to low-wage,
low-value employment in agricultural work and can render labor markets unresponsive or slow
to respond to demands for skilled women workers (Barrientos 2001). This implies less security
in employment for women and few prospects for promotion, which are likely to compound the
inter-generational transmission of poverty, particularly for girls and women (dTS 2005:2–3).

2.3 Conclusion: Toward a More Nuanced Understanding of Gender in Agricultural

Value Chains

34. How and to what extent might women participate in Afghanistan’s expanding export
markets for agricultural commodities? This chapter has briefly reviewed Afghanistan’s
increasing opportunities to export horticulture products in regional markets and, in particular, to
India. At the same time, it has identified key constraints for women’s participation in the
horticulture sector. Social and cultural norms have a substantial impact on women’s (i) land
ownership, (ii) mobility and rural access, and (iii) access to services. These three broad
constraints constrain women from moving beyond production, basic processing, and extremely
limited marketing of export commodities. The next chapter presents a more detailed and nuanced
assessment of key constraints and opportunities for women to move up in the value chains for
particular commodities—grapes and raisins, almonds, and saffron.

14
 CHAPTER 3
WOMEN’S CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
IN THE GRAPE/RAISIN, ALMOND, AND SAFFRON VALUE CHAINS

35. As discussed previously, raisins and almonds are exports of considerable importance for
Afghanistan. Women are mostly engaged in the early stages of value chains, playing a key role
in harvesting and post-harvest processing in the three value chains. Because social and cultural
norms do not allow women to interact with men or travel by themselves, it is men who link
households with markets, which includes obtaining input supplies and selling products at local
markets or to middlemen or village-level traders. Men are also heavily involved in production, in
particular the activities that require heavy lifting or reaching higher branches. This chapter
identifies key constraints and opportunities for women producers and processors in moving up in
the grape/raisin, almond, and saffron value chains by scrutinizing women’s roles at each step in
the production process. Detailed analyses by value chain are annexed: grapes/raisins in Annex 1,
almonds in Annex 2, and saffron in Annex 3.

3.1 Women’s Roles in the Grape/Raisin, Almond and Saffron Value Chains

36. In Afghanistan, grapes are by far the largest crop grown. They are produced primarily in
the South, Southwest, and Center, although about 10 percent of production occurs in the North.
Grape varieties vary by region: the top three for domestic and export markets are Shongulkhani,
Kandahari, and Kishmishi. The two major types of raisins are produced out of these grapes: (i)
high-value shade-dried green raisins (keshmesh) and (ii) lower-value sun-dried black and red
raisins (aftabi). One kilogram of raisins requires about four to five kilograms of fresh grapes.

37. Almonds are also one of the highest-value cash crops for Afghanistan, after grapes and
raisins. In 2008/09, its production was estimated at around 15,000 tons (MRRD 2007). The
major production areas are in the North, in Parwan (particularly Ghorband District), Balkh,
Kunduz, and Samangan Provinces. Balkh Province alone is thought to produce approximately
5,500 tons. The almonds are sold both in-shell and shelled (as kernels). Afghanistan produces
more than 60 widely recognized almond varieties16. The most popular types grown for high-end
domestic and export markets are the soft-shelled almonds, which are Satar Bai, Qahar Bai, Kilki
Arous, Qambari, Kaf Mal, and Khairu Din. These are sold in-shell.17

38. Saffron, on the other hand, is a relatively new cash crop for Afghanistan. In 2009,
production was estimated at about 1,500 kilograms. Saffron is produced mostly in Herat
province18, in particular in Pashtoon Zarghoon and Ghoryan districts, and informally exported to
Iran. Unlike grapes, raisins, and almonds, which are regaining their shares in world export
markets, saffron production has yet to reach economies of scale. Although data on this emerging
and informal subsector are scarce and inconsistent, sufficient information is available to indicate

16
But a few are true varieties, which were the varieties developed, propagated, and released through a formal,
specialized breeding process.
17
Almonds are sold either unshelled or as shelled kernels, in a ratio of approximately two to one.
18
Limited quantities are produced in the eastern provinces (Maidan Wardak, Logar, Kunduz, and Parwan) on a pilot
basis.

15
saffron’s prospects as a lucrative alternative to opium poppies, and the crop has received a high
level of support from the government, donors, and NGOs.

39. The key actors in these three value chains consist of (i) input suppliers, (ii) farmers, (iii)
middlemen and village-level traders, (iv) wholesalers, and (v) processors, retailers and exporters.
Often processors are companies and also export to regional and international markets. The
figures below describe interactions among the key actors in the raisin value chain (figure 3.1)
and trade value and value addition at each step of the raisin (figure 3.2) and almond (figure 3.3)
value chains.19 In the three value chains, women are usually found as (a) producers at their home
orchards in rural areas or (b) laborers for wholesalers or processing companies for raisins,
almonds, or saffron in urban or peri-urban areas. A few women are emerging in service
provision, such as extension workers, loan officers, village level traders/sales agents, or
processing center owners. In the saffron value chain, NGOs have provided producers with
substantial support in social mobilization, input supply, extension services, and marketing in
developing this relatively young industry.20 As a result, emerging producer associations,
including two women associations, play a key role at each stage of the value chain. Detailed
activities and interactions of women and value chain actors are discussed below.

Figure 3.1: Raisin subsector map

End
market
Domestic, low-income consumers High-income consumers Exports Imports
Support
markets

Post-harvest
processing

Packaging*,
Retailers Retailers Exporters further cleaning if
necessary** MFIs/
banks

Extension
Wholesalers
Small and large wholesalers (mandvi) Processing Sorting, cleaning,
support
grading,
centers packaging

Minimal or no
post – harvest
handling /
Middlemen,
trading
Middlemen/traders processing at this
stage

Drying to raisins

Production
Small grape producers Large grape producers

Women’s level of involvement:

HIGH

Inputs Input suppliers (root stock, MEDIUM

fertilizers and other) LOW TO NONE

Source: MEDA.

19
The sector maps and value chain charts are available for all four products in the Annexes.
20
The major NGOs include DACAAR, SDO, and the National Committee for International Cooperation and
Sustainable Development.

16
 Figure 3.2: Red raisin value chain Figure 3.3: High-quality, in-shell almond value chain
120 800
100 700
600
80
500
60 Buying 400
cost/pric 300
40
e Buying
Selling 200
20 cost/pric
price 100 e
- -

Source: MEDA.

* These data for both raisins and almonds suggest that profit margins exist at a number of levels, especially for
farmers, although it is not clear whether farmers reported costs of all inputs required to bring a crop to maturity.
Most are smallholders, whose labor costs are borne within the household and not accounted for.

40. Input suppliers. In general, farmers purchase inputs, such as fertilizer and pesticide,
from village-level traders, small private shopkeepers, or large-scale retailers21. Men usually buy
the inputs, given the general absence of women suppliers with whom rural women producers can
interact. Women in Kabul, however, have access to the Kabul Women Farm Store, a women-
only input supplier (box 3.1) that also provides some extension support.

41. Inputs are generally purchased by cash, although shopkeepers may offer informal, short-
term credit. The retailers also maintain nurseries for seedling sales. While there are commercial
nurseries in Afghanistan, only a few provide high-quality saplings. Moreover, their marketing to
farmers is poorly organized.22 Because of limited access to appropriate extension services, the
retailers frequently receive inquiries on input use from farmers. Farmers commonly use a
standard fertilizer mix that cannot accommodate the specific needs of specific crops, while, for
example, almonds require a higher ratio of nitrogen and potassium to phosphorus than is found in
standard fertilizer blends.23

21
This includes Ag-Depots, which are input suppliers supported by USAID/Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture
Program (ASAP).
22
MAIL projects, such as HLP and the EU-supported Perennial Horticulture Development Project (PHDP), are
developing this subsector, for example by identifying high-quality varieties for introduction to Mother Stock
Nurseries, where they can be multiplied to provide foundation stocks. Commercial nurseries are being organized
into associations around Mother Stock Nurseries, which will provide bud wood and root stocks of the foundation
stock to the associations.
23
Future Harvest Consortium to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan (2003:15).

17
Box 3.1: The Kabul Women Farm Store

The Kabul Women Farm Store is a women-only store for inputs such as seed, fertilizer, trellises, pruning tools,
agricultural machinery (for sale or rent) and extension services (provided through training and demonstration plots
and greenhouses). The store opened in April 2010 with financing from the Afghanistan Farm Service Alliance
(AFSA), a two-year project implemented by the Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs and supported by the United
States Agency for International Development. The store currently serves 125 women, mostly from Kabul, some of
whom are sales agents or marketing focal points of women’s producer groups. The women buy vegetable seed—the
product most in demand—and inputs for grape production. The store has supplied credit to some of its clients to be
repaid at harvest with no interest. The women sometimes bring dried fruits to the store, and the store helps them to
sell those to traders. In the near future, the store plans to market products from women at its showroom or to traders,
set up a referral service for processors, and provide packaging services. The store’s sustainability remains to be
tested, however. Marketing inputs to women remains a key challenge, given that most prospective clients cannot
travel to the store. The use of female agents at the village level may be an alternative strategy to sell inputs, and the
agents could potentially buy produce directly from women as well.

Source: MEDA.

42. Farmers. Small-scale producers farm 2–5 jeribs (about 0.5–1.0 hectare) and cultivate
grapes or almonds along with a variety of other crops, such as vegetables and wheat 24. Large-
scale producers, on the other hand, farm 5–10 jeribs (1–2 hectares), and their production is more
intensive.25 According to HLP, the yield of small-scale producers was 2,644 kilograms per jerib
for fresh grapes in 2009, which was 15 percent less than the project average for fresh grapes. For
almonds, their yield was about 350 kilograms per jerib, which was only 3.4 percent less than that
of large-scale farmers.26 Despite HLP and other donor projects, the small-scale producers are not
always aware of recommended production practices, because of their limited access to (i)
extension services and (ii) credit. Unlike large-scale farmers, the small-scale farmers do not have
trellises in their grape orchards or tend to harvest almonds prematurely. These farmers, in
particular almond and saffron farmers, are usually in need of immediate cash. This is partly
because almond trees require five years of growth before bearing fruit and two additional years
to reach full maturity. Likewise, saffron is not profitable until the second or third year of
cultivation.

43. On small-scale farms, women are involved in watering, weeding, pruning lower
branches, harvesting, and post-harvest processing. They have less access to extension services
than men, because such services are generally provided to men on the assumption that the
information will be shared with women within the household. The expected knowledge transfer
to women producers does not always occur, however. HLP provides direct extension support to
women’s producer groups, but there are not enough women extension workers. It has been
difficult to recruit and retain educated as well as mobile women workers (box 3.2).

24
This also includes pomegranates and alfalfa in almond orchards, as seen in the North.
25
These lands are mostly rain-fed, because most of these farmers, small- or large-scale, do not have access to
irrigation. For almond producers in particular, water management is an issue, because almond production requires
substantial access to water.
26
Figures are from the HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey 2009, drawn from a sample of 530 HLP-supported
households: 48.3 percent of the sample owned grape orchards, 65.4 percent of whom were small-scale farmers.
Likewise, 55 percent of the sample owned almond orchards, 70.3 percent of who were small-scale farmers.

18
Box 3.2: Providing extension services to women: The HLP experience

The Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) helps producers adopt improved practices to increase horticultural
and livestock productivity and production. The Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock implements the
project in 11 focus districts in 11 provinces in northeastern and central Afghanistan. The project has mobilized 160
women’s and 225 men’s producer groups with a membership of approximately 4,000 women and 6,000 men
respectively.27 Mobilization usually involves both females and males in the same households to facilitate better
extension knowledge at the household level.

With the facilitation of Roots of Peace, these women’s producer groups receive horticultural extension services from
18 women extension workers. It has been a continuous challenge to employ and retain women extension workers.
Women extension workers need to come from the focus districts, have a high school diploma, and be able to
participate in extension training and refreshers provided by the project. These criteria are the same for male
extension workers but are more strictly applied for the selection of female extension workers, to ensure that women
workers feel more comfortable operating within their communities. Given the cultural context, this strategy seems to
facilitate their retention. Older women can generally move around the districts with fewer limitations than younger
women, but they are less likely to have completed high school. The project has hired fresh graduates from high
school and provided extension training and refresher courses. Women’s producer groups have benefitted from
extension advice on production delivered through these young women. Roots of Peace is reviewing extension
services to ensure that they are culturally acceptable to women producers and also meet their specific needs and
interests (which include information on improving post-harvest processing).

Source: HLP.

44. Women play a key role in harvesting and post-harvest handling, in particular on small-
scale farms. Below are detailed descriptions of activities per product. The labor is mostly home-
based, and thus women are unpaid. In the case of saffron, however, women are hired by small- or
large-scale farmers at Af 200-300 per day (approximately US$ 4-6). In the fresh grape value
chain, male laborers in large-scale orchards are paid at Af 400 per day (approximately US$ 8).
Their work also includes lifting and loading.

 Fresh grapes. Women harvest and pack grapes in 50-kilogram bags with minimum
sorting on small-scale farms. On large-scale farms, male laborers are hired by exporters
to harvest and pack fresh grapes in 10-kilogram cartons or 14-kilogram crates and load
those on vehicles.
 Raisins. On small-scale farms, women produce black and red aftabi raisins, which are
usually produced from trimming waste, shattered berries, spillage, and left-over fruit at
the end of the harvest season. Women dry these grapes on any surface, usually bare
ground or the roof of a house, and collect them into 50-kilogram bags along with dirt,
stones, and other contaminants with varying weight by the harvest (Lister and Brown
2004).28 Because of these production processes, raisins are considered to be of lower
quality than keshmesh raisins.
 Almonds. Women clean almonds (removing the outer hulls), sun-dry, and collect them in
large bags in the orchards with no sanitary or hygienic considerations. Although shelled
low- to medium-quality almonds fetch prices that are 60–70 percent higher throughout
the value chain, women do not shell the fruit. This is because shelling equipment is not

27
As of September 30, 2010.
28
The higher value green keshmesh raisins, on the other hand, are produced more intensively by drying green grapes
in simple, mud-brick structures with a lateral air flow.

19
 available at the producer level; thus, women cannot shell almonds without cracking the
fruit.
 Saffron. Unlike with raisins or almonds, saffron harvesting and post-harvest processing
are highly labor intensive and time-bound activities. The flowers must be picked at dawn,
and stigmas have to be detached from styles within 48 hours of harvesting. Women are
hired as wage laborers, especially if they or their husbands participate in a producer
association. The producer associations have their own processing units with electronic
driers.

45. In the cases of fresh grapes, raisins, and almonds, the producers sell the bagged products
either to middlemen or village-level traders or at the local market. Marketing is usually
undertaken by men, because women do not interact with middlemen or village-level traders (who
are mostly men), travel to the market, or lift heavy bags. Men transport one or two bags to the
local market or sell those bags at home to middlemen or village-level traders, who visit their
village on an ad hoc basis. Table 3.1 (below) indicates the percent of grape or almond harvest
sold by HLP farmers, price, and average income. While HLP-supported producers of almonds
sold 80 percent of their harvest, those of grapes sold only about 50 percent of their harvest, both
fresh grapes and raisins combined. Farmers of grapes prefer to sell more fresh grapes—as much
as 80 percent of their total production—because fresh grapes sell for three to four times the price
of an equivalent weight of raisins29. They usually sell about 20 percent of their harvest fresh,
however, because poor rural access roads limit trades between the actors. It is estimated that
around 60-80 percent of the harvest is made into raisins.

Table 3.1: HLP farmers’ sales and income from grapes, raisins, and almonds
Percent of Price per kilogram* Average income from the
harvest sold product – all project farmers
Fresh grapes 10-30 Af 7-58 Af 34,100 (about US$ 680)
Raisins 30-40 Af 10-310 Af 23,120 (about US$ 460)
Almonds 80 Af 35-500 Af 37,656 (about US$ 753)
Source: HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey 2009
*This reflects differences in varieties and some off-season marketing.

46. In the case of saffron, the final product is substantially less voluminous compared to
raisins or almonds, and producer associations, including women’s associations, market packages
in Herat City and regional and international markets. Box 3.3 describes the experiences of two
women saffron producer associations. One, located in a district bordering Iran, is more amenable
to women’s education and work outside the home. The other is based in a district that is more
conservative with regards to women’s activities. These differing attitudes create differences in
opportunities for saffron financing and marketing.

29
Kemal-Ur-Rahim, K. 2007. ―Preparing the Commercial Agriculture Development Project, ADB TA No. 4696.‖
AFG Draft Phase 2 Report. Volume III, Horticulture Value Chains Report. Prepared by Landell Mills Development
Consultants Ltd. for the Asian Development Bank; figures have been verified by EPAA, Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits,
and Vegetables EPA, and processors/exporters in Kabul.

20
Box 3.3: Two saffron producer associations for Afghan women

Herat Province has two associations for women saffron producers with a combined membership of about 750. One
is located in Ghoryan District, which borders Iran and is relatively amenable to women’s education and on-farm
activities, most likely as a result of the migration to Iran that occurred over Afghanistan’s more than 20 years of
conflict. The other association is in Pashtun Zarghoon District, which is close to Herat District and relatively less
open than Ghoryan. These differences in openness create differing opportunities for women in education, financing,
and marketing. The Ghoryan association arranges for members to work as wage laborers for saffron farmers in the
district. It has given temporary membership to 25 widows, who cultivate land leased from a member. The widows
must eventually return the leased land but can keep the bulbs as they multiply. In the Pashtun Zarghoon association,
on the other hand, the members felt that decision-making was influenced by their husbands, who act as
intermediaries with both commercial and institutional actors. The association in Pashtun Zarghoon has been
cultivating saffron two years longer than the one in Ghoryan, which explains the differences in saffron production in
2009.

Pashtun Zarghoon Ghoryan

Membership 275 members, including one male 480 members, including two males
Establishment 2006 2008
Literacy Only three members, including the male, Several members are educated up to high
are literate school
Access to No Yes
electricity
Land under 3 jeribs (0.6 ha); land mostly owned by 13 jeribs (26 ha) cultivated by permanent
cultivation women members
Inputs 2,600 kg bulbs provided by DACAAR, 5,100 kg bulbs provided by the
distributed to 40 members International Center for Agricultural
Research in the Dry Areas and Italian PRT
Skills training DACAAR trained 60 members in planting, Sanayee Development Organization (SDO)
harvesting, and processing and USAID/ASMED trained all members in
harvesting and processing
Saffron produced 6 kg in 2009 3 kg in 2009
Processing unit 3 dryers and 1 generator 3 dryers
Marketing Almost 2.5 kg sold to a saffron trader at Exhibition in India and Afghanistan in
US$ 2,800/kg in 2009 2009: US$ 13,500 (3 kg sold at US$ 4.5/g;
Exhibition in Herat in 2009: US$ 150 (50 g saffron in packages of one or a few grams);
sold at US$ 3/g; saffron packed in 1-g participation supported by USAID/ASMED
package)
Exhibition in Kabul in 2008: US$ 300 (100
g sold at the same price, same packaging)
Sales US$ 7,000 (2.5 kg sold at US$ 2,800/kg) US$ 13,500 (3 kg sold at US$ 4,500/kg)
Source: MEDA, DACAAR

47. Middlemen and village-level traders. In the raisin as well as almond value chains, many
middlemen or village-level traders purchase raisins and/or almonds directly from large- and
small-scale farmers. These intermediaries aggregate the products and sell them at around Af 60–
170 per kilogram for raisins and Af 120-250 per kilogram for almonds30 to small or large
wholesalers at the dried fruit and nut mandvi, which is a secondary wholesale market in urban or
peri-urban centers. They often have contract with processing companies or exporters, and there
are a few women village-level traders or sales agents who work for those companies. In the case
of almonds in particular, different varieties (such as sweet and bitter almonds) are mixed during
farm-to-farm collection because of the lack of market knowledge among these actors.
30
The price ranges by quality: Af 120-150 for low-quality almonds, and Af 200-250 for high-quality almonds.

21
48. In the fresh grape value chain, the middlemen are usually involved in both trading and
wholesaling. Due to the short shelf-life of fresh grapes and the lack of cold chain infrastructure,
middlemen/wholesalers purchase directly from farmers and sell to small retailers or exporters or
to domestic, low-income consumers via their stalls in the fresh fruit mandvi. The sales price is
around Af 10–67 per kilogram. Women middlemen or village-level traders are even less likely
for fresh grapes, as women are less involved in post-harvest handling.

49. Wholesalers. In the raisin and almond value chains, the key step in aggregation and value
addition, particularly for produce from smallholders and some large landholders, occurs at the
wholesale level. Wholesalers are located at the dried fruit and nut mandvi31, where both raisins
and almonds are cleaned, sorted, graded, and packaged for domestic and export markets. These
value-adding activities are usually outsourced to women in urban or peri-urban areas. They work
at their homes or in women-only secluded areas, most likely outside the mandvi, monitored by
female supervisors. For this work, women receive around Af 100-200 (approximately US$ 2-4)
per day. Retailers or exporters purchase the packaged raisins at around Af 80–190 per kilogram.

50. Processing companies, exporters, and retailers. Most processing companies in the raisin
and almond value chains contract middlemen or village-level traders to collect large volumes
directly from farmers with their own vehicles. Some companies provide extension services and
equipment (for example, mats for drying) to ensure better quality. Sales prices vary according to
the quality of the produce on offer. For example, Shindokhani raisins from Kandahar sell at a
premium (Af 350 per kilogram) if they are cleaned by hand, one by one, or at Af 160 per
kilogram if they are cleaned less thoroughly. In the local market in Kabul, the latter level of
quality is more popular.

51. The processing companies also depend on women in urban or peri-urban areas for
cleaning, sorting, grading, and/or packaging produce under the supervision of other women. The
wage for these women has been quoted at around US$ 80–140 per month, which is considered
too low for men (who have better employment opportunities). There are a few women-owned
and managed processing centers, including the Afghan Pride Association (APA). They not only
hire women at the processing center but also as village-level traders or sales agents, which
enables direct interaction with women producers (box 3.4).

31
Imported raisins from China and Iran or almonds from the United States are also sold at the mandvi for domestic
use.

22
Box 3.4: The Afghan Pride Association: A women-owned food processing company

In Kabul City, the Afghan Pride Association (APA), a processing center owned and operated by women, adds value
to dried fruits and nuts, including raisins and almonds. The APA has 200 women members, who work at the center
as processors or supervisors. In 2009, APA earned US$ 42,000 from sales made to hotels, through two exporter
unions, and at their two retail shops. The women supervisors also visit villages to purchase produce directly from
women producers. While APA is willing to pay a premium of 50–100 percent to producers for processed products
such as cleaned raisins or shelled, cleaned, and sorted almonds, most of the produce is processed and packaged at
the center. In completing orders, APA sometimes purchases produce from the wholesale market.

APA is setting up local collection and drying centers that could be equipped with solar dryers to produce raisins with
no dust and dirt; such dryers are being tested. The local centers would use their transport facilities to collect produce
from women producers. APA cooperates with women’s associations such as the Afghanistan Women’s Business
Council (AWBC), which has a grassroots network of women and could provide some assistance in marketing
produce at local and national markets.

Source: MEDA.

3.2 Constraints and Opportunities for Women Producers

52. Rural women are heavily engaged in production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling in
the grape/raisin, almond, and saffron value chains by providing unpaid domestic labor in family
orchards and households. Women, in particular, play a key role in processing, including those in
urban or peri-urban centers, who are hired by wholesalers and processors in the raisin and
almond value chains as wage laborers. Their wage is approximately Af 100 to 200 per day,
which is less than half of what male laborers are paid for harvesting and processing fresh grapes.

53. Constraints Specific to Women. The constraints tree (figure 3.4)32 highlights challenges
specific to women (in yellow) in producing and selling higher volumes to high-end domestic and
export markets in case of the raisin value chain. Figure 3.5 indicates constraints that specifically
limit women from moving up to other roles in the raisin value chains.33 Given the social and
cultural norms that limit rural women from interacting with men or traveling by themselves, the
central constraint for women producers is the lack of women-to-women service delivery at every
stage of the value chain, from production to marketing at the village and mandvi levels. This
affects quality at each stage in the chain, because it limits women’s access to extension services,
including harvesting and post-harvest handling, market (both information and physical access),
and credit. Details are described below:

32
A constraints tree shows causal relationships. The tree assists in setting priorities, because the problems that are
lower on the tree are critical to tackle first to address the more complicated issues at the top of the tree. Although
this study identifies all of the main challenges, its focus on gender means that not all of them are discussed at the
same level of detail. This is true for the constraints trees and related discussions for the other value chains analyzed
in this study.
33
The constraints tree and the gender constraints diagram are also available for fresh grapes, almonds, and saffron.
See relevant Annexes.

23
 Figure 3.4: Constraints tree: Raisins

Low volumes of high-quality product for medium and high-end consumers and export markets

Poor production yields Lack of horizontal linkages Poor quality control Lack of access to formal regional
(no aggregation of produce) and global trade networks

Lack of Pests Inadequate Few active, Limited Lack of Lack of Little / no Basic Raisins
Trade
awareness of and access to well-functional lab storage timely sorting or packaging are associations
modern Disease water farmer groups facilities facilities delivery of grading with no packed have weak
production for marketing for QC, produce to activities labeling for with dust, links to
techniques testing markets differentiation rocks and markets
or brand dirt

Lack of
Limited extension and Lack of Poor knowledge / market
training support (e.g., access to lack of training Limited / Lack of access to Lack of local Most farmers
expensive market information input and dry raisins on linkages to
pest management, good-quality support value chain
trellising, new/improved inputs and transportation such as pricing and technology the ground
means consumer preferences suppliers and sweep actors
drying techniques (e.g., technologies
hanging, solar drying via the raisins in
plastic sheeting, to bags
potassium carbonate
Lack of appropriate financing
dipping oil)
services (MFI loans, financing
mechanisms)
Poor Lack of
knowledge / access to Lack of trade infrastructure
Lack of market lack of training mats/tarps for
linkages to farmers support drying
Lack of Lack of local input
appropriate and technology
financing suppliers to rural Rural farmers do not
services (MFI areas all have regular Lack of appropriate financing
loans, financing access to services (MFI loans, Limited access Limited / Lack of
mechanisms) traders/middlemen financing mechanisms) to registration expensive enforcement
and certification transportation of trade rules
processes means

Root Post-conflict / War-ravaged Socio-cultural Weak infrastructure and Lack of laws on Innumeracy Competition
causes security fruit orchards segregation of weak organization of land ownership and illiteracy from imports
women community for economic rights, particularly
development for women

Source: MEDA.
Note: Constraints that significantly limit women’s involvement in higher levels of the value chain are highlighted in yellow.
24
Figure 3.5: Gender constraints in the raisin subsector

Imports

Domestic Low Income High Income Support

Exports Markets
Market Consumers

Post Harvest/
Processing:
Exporters

Packaging,
Barriers/ Retailers further MFIs/Banks
Constraints cleaning if
for Women necessary
Significant
barriers
Sorting,
Moderate cleaning, Extension
barriers Processing grading and Support
Mandvi Small and Large Wholesalers
Centers packaging
Minor
barriers

Minimal or no
Middlemen/Traders post harvest
handling/
processing at
Women’s Level of this stage
Involvement:

High Large Grape

Small Grape Producers Drying to
Medium Producers
raisins
Low to None

Input Suppliers

Source: Figures 3.4 and 3.5 are based on study data and adapted from Mayoux and Mackie (2009) and USAID
(2010).
Note: The shaded (pink) area illustrates the most promising value chain. The barrier icons highlight constraints for
women to move up the value chain. The color of the icon indicates the degree of the barrier: yellow = a minor
barrier, orange = a moderate barrier, and red = a significant barrier. Based on analysis of qualitative data, barriers
were determined to be not applicable (for example, if women were not involved in a given role, upgrading to the
next level was deemed irrelevant); minor (affecting women slightly more than men, typically as a result of socio-
cultural norms); moderate (affecting women in the value chain much more than men, although some women have
overcome the barriers); or significant (affecting women in the value chain much more than men, and no woman has
overcome the barrier to move up the value chain). Barriers are indicated only for the most promising value chain
(highlighted in pink) and for positions in which women are involved (as indicated by the green and purple shading
indicating women’s level of involvement).

25
 Limited extension services. MAIL and donor-funded projects provide some extension
services, but these are mostly targeted to men, who own the land. Focus group
discussions found that women had to depend on whatever information the male family
member was willing or able to communicate. Many women expressed their interest in
receiving extension services directly. HLP’s experience indicates that the key challenge is
to hire and retain qualified women extension workers who are educated as well as
mobile.
 Poor quality control and post-harvest handling. Even though extension services are
provided to women, they largely concern production, in particular increase in yields,
rather than quality control in harvesting and post-harvest handling. Although women
have some basic knowledge of cleanliness and quality standards, most are complacent
about achieving them. This is particularly true with raisin production, because it is of
secondary importance to fresh grapes for farmers. Women therefore have no added
incentive, time, or resources (such as mats for drying) to perform more sophisticated
processing. The women almond producers are also aware that shelled low- or medium-
quality almonds fetch higher prices; however, they do not have tools to shell the almonds
without cracking them.
 Limited or no market information. Women have little or no market information on price,
high value varieties, sanitation, or quality, unless it is provided through male family
members. This is because the key value chain actors, such as input suppliers and
middlemen/village-level traders are predominantly men, with whom few women are
allowed to interact. Most farmers are highly dependent on sales via middlemen or village-
level traders; thus, men, too, have little idea about selling varieties, quality requirements,
or current prices for their produce in urban markets such as Kabul.
 Poor market access. Most rural women have limited or no access to their local market,
because social and cultural norms do not allow women to travel by themselves or interact
with male shopkeepers. Women’s poor access to public transportation and need for male
escorts has a greater impact on saffron marketing by the women’s producer association in
the comparatively conservative Pashtun Zarghoon District than by the association in
Ghoryan District. Afghanistan’s physical infrastructure is still poor, moreover, and most
farmers have few means of transportation to their nearest market. Men usually carry one
or two bags (about 50 plus kilograms) of fresh grapes, raisins, or almonds to the nearest
market. Because of these difficulties in rural transportation, small-scale farmers are
forced to rely on sales to middlemen or village-level traders, who have their own
transport to travel to villages, depending on market demand. Farmers have infrequent
access to these traders and less bargaining power than if they could bring their produce
directly to the market.
 Lack of appropriate financing services. In addition to the small number of women loan
officers, the loans provided by MFIs often require collateral. Men usually hold title to
land, leaving rural women with very limited or no access to agricultural financial
products without support from male family members. Moreover, despite emergence of
microfinance institutions (MFIs) and commercial banks in the urban centers, there are
few appropriate financing services that are compliant with sharia (which stipulates that

26
 one must not charge interest on such transactions)34, that are accessible in the rural areas,
or that provide agriculture loans.35

54. Opportunities for Women in the Three Value Chains. In enabling women producers
to move up the value chains of the key export products, the women-to-women service delivery
model needs to be developed from producer to wholesalers/processors/exporters. APA has
women sales agents, who act as input suppliers or traders. They buy raisins or almonds directly
from women producers, provide basic tools such as mats for drying, and enable quality control.
Likewise, the Mennonite Economic Development Associates (MEDA) has worked with women
producers to develop and own vegetable value chains by forming women’s producer groups,
providing extension services, developing women sales agents in value addition and marketing,
and linking women with MFIs (box 3.5).

Box 3.5: Through the Garden Gate: A project mobilizes women in the vegetable value chain

Through the Garden Gate (TTGG) assists more than 2,300 women in nine villages in Parwan Province to produce,
process, package, and market vegetables in villages and provincial centers. Since 2007, when the Mennonite
Economic Development Associates (MEDA) initiated the project, income from these activities has increased
significantly. Women report earning US$ 780 per year from this new livelihood. MEDA’s technical assistance
includes social mobilization, extension services, support for marketing and value-adding interventions, and linkages
with input suppliers and MFIs. In collaboration with Kabul University, community-based facilitators identified by
the Afghan Women’s Business Council form producer groups of 20–25 women each. The groups facilitate joint
savings and credit in addition to learning through the Farmer Field School approach. The group chooses one or two
entrepreneurial women, generally lead farmers, for additional training in productive and commercial skills,
including marketing, managing equipment or infrastructure to add value to their products, or additional business
activities (such as operating greenhouses, underground storage facilities, or drying equipment; or acting as sales
agents for a number of women farmers). To set up the value-adding infrastructure, MEDA has provided matching
grants to a few entrepreneurial women.

MEDA facilitates linkages with Women for Women, which provides individual and group (four to five women)
loans. Women who need credit for inputs form groups within the association to take group loans. They have a two-
to three-month grace period prior to harvest to repay loans with no additional interest for this period. The
community-based village facilitators collect payments from women under commission from the MFI as loan agents.

Source: MEDA.

55. At the producer level, women-to-women service delivery could be facilitated by

mobilizing women’s producer groups, providing extension services on post-harvest handling and

34
Or on interest-based deposit transactions; for more information, see Grais and Pellgrini (2006).
35
Afghanistan had no financial sector during nearly 20 years of conflict. Now that MFIs and a few commercial
banks offer a variety of loans to individuals, groups, and small and medium enterprises, the key challenges are to
comply with sharia and to improve the availability of financial services in rural areas. Processors, wholesalers, and
exporters usually trade in cash and provide informal, trust-based credit. These entrepreneurs, in addition to
expressing concern about financial services’ compliance with sharia, remarked during interviews on the
bureaucracy and complexity of the process for obtaining financing or credit. Various guarantees and forms of
collateral are required, and interest rates are usually as high as 15–20 percent. Difficult access to rural areas poses
other challenges: long-distance travel is taxing for clients, risks of theft and other forms of insecurity are high, and
reaching rural people is costly for MFIs. In addition, most rural households have no experience in managing credit
or savings, especially not with a financial institution.

27
quality control, developing women para-professionals36 to enable scale in rural outreach,
facilitating women’s access to credit by making MFI linkages, and using information technology
in marketing. The details are provided below:

 Mobilize women producer associations. Women’s producer groups or associations are

being formed by through DACAAR, MEDA, HLP, and other donor-funded projects.
Women’s producer groups are the key entry point for women-to-women service delivery
of: (i) extension services, including harvesting and post-harvest handling, by women
extension workers; (ii) credit (provided by women loan officer/agents); and (iii) inputs
and market linkages (through women village-level traders or agents). Women’s producer
groups, with some financing, could also undertake or invest in collective activities, such
as setting up a collection point for raisins and almonds. Such a center would provide a
secluded yet accessible area for women producers to sort, grade, and package fresh
grapes to facilitate women-to-women learning in quality control.
 Provide extension services on post-harvest handling and quality control. It is important
that women producers are trained in post-harvest handling and quality control, including
sanitation and hygiene, techniques such as drying (using mats, dryers, or other
technology such as solar dryers), sorting, and grading. Women are also involved in
harvesting and packing fresh grapes in small-scale farms. Skills that women could learn
and apply at the household level include appropriate handling, sorting, grading, storing
(for example, under tents), and packaging (for example, in crates) to reduce damage
during transport.
 Develop women para-professionals to enable rural service outreach. Because rural
access in remote rural villages is poor and there are a limited number and availability of
women extension workers, the development of women para-professionals in these
villages would facilitate women producers’ access to extension services. HLP is
supporting women farmer trainers in their producer groups, while DACAAR has trained
women supervisors in producer associations to provide advice on post-harvest
processing. Their skills and capacities could be further built to undertake para-
professional functions.
 Facilitate women’s access to credit through MFI linkages. Producer groups allow
women to create the collateral they need to access credit. About 40 percent of HLP-
supported women’s producer groups have set up savings boxes with an average savings
of approximately Af 8,000 (approximately US$ 160) per group. Fourteen women’s
groups in two northern provinces took loans amounting to Af 1.14 million
(approximately US$ 22,800) from MFIs.37 MFIs and the financial sector in general should

36
Para-professionals are trained, often at the vocational level, to assist professionals in specific areas of education,
agriculture, science, law, or health, among other fields. They are not educated or licensed at the highest-qualified
professional level, but they can perform tasks requiring significant knowledge in the field and may even function
independently of direct professional supervision. Some para-professional occupations require special testing or
certification in the field, whereas others require only a certain level of education.
37
Ariana Financial Services is one of the few MFIs that provides agricultural loans to women and are interested in
supporting post-harvest activities. The World Council of Credit Unions (WOCCU) is the apex organization of the
international credit union system and promotes the development of credit unions in Afghanistan. Unlike banks and
microfinance institutions, credit unions are formed and owned by their members. Only owner-members have access
to the savings and loan services provided by each credit union.

28
 encourage women’s access to finance as well as create products and services targeted to
women’s productive and value-adding activities in agriculture. Efforts to provide loans
for women to improve their value-adding and other activities at the processor level must
be designed to accommodate women’s level of business experience. 38 Increasing the
presence of female loan officers also would help women better access key financial
services, which in turn would help them improve their methods and productivity.
 Use information technology in marketing. Women in the value chains studied here
rarely engage in marketing. Experiences in neighboring countries suggest that farmers
can use information and communications technology, such as mobile phones and text
messages, to stay informed about market prices, extension support, the availability of
inputs, and other subjects useful to them. While in many societies the use of machines,
trade, and transport fall in the male domain, IT is not yet gendered, and thus it could be
used by women producers and service providers without challenging social norms.

56. Some of these recommendations were piloted with the two women’s saffron producer
associations in Herat Province. DACAAR supported the implementation of the following
activities: (a) a saffron value chain development forum, (b) provision of small grants to enhance
post-harvest handling, (c) development of a manual on quality control and cost recovery, (d)
development of women supervisors to provide extension advices. Box 3.6 provides details on
this initiative.

Box 3.6: Developing the saffron value chain with women producers

A pilot project to develop Afghanistan’s saffron value chain implemented some of the recommendations from this
study to help women producers move up the value chain. With facilitation from the Danish Committee for Aid to
Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), the pilot organized a saffron value chain development forum, which drew key
stakeholders in the saffron subsector in Herat Province. Participants included women producers as well as
representatives of provincial government, aid agencies, and the private sector. They discussed: (i) the possibility of
giving women high-school graduates roles as community extension workers or para-professionals; (ii) facilitating
quality control and women-to-women learning by visual aids; (iii) strengthening research and development at the
University of Herat, including the development of a curriculum on saffron; and (iv) developing the subsector by
using the forum to share knowledge across key stakeholders.

With a grant of US$ 3,400 per association, the women purchased dryers, small packages for marketing, and plastic
gloves and other consumables to ensure hygienic and sanitary processing. DACAAR developed visual aids for post-
harvest processing and an operation manual. They trained 250 women in quality control and two women supervisors
to provide extension advices. The associations also introduced user fees for the dryer and packages.

As a result, 22 kilograms of saffron were produced by two women’s associations, doubling the 2009 crop. The sales
price increased by 50 percent in one group and by 108 percent in the other. The price is expected to further increase
because women will market off-season in mid-2011. The associations had fee income of Af 108,700 (approximately
US$ 2,100) and plan to purchase another dryer. While women supervisors facilitated quality control, one supervisor
could effectively work with 20-30 producers.

Source: DACAAR.

38
Women generally have about 7-8 years of business experience, whereas men tend to have about 30 years. Women
on the ACCI board indicated that MFIs should develop a flexible package for building women’s small and medium
enterprises, with a grace period of 5-6 months and repayment periods longer than 6-12 months.

29
57. At the wholesaler/processor level, some women are emerging as middlemen, village
traders, and processors in the raisin, almond, and saffron value chains. APA is establishing an
emerging model for women-to-women service delivery.

 Market access through women sales agents. The roles of middlemen, village-level
traders, and input suppliers are usually connected. Although very few women occupy the
role of middleman/trader, many participants in the study stated that there was an
opportunity for greater representation of women in this role. Female supervisors at
processing centers or mandvi already play a significant role in controlling the quality of
raisins, almonds, and saffron. They could also train rural women producers to attain
acceptable quality levels.
 Development of women-owned processing centers. In urban and peri-urban centers
women are highly involved in processing. Investment at this level could have a
significant impact on women’s positions within the value chain. Such investments should
be accompanied by business training for women in operating and managing such centers.

3.5 Conclusion: Enabling Women-to-Women Service Delivery

58. Women play a key role in harvesting and post-harvest handling in the value chains of
grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron. Rural women dry and/or pack fruits in family orchards or
homes but are not well aware of quality control—and in particular, of hygiene and sanitation.
Although they have some idea of value addition, they do not have the appropriate equipment,
such as mats or tools to shell the fruits. There are few or no women at higher levels of the value
chain, except for urban wage laborers, who are employed by processing centers or wholesalers at
Af 100-200 per day (or Af 100 per 50-kilogram of processing). The key constraint for women
producers is the set of social and cultural norms that do not allow women to interact with men,
travel by themselves, or own land. This limits women producers’ access to various services, such
as extension services, market information, marketing, and credit.

59. It is, therefore, critical to enable women-to-women service delivery, which would support
rural women in accessing various services, such as extension services, quality control, marketing,
and credit. Women producers could be mobilized to form producer groups, which would be an
entry point for women service providers, including extension workers, village-level traders or
sales agents, and loan officers. Quality control in post-harvest handling needs to be enhanced by
extension workers or sales agents. To ensure outreach in rural communities, programs should
develop women para-professionals at the group or village level, and these women could then
facilitate service links.

30
 CHAPTER 4
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

60. Women play a key role in harvesting and post-harvest processing in the value chains of
grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron. The key constraints for women producers in moving up in
these value chains are the social and cultural norms that do not allow women to interact with
men, travel by themselves, or own land. It therefore is critical that rural women producers can
take advantage of women-to-women service delivery and, in particular, extension services on
quality control. Post-harvest processing is the lowest-paid work (unpaid or around Af 200 per
day) and does not attract men, who have better opportunities (such as Af 400 per day in
harvesting, packing, and loading fresh grapes). Women need to remain in charge of this step in
the value chains, however, because it facilitates their participation in higher value chain steps as
middlemen/village-level traders or sales agents, and possibly processors, retailers, or exporters.

4.1 PROMOTING OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN PRODUCERS

61. The following policy recommendations support women’s improved positions in key
horticulture value chains:

62. Develop value chain action plans that would enhance women’s participation. MAIL
should develop value chain action plans for key horticulture export products, including
grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron. These plans should be developed in consultation with all
stakeholders, such as women producers, other key value chain actors, private sector, relevant
ministries and agencies, NGOs, and donors. Honest brokers would be required in developing and
implementing the plans, such as NGOs active in the value chains. These brokers should also
monitor the impact on household dynamics as well as the increase in household income.

63. In supporting the action plans, MAIL should also develop a marketing strategy for each
product to access key regional and international markets. The strategy would help identify
quality standards and certification requirements39, which need to be addressed by extension
packages. This would have to be developed in consultation with export support agencies, such as
EPAA and ACCI, and the private sector.

64. Support mobilization of women’s producer groups and their aggregation with male
groups at the cluster or district level. In forming producer groups, the CDCs developed by
NSP should serve as the entry point and provide a governance mechanism by ensuring
transparency and accountability in the selection and management of producer groups. The human
capacity and knowledge of CDC members (in subproject management, accounting, and
procurement capacity, for example) could support producer groups in undertaking certain group
activities.

39
Afghanistan has 17 certification laboratories; however, none is functioning at present, including the laboratory for
saffron in Herat. DACAAR renovated that laboratory and trained three persons in saffron certification, but it
remains to be active following DACAAR’s support. MAIL must maintain this facility and retain the trained
individuals. Certification should be issued in collaboration with ANSA, which the Ministry of Commerce has newly
established and which belongs to the International Organization for Standardization.

31
65. Aggregating female and male producer groups at the cluster or district level would not
only enable economies of scale that will attract buyers and traders but also facilitate extension
outreach for women, whose male members of households participate in male groups (in case of
the saffron value chain, for example). Global experiences suggest that by encouraging women to
stay in charge of harvesting and post-harvest processing, there are opportunities for the cluster
organizations to market their products to international buyers, who are willing to pay a premium
for women-managed value addition or businesses (in Ghana, women’s producer groups of
mangos are linked to such international buyers).

66. Improve rural outreach by developing a pool of women para-professionals. MAIL

could support creating a pool of women para-professionals at the producer or cluster/district
level by training women high school graduates as well as building on existing capacities of
women already working in the value chains, such as women farmer trainers or supervisors. In
addition to providing extension services, these para-professionals could serve as entry points for
service delivery, such as through (i) facilitating group formation and accounting support for
savings and credit and/or (ii) developing linkages with MFIs and markets. Following good
practices identified in livelihood development projects elsewhere in South Asia, these para-
professionals could be contracted by NGOs or eventually work for producer groups and
associations for fee per business case. The latter would shift quality control from NGOs to
producers themselves, thus ensuring sustainability.

67. Develop a certified training program for women extension service providers. MAIL
should develop a systematic extension training program in collaboration with the Ministries of
Education and Higher Education. The program would provide women extension workers with
current knowledge, in particular of harvesting, post-harvest handling, quality control, and market
information. Another program should also be developed for women para-professionals, who
would require less technical but more pedagogical training on the value chains. These programs
would also offer regular opportunities for re-training to update the skills of para-professionals.
The NSDP could support development of a certification program and identify training providers.
The Faculties of Agriculture in Kabul, Balkh, and Herat Universities could potentially expand
their curricula to deliver the program to extension workers and para-professionals. It is
recommended that MAIL support these universities to strengthen research and development of
grapes/raisins, almonds, and saffron value chains.

68. Improve rural road infrastructure to enable access by women service providers.
Poor public infrastructure, particularly for rural connectivity, is one of the major constraints on
the ability of women service providers, including extension workers and village-level traders or
sales agents, to reach women producers. The World Bank-financed National Emergency Rural
Access Project has been upgrading tertiary roads to improve access to and from rural areas. Even
so, more investments are necessary to upgrade farm roads, and MAIL and key ministries should
continue investigating alternatives. In building access roads, the hub approach40 is recommended.

40
The hub approach analyzes origin and destination patterns, volumes of traffic along spokes, means of transport
available, and quality of infrastructure to identify and upgrade key access routes so that products can enter formal
regional and global trade networks. Such a concept is used when populations are widely dispersed, there are low-
volume economic activities, and distances between households and service provision points are considerable—all
conditions that prevail in rural Afghanistan. (Howe 2010)

32
A good practice is also to carefully consult the value chain actors—in particular, processors—on
the appropriate locations for raw material/processed product acquisition. This may further guide
infrastructure investment to the economically most appropriate locations.

69. Provide value chain innovation grants for women. A grant facility could be set up to
specifically support women’s producer groups, female service providers in a cluster
organization, or women managed processing companies, in innovation and entrepreneurship to
promote the value chains of key horticulture export products for Afghanistan. This incentive
could finance women’s producer groups in accessing value addition tools and infrastructure,
scholarships for women service providers, women-to-women exchanges through exposure visits,
women’s participation in regional or international exhibitions, or marketing extension, which
was successfully implemented in Bangladesh with Muslim women producers.41 MAIL could
manage the grant facility in collaboration with other key ministries as a gender mainstreaming
effort. In approving grants, MAIL and the ministries must ensure the implementation and
sustainability of these grant-funded activities, particularly those in which women are provided
with training on extension or entrepreneurism, or with links to markets. Because the availability
of grants would be limited, MAIL should also seek opportunities to collaborate with other
projects for financing, including MRRD’s Afghanistan Rural Enterprise Development Project
(AREDP).42

70. Use information technology (IT) to enhance women’s involvement in value chains.
Trade associations, NGOs, MAIL, and other key ministries are encouraged to integrate women
more directly into market systems.43 The service delivery model could be built around the use of
IT, such as a mobile accessible interactive extension or market information system, which is
accessible by women producers, para-professionals, service providers, and buyers (wholesalers,
processors, and exporters). Marketing databases being developed by ACCI, etc. could eventually
be expanded to include data that is pertinent to women’s other home-based economic
development initiatives, such as embroidery or other non-farm products.

4.2 Conclusion: Developing Value Chains That Work for Rural Women

71. The approach taken in this study has made it possible to identify the key constraints
preventing Afghan women from moving up in the value chains for grapes/raisins, almonds, and
saffron—all promising exports for Afghanistan—and identify corresponding recommendations.
The main constraints on women are social and cultural norms, which affect their access to
various services, including extension, credit, and marketing. As women improve their positions
in value chains, it is critical that they remain in charge of harvesting and post-harvest processing
and that quality control is ensured. This would require enabling women-to-women service
delivery by: (i) mobilizing women’s producer groups; (ii) providing extension services on quality
control in harvesting and post-harvest handling; (iii) developing a pool of women para-
41
The marketing extension helped women directly interview wholesalers, processors, retailers or exporters to
understand the market of the products which they produce. They developed and implemented an action plan with a
small grant. As a result, there was an average 30 percent increase in household income, and two or three different
enterprises developed sequentially per village.
42
AREDP establishes Village Savings and Loan Associations by federating small savings groups. The project
matches the savings held by the village associations up to a ceiling of US$ 10,000.
43
Howe (2010).

33
professionals to facilitate easier access to services at the village or cluster level; (iv) enhancing
women’s access to credit by MFI linkages; and (v) using IT for service delivery.

72. In supporting women’s movement up in value chains of grapes/raisins, almonds, and

saffron, this study recommends that MAIL consider taking the following actions in collaboration
with other key ministries and agencies: (a) developing value chain action plans and marketing
strategies for each value chain, with an emphasis on women’s central involvement in harvesting
and post-harvest processing; (b) supporting mobilization of women’s producer groups and their
aggregation with male producer groups at cluster or district level to enable extension outreach for
women; (c) improving rural outreach by developing a pool of women para-professionals, who
could enhance quality control in harvesting and post-harvest handling; (d) developing a certified
training program for women extension workers as well as para-professionals; (e) improving rural
road infrastructure to enable access by women service providers; (f) providing value chain
innovation grants for women to facilitate women-to-women exchanges; and (g) using
information technology to enhance women’s participation in value chain, in particular, their
more direct integration into the market system.

34
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 Annex 1
Grape and Raisin Value Chain
1. As discussed previously, grapes and raisins are exports of considerable importance for
Afghanistan. Rural women engage in grape and raisin production, harvesting, and post-harvest
handling in family orchards and homes. Processing and export companies in the raisin value
chain employ women in urban and peri-urban areas to wash, clean, sort, grade, and package
raisins for high-end domestic and export markets. Men mostly occupy the value chain positions
of input suppliers, middlemen or village-level traders, wholesalers, processing and export
companies, retailers, and exporters, yet some women are becoming sales agents, village traders,
and owners of processing centers. This chapter identifies key constraints and opportunities for
women producers and processors in moving up in the two value chains by scrutinizing key value
chain actors and their value addition. The analysis relies on interviews and data from the 2009
HLP outcome survey, which make it possible to estimate the amounts of fresh grapes produced,
sold, and dried to produce raisins. This information was critical in understanding losses at the
producer level and putting the pricing information into context.

A1.1 Global Trends in Production, Consumption, and Exports of Fresh Grapes and
Raisins

2. Fresh Grapes. China, followed by Turkey and Italy, leads the world in grape production,
specifically for fresh consumption, and these three countries are also the main consumers of
fresh grapes.44 Grapes are also widely grown in other parts of the world, including the USA,
Argentina, Chile, France, Spain, Iran, and Australia, but most of their production is processed
into other products such as raisins, wine, and juice for domestic and international markets.
Approximately 15 percent of fresh grape production is traded in the global marketplace.45

3. Between 2006 and 2009, the main exporters of fresh grapes were Chile, the USA, and
Italy, whose trade values total about 50 percent of the value of all grape exports worldwide. At
the same time, Brazil (the eighth-largest exporter at 2.9 percent of global exports), China (1.7
percent), India (1.4 percent), and Egypt (0.8 percent) are becoming increasingly important in the
global market. From 2003 to 2007, fresh grape export volumes for China grew on average by 40
percent (table 3.1). Over the same four years, Afghanistan’s fresh grape exports amounted to
about 0.1 percent of world exports, valued at US$ 22 million. Afghanistan’s primary export
partners were Pakistan (83 percent) and India (17 percent), although a small quantity of Afghan
production (a total value of US$ 8,800) was exported to Turkmenistan.46

4. The largest importer of fresh grapes is the USA, followed by the Netherlands and the UK.
Although the USA is a major grape exporter, it imports off-season produce from South America,
Russia, Canada, and a few EU countries that are also large importers (table 3.2).47

44
USDA FAS (2005).
45
USAID, CNFA, and PDBA (2008).
46
UN Comtrade.
47
USAID, CNFA, and PDBA (2008).

37
5. Raisins. The USA and Turkey are the largest raisin producers in the world. Over time,
these two countries have tended to account for 80 percent of global raisin production.48 Iran,
China, and Chile are also relatively large producers.

6. According to 2008/09 data, Afghanistan produced approximately 2.3 percent of global

production on a dry-weight basis, representing a steady (albeit slow) increase from 2004/05,
when Afghanistan produced 1.8 percent of world production.

Table A1.1: World’s top 10 fresh grape exporters and Afghanistan, 2006–09
Exporter Trade %
value Chile
(US$ m)
Chile 4,451 22.4 USA
USA 2,914 14.7 0.1% 18.6%
22.4% Italy
Italy 2,753 13.8 2.7%
Netherlands 1,919 9.6 Netherlands
2.7%
South Africa 1,240 6.2 South Africa
Spain 669 3.4 2.9%
14.7% Spain
Greece 577 2.9 2.9%
Brazil 570 2.9
3.4% Greece
Turkey 540 2.7
530 2.7 6.2% 9.6% 13.8% Brazil
Afghanistan 22 0.1 Turkey
Other 3,698 18.6
Total 19,883 100
Source: UN Comtrade statistics.

Table A1.2: World’s top 10 fresh grape importers, 2006–09

Importer Trade
value
(US$ m) % USA
USA 4,608 19.3 Netherlands
Netherlands 2,474 10.4 19.3%
25.8% United Kingdom
United Kingdom 2,405 10.1
Germany 2,367 9.9 Germany
Russian Federation 1,729 7.2 10.4%
2.1% Russian Federation
Canada 1,389 5.8
France 854 3.6 2.8%
10.1% Canada
China 724 3.0 3.0%
Belgium 658 2.8 France
3.6% 7.2% 9.9%
Poland 507 2.1 5.8% China
Other 6,151 25.8
Total 23,864 100
Source: UN Comtrade statistics.

7. Between 2006 and 2009, Turkey became the largest exporter of raisins in the world,
followed by the USA. Afghanistan became the seventh-largest exporter, supplying 3.4 percent of
the global market; the total value of this trade is estimated at US$ 150 million (table 3.3). The

48
FAS 2009, cited by AgMRC (the Agricultural Marketing Resource Center at Iowa State University) at
http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/fruits/raisin_profile.cfm, accessed December 2010.

38
key export partners for Afghan raisins are Russia and Pakistan, followed by India and, to a lesser
extent, Turkmenistan, Iran, and the USA. Small amounts (around 0.4–0.2 percent, valued at US$
600,000–300,000) are exported to Ukraine, UAE, Saudi Arabia, the Netherlands, and Iraq.
Exports of less than 0.1 percent (US$ 130,000) go to Poland, the UK, Germany, Uzbekistan,
Canada, Latvia, Greece, Slovakia, Denmark, and Australia (table 3.4). The world’s largest
importer of raisins is the UK, followed by Germany and the Netherlands (table 3.5).
Afghanistan’s raisin exports to the Netherlands are valued at US$ 300,000, whereas its exports to
the UK and Germany are around US$ 10,000 for each country. The EU consumes more than half
of worldwide raisin exports,49 and Turkey is currently the largest exporter to the EU. The value
of Afghan raisins exported to the EU market is US$ 789,000 or about 0.5 percent of the total
value of raisins exported from Afghanistan.

Table A1.3: World’s top 10 raisin exporters, 2006–09

Exporter Trade % Turkey
value
(US$ m) 1.9% USA
Turkey 1,363 31.2 2.9% 11.4% Chile
USA 1,024 23.4 3.1%
South Africa
Chile 426 9.7 31.2%
3.4% Greece
South Africa 196 4.5
Greece 191 4.4 4.1% China
China 179 4.1 Afghanistan
4.4%
Afghanistan 150 3.4
Argentina 135 3.1 Argentina
4.5% 9.7% 23.4%
Iran 127 2.9 Iran
Netherlands 82 1.9 Netherlands
Other 499 11.4
Total 4,374 100 Other
Source: UN Comtrade statistics.

Table A1.4: Major importers of Afghan raisins, 2006–09

Importers Trade % 3.1% 1.0% 1.0% 1.8%
value Russian Federation
(US$ m) 3.6%
Pakistan
Russian Federation 52.0 34.7 India
Pakistan 50.8 34.0 34.7%
20.8% Turkmenistan
India 31.1 20.8
Turkmenistan 5.3 3.6 Turkey
Turkey 4.6 3.1
Iran
Iran 1.6 1.0
USA 1.5 1.0 34.0% USA
Other 2.8 1.8
Other
Total 149.8 100
Source: UN Comtrade statistics.

49
USDA FAS (United States Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service). 2008. ―Raisins: 2008/09
Forecast Overview.‖ http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/2008_Raisins.pdf, accessed December 2010.

39
Table A1.5: World’s top 10 raisin importers, 2006–09
Trade
United Kingdom
value
Importer (US$ m) %
Germany
United Kingdom 787 17.1
17.1%
Germany 498 10.8
Netherlands
Netherlands 327 7.1 35.8%
Russian Federation 260 5.6
10.8% Russian
Canada 244 5.3
Federation
Japan 237 5.1
7.1% Canada
France 179 3.9
Australia 147 3.2
3.0% Japan
Italy 141 3.1
5.6%
USA 140 3.0 3.1%
5.3% France
Other 1,649 35.8 3.2% 3.9% 5.1%
Total 4,609 100
Source: UN Comtrade statistics.

A1.2 Value Chain for Fresh Grapes and Raisins

8. Production Process. The many grape species grown throughout the world are classified
into four major types: table or fresh grapes, raisins, sweet juice grapes (processed into juice, jam,
and preserves), and wine grapes. Grapes grow in a wide variety of climates and soils. Highly
fertile, well-irrigated soils produce the best quality and yields of table and raisin grapes. Grapes
are usually grown on trellises and in long, narrow rows spaced about 3–5 meters apart. If not
pruned methodically, grape vines become tangled masses of shoots that begin to decline in yield
and quality. For table grapes, the time of harvest is determined mostly by appearance, including
the color and size of the berries. Raisin grapes are usually harvested once they have ripened fully
on the vine.

9. Grapes are by far the largest crop grown in Afghanistan. They are produced primarily in
the South, Southwest, and Center, although about 10 percent of production occurs in the North.
Grape varieties vary by region: the top three for domestic and export markets are Shongulkhani,
Kandahari, and Kishmishi. The grapes grown in Afghanistan, especially those produced by
smallholders with less than 5 jeribs (approximately one hectare), are infrequently trellised, and
farmers are not always aware of other recommended production practices such as pruning.

10. The two major types of raisins grown in Afghanistan are shade-dried green raisins
(keshmesh) and sun-dried black and red raisins (aftabi). One kilogram of raisins requires about
four to five kilograms of fresh grapes. Green raisins are mostly hung up to dry in simple, mud-
brick structures with a lateral air flow. Black and red aftabi raisins, on the other hand, are usually
produced from trimming waste, shattered berries, spillage, and left-over fruit at the end of the
harvest season. These grapes are dried on any surface, usually bare ground or the roof of a house,
and are often collected into bags along with dirt, stones, and other contaminants. For this reason,
aftabi raisins are considered lower quality and require washing, cleaning, and sorting before
being sold in retail and export markets (Lister and Brown 2004). Because fresh grapes sell for

40
three to four times the price of an equivalent weight of raisins,50 farmers prefer to sell more fresh
grapes, as much as 80 percent of their total production. Although Afghanistan is the world’s
seventh-largest exporter of raisins and potential for further export growth is high, raisin
production appears to be of secondary importance to farmers.

11. Gender Roles. Women’s extensive involvement in producing grapes and raisins
encompasses watering, weeding, pruning lower branches, harvesting from family orchards, and
post-harvest processing at home, including basic sorting and packing and drying grapes. Minimal
or no cleaning or sorting is undertaken at the household level. At the wholesaler/processor level
in urban or peri-urban centers, women wage labors undertake these activities and package the
raisins. Men are specifically involved in activities that require heavy lifting, such as carrying
harvested grapes to the home or storage area, and travelling or interacting with input suppliers,
middlemen, or village-level traders, who are mostly men—although some women now trade at
the village level, and a few processors and larger scale traders have emerged.

12. Key Actors in the Grape and Raisin Value Chains. For fresh grapes and raisins, the
key actors consist of input suppliers, farmers, middlemen and village-level traders, wholesalers,
and processing companies, retailers, and exporters. Their interactions are described in figures 3.1
(fresh grapes) and 3.2 (raisins), and their activities are detailed in the sections that follow.

Figure A1.1: Fresh grape subsector map

End Support
market
Domestic, low-income consumers High-income consumers Exports Post-harvest markets
processing:

Packaging,
Exporters further
cleaning if
necessary

Retailers
Retailers Packaging, MFIs/
further banks
cleaning if
necessary

Extension
support

W holesalers,
middlemen, Sorting,
trading
Middlemen / traders / wholesalers cleaning,
grading

Production
Small grape producers Large grape producers Cleaning

Women’s level of involvement:

HIGH

Inputs Input suppliers (root stock, MEDIUM

fertilizers and other) LOW TO NONE

Source: MEDA.

50
Kemal-Ur-Rahim, K. 2007. ―Preparing the Commercial Agriculture Development Project, ADB TA No. 4696.‖
AFG Draft Phase 2 Report. Volume III, Horticulture Value Chains Report. Prepared by Landell Mills Development
Consultants Ltd. for the Asian Development Bank; figures have been verified by EPAA, Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits,
and Vegetables EPA, and processors/exporters in Kabul.

41
Figure A1.2: Raisin subsector map

End
market
Domestic, low-income consumers High-income consumers Exports Imports
Support
markets

Post-harvest
processing

Packaging*,
Retailers Retailers Exporters further cleaning if
necessary** MFIs/
banks

Extension
Wholesalers Processing Sorting, cleaning,
Small and large wholesalers (mandvi) grading, support
centers packaging

Minimal or no
post – harvest
handling /
Middlemen,
trading
Middlemen/traders processing at this
stage

Drying to raisins

Production
Small grape producers Large grape producers

Women’s level of involvement:

HIGH
Inputs Input suppliers (root stock, MEDIUM
fertilizers and other) LOW TO NONE

Source: MEDA.

13. Input suppliers. Small- and large-scale retailers or village-level traders sell inputs such
as fertilizer and pesticide to farmers. Retailers also maintain nurseries for seedling sales. Inputs
are generally purchased by cash, as credit is not usually available. Men usually buy inputs, given
the general absence of women suppliers with whom rural women producers can interact. Women
in Kabul, however, have access to the Kabul Women Farm Store, a women-only input supplier
(box 3.1 in the main report) that also provides some extension support.

14. Farmers. Small-scale grape producers farm 2–5 jeribs (about 0.5–1.0 hectare) and
cultivate grapes along with a variety of other crops, such as vegetables and wheat. Large-scale
producers farm 5–10 jeribs (1–2 hectares), and their production is more intensive. Production is
mostly rainfed, as most farmers do not have access to irrigation. On small farms, women usually
pack grapes or raisins in sacks of about 50 kilograms per sack, although the weight varies by the
harvest, and men either transport one or two sacks to the nearest market or sell them to
middlemen or village traders. Large landholders often have contracts with processors or
exporters, who bring their own laborers to the orchard to harvest and pack grapes for export.

15. The average yield of fresh grapes among producing households participating in the HLP
was approximately 3,100 kilograms per jerib in 2009. However, among producers with holdings
under 2–3 jeribs (about 65 percent of the grape-producing households that are the project’s
beneficiaries), yields of fresh grapes were 15 percent lower than the overall average. Farmers

42
large and small face difficulties in accessing the market, given that about 57 percent of
beneficiary farmers sold fresh grapes (on average 2,000 kilograms per household at about Af 18
per kilogram). Small landholders sold about 20 percent less than the overall average among
project beneficiaries. The price at which farmers sold fresh grapes to middlemen or village-level
traders ranged from Af 7 to Af 58 per kilogram, including off-season sales (which range from Af
30 to Af 50 per kilogram) (table 3.6). Household income from fresh grapes was Af 34,100 on
average (approximately US$ 680), with smaller landholders earning about 20 percent less (Af
27,000 or approximately US$ 540). 51

Table A1.6: Differences in fresh grape yields, sales volumes, and income among HLP producer households
Variable All HLP producer HLP smallholders Difference
households (2 jeribs or less)
Yield (kg/jerib) 3,122 2,644 478 (15.3%)
Volume sold 2,047 1,568 479 (23.4%)
(kg/household)
Income from fresh grapes 34,103 26,960 7,143 (20.9%)
(Af/household) (about US$ 680) (about US$ 540) (about US$ 140)
Source: HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey 2009.

16. Raisins, with the exception of high-quality types such as sun-dried keshmesh raisins, are
produced to reduce wastage of fresh grapes, because they can be stored at homes until
middlemen or village traders visit. Only about 30 percent of HLP-supported households
produced raisins, however, drying an estimated 60 percent of their grape production. In 2009,
these households produced on average about 1,100 kilograms of raisins per household, with
smallholders producing significantly less (43 percent) than larger landholders (table 3.7). About
65 percent of HLP households producing raisins sold 640 kilograms per household on average at
Af 38 per kilogram (the price range extended from Af 10 to Af 310 per kilogram). For the
smallholders alone, average sales were 430 kilograms per household at Af 36 per kilogram (with
a range of Af 10–130 per kilogram). The average household income from raisins was Af 23,120
(approximately US$ 460), but smallholders earned 35 percent less.

17. HLP as well as other MAIL and donor projects provide technical assistance to grape
farmers, including trellising and extension services. Such assistance focuses on men, however,
because the number of extension workers, especially women extension workers, is limited. It is
assumed that the information will be shared with women within the household, but the expected
knowledge transfer does not always occur. During focus group interviews, women said that they
wanted direct access to extension services. HLP provides direct extension support to women’s
producer groups, but it has been difficult to retain women extension workers (box 3.2 in the main
report).

51
Figures are from the HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey 2009, drawn from a sample of 530 HLP-supported
households, 48.3 percent of which owned grape orchards.

43
Table A1.7: Differences in raisin yields, sales volumes, and income among HLP producer households
Variable All HLP producer HLP smallholders Difference
households (2 jeribs or less)
Raisins produced 1,102 632 470 (42.6%)
(kg/household)
Volume sold 639 432 207 (32.4%)
(kg/household)
Income from raisins 23,120 Af 14,985 8,135 (35.2%)
(Af/household) (about US$ 462) (about US$ 300) (about US$ 163)
Source: HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey 2009.

18. Middlemen and village-level traders. In the fresh grape value chain, the middlemen are
usually involved in both trading and wholesaling. Due to the lack of cold chain infrastructure and
the short shelf-life of fresh grapes, middlemen/wholesalers purchase directly from farmers and
sell to small retailers or exporters or to domestic, low-income consumers via their stalls in the
fresh fruit mandvi, which is a secondary wholesale market in urban or peri-urban centers. The
sales price is around Af 10–67 per kilogram. Few or no women are middlemen/village-level
traders.

19. In the raisin value chain, on the other hand, many small middlemen or village-level
traders purchase raisins directly from large- and small-scale farmers. These intermediaries
aggregate the raisins and sell them at around Af 60–170 per kilogram to small or large
wholesalers at the dried fruit and nut mandvi located in or near urban centers.

20. Wholesalers. In the raisin value chain, the key step in aggregation and value addition,
particularly for produce from smallholders and some large landholders, occurs at the wholesale
level. Wholesalers are located at the dried fruit and nut mandvi, where raisins are cleaned, sorted,
graded, and packaged for domestic and export markets. These value-adding activities are usually
outsourced to women at their homes or conducted in women-only secluded areas, most likely
outside the mandvi, monitored by female supervisors. For this work, women receive around Af
100 (approximately US$ 2) per 50-kilogram bag. Imported raisins from China and Iran are also
sold at the mandvi for domestic, low-income consumers. Retailers or exporters purchase the
packaged raisins at around Af 80–190 per kilogram.

21. Processing companies, exporters, and retailers. About 140 exporters are registered with
the Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables EPA, including approximately 50 companies
dealing in fresh fruits and vegetables and 20 companies processing dried fruits and nuts. Fresh
fruits and vegetables include grapes, apples, pomegranates, apricots, melons, and potatoes, which
are supplied to domestic and export markets such as Pakistan, India, and UAE. These companies
also import off-season fruits and vegetables from Pakistan, Iran, and China. The scarcity of cold
storage facilities in Afghanistan causes some fresh produce to be exported for storage in Pakistan
and imported to Afghanistan in the off-season. The 50 companies have an estimated trading
capacity of approximately 1,000–1,400 tons per day. In processing fresh grapes, these companies
generally contract with large landholders and, as mentioned, bring male laborers to harvest,
grade, sort, and pack the produce at the orchards for export in cartons or crates holding 10–14-
kilograms. The men receive Af 400 per day for such labor. Although women harvest grapes from
family orchards, the companies do not hire women as the work involves heavy lifting and
packing. These companies have no refrigerated trucks or other cold storage facilities.

44
22. Most processing companies handling dried fruits and nuts process raisins, almonds, and
other dried fruits and nuts such as apricots, cherries, walnuts, and pistachios. They sell packaged
products to retailers and exporters or export the produce themselves. Raisins and almonds are
among their highest revenue-earners. A few companies trade in fresh and dried fruits (for
example, only fresh grapes and raisins) by working throughout the value chain, including
production in their own orchards of some 10,000 trees. There are separate unions for fresh fruit
and dried fruit/nut processors and exporters, and most of those interviewed pay membership fees.
Some obtain pricing information and explore export linkages within the union, while others
indicate that there is no benefit from doing so. Sales prices vary according to the quality of the
produce on offer. For example, Shindokhani raisins from Kandahar sell at a premium (Af 350
per kilogram) if they are cleaned by hand, one by one, and at Af 160 per kilogram if they cleaned
less thoroughly. In the local market in Kabul, the latter level of quality is more popular. Dried
fruit is consumed mostly in winter, in particular during religious festivities. The supply of raisins
is lowest in June at the end of the season, and sales are low in summer.

23. Technology such as mobile phones has eased the communication of market information
to and among farmers, including information on quality and market demands. Most large-scale
farmers who sell fresh grapes or raisins to the large processing companies own mobile phones.
Some companies are likely to have equipment to dry as well as to clean, sort, and/or package
raisins, but this equipment is also likely to be old or in disrepair, as its quality is low and there is
no manufacturer support or guarantee in maintenance and repair. The capacity of processing
companies varies. For example, in 2009, one company in Kabul exported 15–20 tons of raisins
and almonds, about 40 percent of all packaged products. The company has six marketing
researchers on staff. A factory in Kabul can process up to 10,000 tons of raisins and exported
1,000 tons of fresh grapes to Pakistan in 2009. The main market for these companies is high-end
domestic consumers or export markets such as those in Pakistan, India, Russia, UAE, and
Germany.

24. Most processing companies in the raisin value chain contract middlemen or village
traders to collect large volumes of raisins directly from farmers with their own vehicles. They
supplement this produce with purchases from the mandvi. Some companies provide extension
services and equipment (for example, mats for drying) to ensure that better-quality raisins are
produced. Although cultural constraints prevent women from driving a vehicle, a few women
traders and sales agents operate at the village level for the Afghan Pride Association (APA), a
women-owned processing company in Kabul (box 3.4 in the main report).

25. Like the wholesalers, most companies that process raisins depend on women for cleaning,
sorting, grading, and/or packaging produce under the supervision of other women. The wage for
these women in urban or peri-urban areas has been quoted at around US$ 80–140 per month,
which is considered too low for men (who have better employment opportunities).

26. Value Added by Value Chain Actors. Table 3.8 summarizes pricing information for
fresh grapes and raisins, which was obtained from a variety of sources, including the Kabul
Mandvi and retailers. The data constitute a very small sample and are thus only indicative. The
table includes seasonal average prices (June–July 2010) for the top three varieties of each

45
commodity for both domestic and export markets: Shongulkhani, Kandahari, and Kishmishi
fresh grapes and red, green, and golden raisins. The figures in table 3.8 were verified by industry
leaders, and similar profit trends have been reported previously (see Altai Consulting 2004).
Figures 3.3–3.6 depict costs and sales at each step of the value chains for fresh grapes (in- and
off-season) and the three types of raisins.

Table A1.8: Prices and costs along the value chains for fresh grapes and raisins (Af/kg)
Production facts:
 Average cost by area: Af 35,000/ha or Af 7,000/ jerib (HLP data)
 Average harvest: 1,300–2,480 kg/jerib (HLP 2009 outcome survey)
 Average production cost: Af 3/kg
 1 kg of raisins requires 4–5 kg fresh grapes
Fresh grapes Raisins
Kandahari
Kishmishi Shongulkhani Red Green Golden
(off Imports
(in season) (in season) (Shamali) (Ghazni) (Kandahar)
season)
Producer
Costs 3–5 2–3 3–4 20–30 30–40 50–60 NA
Sell 30–50 6–10 10–15 40–50 50–70 120–150 NA
Middlemen/traders (buy grapes from producers)
Buy 30–50 6–10 10–15 40–50 50–70 120–150 NA
Sell 55–67 10–15 15–18 60–70 75–90 150–170 NA
Large wholesalers (mandvi) (buy grapes from middlemen/traders)
Buy 55–67 10–15 15–18 70–80 75–90 150–170 130–150
Sell 70–74 15–20 18–22 80–90 90–100 170–190 150–170
Exporters (buy grapes from large wholesalers)
Buy 70–74 15–20 18–22 80–90 100–110 170–180
Sell 100–140 20–25 25–30 100–120 120–140 200–250
Retailers (buy grapes from large wholesalers)
Buy 70–74 15–20 18–22 80–90 100–110 170–180 150–170
Sell 100–140 40–50 20–30 90–120 110–140 180–220 170–200
Cost of cleaning raisins = Af 100 per 50 kg or Af 2/kg
Source: Prices taken from value chain actors and validated with Afghan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables EPA, August 2010.
Note: Cheap raisins are also imported from China and Iran but are very low quality. Production costs for China and Iran were
indicated as ―NA‖ since this information was not available. US$1 = Af 44; 1 jerib = 0.49 acres or 2,000 m2 (approx); 1 ser = 7
kg.

46
Figure A1.3: Trade values: Fresh grapes (in season and off season)
250

200

150
Buying
100 cost/price
(in-
50 season)
-

Source: MEDA.
Note: Since two varieties of in-season fresh grapes are included, the
midpoint price between the two ranges is shown. The difference between the
buying/cost price and the selling price reflects the income earned at each
level of the value chain.

Figure A1.4: Trade values: Red raisins Figure A1.5: Trade values: Green raisins Figure A1.6: Trade values: Golden raisins
120 250
100 200
80
150
60
Buying… 100
40 Selling… Buying…
20 50 Selling…
- -

Source: MEDA. Source: MEDA. Source: MEDA.

47
27. The data suggest that profit margins exist at a number of levels, especially for farmers,
although it is not clear whether farmers reported costs of all inputs required to bring a crop to
maturity. Most are smallholders, whose labor costs are borne within the household and not
accounted for. Moreover, as in HLP beneficiary households, farmers sell only about 40–50
percent of their produce because of poor market access. Fresh grapes clearly bring higher prices
in the off-season, when prices can rise as high as Af 100 per kilogram at the retail level, while
they are half or less during the production season. This information indicates the great
opportunity and potential for increased income if off-season grape production and access to cold
storage facilities and markets are improved.

A1.3 Overall Constraints in the Fresh Grape/Raisin Value Chains

28. In the fresh grape and raisin value chains, the key constraint for producers is poor market
access, resulting from poor roads and the lack of transport. Most producers have no choice but to
depend on middlemen and village-level traders, who also have inadequate access to villages.
Fresh grapes are affected more than raisins, given their short shelf life and the virtual absence of
cold storage facilities throughout the value chain. As seen among HLP beneficiary households,
half or less of fresh grape production is sold. To reduce their losses, farmers produce raisins, but
this activity is of secondary importance. The key constraints in the raisin value chain are thus the
lack of market information and poor quality control (particularly sanitation at the producer level).
The constraints trees shown in figures 3.7 and 3.852 highlight challenges that Afghan value chain
actors face in producing and selling higher volumes of fresh grapes and raisins to high-end
domestic and export markets. Challenges specific to women are highlighted in yellow.

29. Limited Access to Markets from Rural Areas. Afghanistan’s poor physical
infrastructure is slowly improving, but most farmers, middlemen, and village traders have few
means of transporting produce to the nearest market. Fresh grapes and raisins are hefty loads.
Several women indicated during focus group discussions that their husbands can usually carry a
maximum of 1–2 bags (approximately 50–100 kilograms) of fresh grapes to the nearest market.
Most rural families are forced to rely on sales to middlemen or traders who use their own
transport to travel to villages, depending on market demand. Farmers have infrequent access to
these traders and less bargaining power than if they could bring their produce directly to the
market.

52
A constraints tree shows causal relationships. The tree assists in setting priorities, because the problems that are
lower on the tree are critical to tackle first to address the more complicated issues at the top of the tree. Although
this study identifies all of the main challenges, its focus on gender means that not all of them are discussed at the
same level of detail. This is true for the constraints trees and related discussions for the other value chains analyzed
in this study.

48
 Figure A1.7: Constraints tree: Fresh grapes

Low volumes of high-quality product for medium and high-end consumers and export markets

Lack of access to formal

Poor production yields Lack of horizontal linkages Poor quality control regional and global trade
(no aggregation of produce) networks

Lack of Pests and Inadequate Few Produce is not Lack of Farmers not Little Basic,
awareness of diseases access to active, well stored under timely growing sorting, high wooden Trade
modern water functional appropriate delivery of varieties quality packagin Lack of trade
associations
production farmer temperatures produce to based on grapes are g that have weak infrastructure
techniques groups for markets consumer only at the destroys links to
marketing preferences top of box grapes markets

Limited
extension Lack of access to Lack of
good-quality inputs Lack of Lack of Packaging market
support (pest access to knowledge and
and technologies Lack of Lack of Limited / linkages
management, market / training labeling
knowledge / access to cold expensive to value
trellising and information support equipment
training storage transportation chain
other) such as not
support technologies means actors
pricing and available
consumer locally
preferences

Lack of Lack of local input

appropriate and technology Lack of Lack of local Lack of access to Limited/expensive
appropriate technology Lack of market appropriate transportation
financing suppliers to rural linkages to farmers
services (MFI areas financing to suppliers financing to means
loans, financing purchase local or purchase imported
mechanisms) imported technologies
technologies
Rural farmers do not
all have regular Afghan traders sell in bulk to export Limited Lack of
access to markets (e.g., Pakistan) that sort and access to enforcement
traders/middlemen package produce; Afghan traders/ registration of trade
farmers remain unaware of this value- and rules
adding practice certification
processes

Root Post-conflict / War-ravaged Socio-cultural Weak infrastructure and Lack of laws on Innumeracy Competition
causes security fruit orchards segregation of weak organization of land ownership and illiteracy from imports
women community for economic rights, particularly
development for women

Source: MEDA.
Note: Constraints that significantly limit women’s involvement in higher levels of the value chain are highlighted in yellow.
49
 Figure A1.8: Constraints tree: Raisins

Low volumes of high-quality product for medium and high-end consumers and export markets

Poor production yields Lack of horizontal linkages Poor quality control Lack of access to formal regional
(no aggregation of produce) and global trade networks

Lack of Pests Inadequate Few active, Limited Lack of Lack of Little / no Basic Raisins
Trade
awareness of and access to well-functional lab storage timely sorting or packaging are associations
modern Disease water farmer groups facilities facilities delivery of grading with no packed have weak
production for marketing for QC, produce to activities labeling for with dust, links to
techniques testing markets differentiation rocks and markets
or brand dirt

Lack of
Limited extension and Lack of Poor knowledge / market
training support (e.g., access to lack of training Limited / Lack of access to Lack of local Most farmers
expensive market information input and dry raisins on linkages to
pest management, good-quality support value chain
trellising, new/improved inputs and transportation such as pricing and technology the ground
means consumer preferences suppliers and sweep actors
drying techniques (e.g., technologies
hanging, solar drying via the raisins in
plastic sheeting, to bags
potassium carbonate
Lack of appropriate financing
dipping oil)
services (MFI loans, financing
mechanisms)
Poor Lack of
knowledge / access to Lack of trade infrastructure
Lack of market lack of training mats/tarps for
linkages to farmers support drying
Lack of Lack of local input
appropriate and technology
financing suppliers to rural Rural farmers do not
services (MFI areas all have regular Lack of appropriate financing
loans, financing access to services (MFI loans, Limited access Limited / Lack of
mechanisms) traders/middlemen financing mechanisms) to registration expensive enforcement
and certification transportation of trade rules
processes means

Root Post-conflict / War-ravaged Socio-cultural Weak infrastructure and Lack of laws on Innumeracy Competition
causes security fruit orchards segregation of weak organization of land ownership and illiteracy from imports
women community for economic rights, particularly
development for women

Source: MEDA.
Note: Constraints that significantly limit women’s involvement in higher levels of the value chain are highlighted in yellow.

50
30. Lack of Cold Storage for Fresh Grapes. Fresh grapes, like many fresh fruits, are fragile
and have a short shelf-life unless they are stored at optimal, cool temperatures. Throughout the
value chain, there is minimal or no access to cold storage facilities such as underground storage,
cold chain transportation, or cold storage facilities at the wholesaler/exporter level. Underground
storage in households or villages would enable farmers to sell the currently large, unsold share of
the fresh grape harvest (50–60 percent), possibly even during the off-season.

31. Limited Market Information among Producers. Since most farmers are highly
dependent on sales via middlemen or village-level traders, these intermediaries are often
farmers’ only link to market information such as prices, quality levels, and other standards.
Many of the farmers interviewed had little idea about current prices for their produce in urban
areas such as Kabul, and they recognized that traders had an advantage in price setting. Although
farmers had basic knowledge of cleanliness and quality standards, most were complacent about
achieving them, because they had no added incentive, time, or resources (such as mats for drying
raisins) to perform more sophisticated processing.

32. Poor Quality Control and Post-harvest Handling. The overall lack of sanitation or
quality considerations in raisin production, particularly among smallholders, is the result of
insufficient understanding and training. A few farmers, mostly larger landholders, obtain drying
mats through village traders on commission or from agents of processing companies. In the fresh
grape value chain, smallholders’ poor sorting and packing do not meet standards for export-
quality grapes. Little equipment is available for processors to produce juices or jams, but such
technologies would open markets for farmers to sell their lower-grade grapes.

33. Limited Extension Advice. MAIL and donor-funded projects provide some extension
services, largely to farmers, and largely concerning production rather than harvesting and post-
harvest handling. Most farmers interviewed had no access to any kind of extension service or
training related to production, harvesting, or post-harvest handling. A few women farmers
described how their husbands received one-time training from a government institution or NGO,
along with manuals and training materials, but the rest of the family was unable to benefit fully
from those services because they had to depend on whatever information the male family
member was willing or able to communicate. Women farmers expressed particular enthusiasm
for the possibility of more female extension workers.

34. Few Appropriate Financing Services. Afghanistan had no financial sector during nearly
20 years of conflict. Now that microfinance institutions (MFIs) and a few commercial banks
offer a variety of loans to individuals, groups, and small and medium enterprises, the key
challenges are to comply with sharia (which stipulates that one must not charge interest on such
transactions)53 and to improve the availability of financial services in rural areas. Processors,
wholesalers, and exporters usually trade in cash and provide informal, trust-based credit. These
entrepreneurs, in addition to expressing concern about financial services’ compliance with
sharia, remarked during interviews on the bureaucracy and complexity of the process for
obtaining financing or credit. Various guarantees and forms of collateral are required, and
interest rates are usually as high as 15–20 percent. Difficult access to rural areas poses other
challenges: Long-distance travel is taxing for clients, risks of theft and other forms of insecurity
53
Or on interest-based deposit transactions; for more information, see Grais and Pellgrini (2006).

51
are high, and reaching rural people is costly for MFIs. In addition, most rural households have no
experience in managing credit or savings, especially not with a financial institution.

35. Lack of Formal Export Support. Trade associations, including export unions, have only
weak links to high-end international markets for raisins, such as the EU (particularly the UK,
Germany, and Netherlands), Canada, and Japan. Increased exports to Russia—the world’s
fourth-largest importer of raisins and one of the two largest importers of Afghan raisins54—
should be explored. Organizations such as EPAA and ACCI work closely with the government
to improve the registration of traders and new exporters and facilitate access to lucrative
international markets. ACCI has 35,000 business members (exporters, wholesalers, service
providers, and importers), and its services include issuing Certificates of Origin to facilitate
exports, lobbying the government to resolve common issues such as those related to export taxes,
conflict resolution among members, and the need to support business development (to find land,
set up factories, and so on). This kind of support is available only in Kabul. Some countries that
import grapes and raisins, especially the higher-end markets, require product certification in
addition to certification of origin. The EPA offers only limited laboratory and quality control
services. To increase grape and raisin exports, Afghanistan must address issues of product
certification and standardization in the medium to long term.

A1.4 Constraints and Opportunities for Women in the Fresh Grape/Raisin Value Chain

36. To recapitulate, rural women participate in the fresh grape and raisin value chains by
providing unpaid domestic labor in family orchards and households for production (weeding,
watering, some pruning on lower branches, collecting pruned leaves off the ground), harvesting,
and some post-harvest processing (in which women dry fresh grapes, sort them minimally, if at
all, for sale, and pack them in sacks in storage areas). Women in urban or peri-urban centers
work for wholesalers and processors in the raisin value chain as wage laborers, washing,
cleaning, sorting, and packaging raisins for domestic and export markets, within and outside of
the mandvi or processing centers. This is the key difference between the fresh grape and raisin
value chains: Women are not hired as wage laborers by processors or exporters of fresh grapes to
harvest, sort, grade, and package, because these activities expose women to nonfamily orchards
and involve lifting and loading heavy, 10-kilogram cartons and 14-kilogram crates. Technology
that could reduce this burden, such as forklifts, is unavailable.

37. Men play a key role in linking the household to the market. This role includes purchasing
inputs, selling fresh grapes or raisins to middlemen or village-level traders, or traveling to the
local market to sell the produce themselves.

38. Constraints Specific to Women. Given social and cultural norms limiting women’s
interaction with men, the central constraint on women’s capacity to move up the fresh
grape/raisin value chain is the lack of women-to-women service delivery at every stage of the
value chain, from production to marketing at the village and mandvi levels. The lack of women-
to-women services affects quality at each stage in the chain because women have no access to
extension services, knowledge, and know-how to improve the quality of grapes or raisins. Other
constraints that directly affect women’s further involvement in the value chain include:
54
Russia and Pakistan each import about 35 percent of the traded value of Afghan raisins.

52
  Limited access to transport. Most women have no access to public transportation without
a male escort.55
 Limited or no market information. Women-to-women interactions are limited
throughout the value chain. The positions of input suppliers, middlemen/traders, and
processors are predominantly occupied by men, with whom few women are allowed to
interact. As a result, women have little or no extension or market information, unless it is
provided through male family members.
 Little extension support for post-harvest processing. Extension advice on post-harvest
handling is lacking, in particular advice on rural women’s tasks related to quality control:
proper sanitation, sorting, grading, and packing. Extension focuses mostly on grape
production and offers little support for post-harvest processing, particularly of raisins.
 Lack of appropriate financing services. In addition to the small number of women loan
officers, the loans provided by MFIs often require collateral. Men usually hold title to
land, leaving rural women with very limited or no access to agricultural financial
products without support from male family members.

39. Figures 3.9 and 3.10 highlight the constraints that specifically limit women from moving
up to other roles in the fresh grape and raisin value chains. The constraints vary with respect to
the different positions in the value chains, as discussed below.

 Producer (small or large scale) to middleman and village trader: Moderate barrier.
Despite cultural and societal barriers to upgrading from producer to middleman/trader,
several women work as village-level traders and sales agents in Kabul and Parwan
Provinces, where they buy raisins directly from other women. Some processors indicate
that this model would be more acceptable in the North (for example, Balkh Province),
where society is relatively more open to women performing such roles.
 Middleman/trader to wholesaler/processor: Significant barrier. Although a number of
women work for small- and large-scale wholesalers or processors in the raisin value
chain, they are by and large involved as laborers (washing, sorting, grading, and
packaging) rather than owners, except for the APA.
 Wholesaler/processor to retailer/exporter: Significant barrier. Generally, women and
men alike find it difficult to transition to a role in exporting. Socio-cultural norms mean
that women face significant additional barriers. Few women have made this transition
successfully, but several women are making the attempt, albeit with difficulty.

55
There are some exceptions in urban and peri-urban areas and other relatively open communities, including Kabul,
Balkh, and Herat Provinces.

53
 Figure A1.9: Gender constraints in the fresh grape subsector Figure A1.10: Gender constraints in the raisin subsector

Imports
Imports

Domestic Low Income High Income Support

Post Harvest/ Exports Markets
Support Market Consumers
Domestic Low Income High Income Processing: Markets
Exports
Consumers Consumers
Post Harvest/
Packaging, Processing:
Exporters
further
Exporters cleaning if Packaging,
necessary Barriers/ Retailers further MFIs/Banks
Constraints cleaning if
Retailers for Women necessary
Packaging,
Significant
further MFIs/Banks
barriers
Barriers/ cleaning if
Constraints for necessary Sorting,
Moderate cleaning, Extension
Women barriers Processing Support
Mandvi Small and Large Wholesalers grading and
Centers packaging
Significant Extension Minor
barriers Support barriers
Middlemen/Traders/Mandvi Wholesalers Sorting,
Moderate Cleaning,
barriers Grading Minimal or no
Middlemen/Traders post harvest
Minor barriers handling/
processing at
Women’s Level of this stage
Involvement:
Cleaning
Small Grape Producers Large Grape Producers High Large Grape
Small Grape Producers Drying to
Women’s Level of Medium Producers
raisins
Involvement: Low to None

High
Medium
Low to None
Input Suppliers (nurseries, Input Suppliers
fertilizers etc.)

Source: Figures 3.9 and 3.10 are based on study data and adapted from Mayoux and Mackie (2009) and USAID (2010).
Note: The shaded (pink) area illustrates the most promising value chain. The barrier icons highlight constraints for women to move up the value chain. The color of the icon indicates the degree of the
barrier. Yellow = a minor barrier, orange = a moderate barrier, and red = a significant barrier. Based on analysis of qualitative data, barriers were determined to be not applicable (for example, if women
were not involved in a given role, upgrading to the next level was deemed irrelevant); minor (affecting women slightly more than men, typically as a result of socio-cultural norms); moderate (affecting
women in the value chain much more than men, although some women have overcome the barriers); or significant (affecting women in the value chain much more than men, and no woman has
overcome the barrier to move up the value chain). Barriers are indicated only for the most promising value chain (highlighted in pink) and for positions in which women are involved (as indicated by the
green and purple shading indicating women’s level of involvement).
54
40. Opportunities for Women in the Fresh Grape and Raisin Value Chains. At the
producer level, it is critical to facilitate women-to-women service delivery at every stage in the
value chain. For example, a pool of women para-professionals56 could provide services such as
input supply, extension advice, credit, or market linkages. The social mobilization of producer
associations for women would broaden access to services by reducing transaction costs.
Investments in women-owned and -operated processing centers at the village or cluster level
would enhance the quality of produce through women-to-women learning.

 Women community extension workers. The development of female extension workers

would facilitate women’s access to extension services, skills, and knowledge, thereby
improving overall production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling of fresh grapes and
raisins. Skills that women could learn and apply at the household level for fresh grapes
include appropriate handling, sorting, grading, storing (for example, under tents), and
packaging (for example, in crates) to reduce damage during transport.
 Post-harvest handling and quality control. As rural women dominate post-harvest
handling and processing of raisins, information on quality control and markets is critical
to their work and likely to interest them. Skills training could include drying (using mats
or other technology such as solar dryers), sorting, and grading techniques.
 Access to credit through women agents. In focus group interviews, women farmers were
especially interested in accessing credit, but the limited supply and social barriers
(including barriers to interaction and mobility) make access a challenge. A few MFIs
provide agricultural loans to women and are interested in supporting post-harvest
activities such as drying raisins and packaging, such as the World Council of Credit
Unions (WOCCU) and Ariana Financial Services. Through the increased presence of
female officers, women would increase their access to key financial services, which in
turn would help them improve their methods and productivity.
 Mobilization of women producer associations. Women producer associations are being
formed through MAIL and donor-funded projects. As of September 2010, the HLP had
formed about 80 groups of about 2,000 female producers in nine districts of nine northern
and central provinces. Approximately 85 percent of these groups managed savings boxes
of about Af 8,000 per group (US$ 160). Groups could use these funds as collateral for
members. Women’s producer groups and associations could also undertake or invest in
collective activities, such as setting up a collection point for raisins and directly
contacting women intermediaries to purchase them, or developing a women-owned and -
managed processing center at the village or cluster level to process fresh grapes as well as
raisins. Such a center would provide a secluded yet accessible area for women producers
to sort, grade, and package fresh grapes. Investments in technology such as forklifts
would be essential.

56
Para-professionals are trained, often at the vocational level, to assist professionals in specific areas of education,
agriculture, science, law, or health, among other fields. They are not educated or licensed at the highest-qualified
professional level, but they can perform tasks requiring significant knowledge in the field and may even function
independently of direct professional supervision. Some para-professional occupations require special testing or
certification in the field, whereas others require only a certain level of education.

55
41. At the wholesaler/processor level, some women are emerging as middlemen, village
traders, and processors in the raisin value chain. APA is establishing an emerging model for
women-to-women service delivery.

 Market access through women middlemen, village traders, and input suppliers. The
roles of middlemen, traders, and input suppliers are usually connected. For example, the
linkages formed by middlemen and traders allow them to act as input suppliers and
distributors as well. Although very few women occupy the role of middleman/trader,
many participants in the study stated that there was an opportunity for greater
representation of women in this role. Female supervisors at the APA processing center
play a significant role in controlling the quality of raisins and could potentially train
women producers to attain acceptable quality levels by using mats or solar dryers.
 Development of women-owned processing centers. In urban and peri-urban centers
women are highly involved in processing. Investment at this level could make a
significant impact on women’s positions within the value chain. Such investments would
require business training for women in operating and managing such centers.

A1.5 Conclusion: Building on Export Strengths

42. Fresh grapes and raisins are Afghanistan’s export strengths. Raisins seem particularly
promising, because Afghanistan is already the world’s seventh-largest exporter of this product
and is forging links with high-end international markets such as the EU and USA. Exports of
fresh grapes also have potential to expand, but the short shelf-life of grapes mostly limits exports
to Pakistan and India. Women grow, harvest, and process grapes and raisins on the farm and in
more urban settings. Men serve as the links to markets and other services and occupy most
positions further along the value chains, with a few exceptions, such as APA.

43. The key constraints in the fresh grape value chain are (i) the lack of cold chain facilities
throughout the value chain and (ii) the limited access to market afforded by poor roads and
transport. Farmers sell only about 40–50 percent of their produce, as they have only infrequent
access to markets through itinerant middlemen and village-level traders.

44. In the raisin value chain, the key constraints are (i) the lack of market information among
producers, including information on raisins as a key export, and (ii) limited quality control in
post-harvest handling, particularly sanitation, at the producer level. Farmers prefer to sell grapes
because of the larger volumes involved. They regard raisin production as a secondary activity;
only about 30 percent of farmers dry grapes.

45. The opportunities for women to move up in the value chains of these two key export
commodities are to (i) develop a pool of women para-professionals to give other women access
to extension services (especially advice on post-harvest handling), inputs, credit, and markets
and (ii) form women’s producer groups or associations to facilitate women-to-women service
delivery. These groups would foster the establishment of women-managed and -operated
processing centers at the village or cluster level to process fresh grapes and raisins and meet
higher quality standards.

56
 Annex 2
Almond Value Chain
1. Afghanistan produced an estimated 15,000 tons of almonds in 2008/09. Approximately
80 percent of this production is exported to two key partners in the region (Pakistan and India),
while the remainder is consumed domestically, amid growing demand. Afghanistan is the
world’s eleventh-largest exporter of shelled almonds and fifth-largest exporter of in-shell
almonds. Rural women dominate almond production, harvesting, and processing, including
hulling, sun-drying, and packing. Employed as wage laborers for wholesalers, processing
companies, and exporters in urban and peri-urban areas, women also clean, sort, grade, and
package almonds for the domestic retail and export markets. Although men dominate the value
chain roles of input supplier, middleman, village-level trader, wholesaler, processing or
exporting company, and retailer/exporter, some women are becoming sales agents, village-level
traders, and owners of centers for processing dried fruits and nuts. By scrutinizing key value
chain actors and their value-adding activities, this chapter identifies the key constraints and
opportunities for women producers and processors to move up the almond value chain. Like the
previous assessment of the grape/raisin value chain, this assessment relies on interviews and data
from the 2009 HLP outcome survey to estimate almond production and sales volumes,
understand losses at the producer level, and put pricing information into context.

A2.1 Global Trends in Almond Production, Consumption, and Exports

2. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world’s top six almond
producers are the USA (40 percent of world production), Spain (16 percent), Syria (8 percent),
Italy (6 percent), Iran (5 percent), and Morocco (4 percent). Greece, India, and Turkey are
emerging as large producers (USDA FAS 2003).

3. The USA is by far the world’s largest exporter of almonds (accounting for 70 percent of
exports), followed by Spain (about 10 percent) (table 4.1). Small exporters include Australia,
China, some EU countries (Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands), Chile, and UAE.
According to UN Comtrade statistics, Afghanistan ranks eleventh in exports of shelled almonds,
with a trade value of US$ 110 million. It is the fifth-largest exporter of in-shell almonds, with a
trade value of US$ 38 million.

4. Afghanistan’s key export partners for almonds are mostly neighboring countries (table
4.2). Pakistan imports almost 60 percent of Afghanistan’s almonds, whereas India imports nearly
40 percent. They are followed by small importers in the Middle East, including Iran, UAE,
Turkey, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia. The key export partners for in-shell almonds are also Pakistan
(accounting for 76 percent of the trade value) and India (24 percent), according to UN Comtrade
statistics.

57
Table A2.1: World’s top 11 almond exporters, 2006–09
Exporter Trade %
value
(US$ m)
USA 7,218 70.1
Spain 963 9.3
Australia 276 2.6
China 237 2.3
Germany 191 1.9
Italy 183 1.8
Belgium 164 1.6
Netherlands 160 1.6
Chile 130 1.3
United Arab Emirates 113 1.1
Afghanistan 110 1.1
Other 561 5.4
Total 10,301 100
Source: UN Comtrade database.

Table A2.2: Major importers of Afghan almonds, 2006–09

Importer Trade %
value 1.6% 1.1% 0.5%0.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Pakistan
(US$)
Pakistan 63.3 m 57.7 India
India 42.6 m 38.8
Iran 1.7 m 1.6
United Arab Emirates 1.2 m 1.1 38.8% Iran
Turkey 0.5 m 0.5
57.7%
Iraq 0.3 m 0.3 United Arab
Saudi Arabia 10,000 0.0 Emirates
United Kingdom 3,062 0.0
Germany 2,300 0.0 Turkey
Canada 1,204 0.0
Total 110 m 100
Source: UN Comtrade database.

5. Germany imports the largest share of almonds (accounting for 15.4 percent of imports),
followed by Spain (almost 10 percent) and India (8.7 percent) (UN Comtrade statistics). The EU
accounts for approximately 45 percent of global almond imports, while Asia and the Middle East
combined import about 44 percent of the trade value (Derco Foods 2009). UN Comtrade
statistics indicate that India is the world’s single-largest importer of in-shell almonds (60
percent); its import partners are the USA (82.1 percent), Australia (14.0 percent), Afghanistan
(2.6 percent), and Pakistan (0.8 percent). Indian consumers consider Afghan almond varieties to
be of higher quality.

58
Table A2.3: World’s top 10 almond importers, 2006–09
Importer Trade %
value
(US$ m) Germany
Germany 1,475 15.4 15.4% Spain
Spain 934 9.7
India 838 8.7 31.9% India
France 621 6.5 9.7% France
Italy 599 6.2
Japan 526 5.5 8.7% Italy
China 498 5.2 Japan
Canada 381 4.0 3.0%
Netherlands 365 3.8 China
3.8% 6.5%
United Kingdom 292 3.0 Canada
Other 3,057 31.9 4.0% 5.2% 5.5% 6.2%
Total 9,585 100
Source: UN Comtrade database.

A2.2 Almond Value Chain

6. Production Process. Almonds are native to Afghanistan and have been commercially
exported for decades. They are sold in-shell as well as shelled (as kernels). Almonds are highly
nutritious, highly caloric, and rich in calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. For Afghanistan,
almonds are one of the highest-value cash crops after grapes and raisins. MRRD estimates
production was around 15,000 tons in 2008/09 (MRRD 2007).

7. The major production locations are in the North, in Parwan (particularly Ghorband
District), Balkh, Kunduz, and Samangan Provinces. Balkh Province alone is thought to produce
approximately 5,500 tons. In these areas, the almond season stretches from July until the end of
September. Almond trees require five years of growth before bearing fruit and two additional
years to reach full maturity. Smallholders usually intercrop almonds with other crops in the
family orchards. Afghanistan produces more than 60 widely recognized almond varieties, but
few are true varieties (that is, varieties developed, propagated, and released through a formal,
specialized breeding process). The most popular types grown for high-end domestic and export
markets are the soft-shelled almonds, Satar Bai, Qahar Bai, Kilki Arous, Qambari, Kaf Mal, and
Khairu Din, which are sold unshelled (almonds are sold either unshelled or as shelled kernels, in
a ratio of approximately two to one). In the domestic market, almonds are used to make nakul
(sugared almonds), a popular snack (MRRD 2007).

8. Role of Women. As noted, women are extensively involved in the early stages of the
almond value chain. They water and weed in the orchards, harvest the almonds, clean them
(removing the outer hull), dry them, and pack them in large sacks in the orchards. These
producers do very little or no sorting or grading. Companies in or near urban areas hire women to
sort, grade, and package almonds for domestic and export markets. Almonds are traded by
companies that process dried fruits and nuts, including a few women-owned companies (such as
APA) that hire female sales agents and village traders to purchase almonds directly from women
producers.

59
9. Key Actors in the Almond Value Chain. The key actors include input suppliers,
farmers, middlemen and village-level traders, wholesalers and processors, and retailers and
exporters. Their interactions are described in figure A2.1.

Figure A2.1: Almond subsector map

End Support
market Imports markets
Domestic/local Market Exports
Post-harvest
processing
(takes place at
two levels)

Retailers Packaging,
Retailers some shelling
and sorting
MFIs/
banks

W holesalers Shelling,
Wholesalers/processors/exporters cleaning, and
sorting Extension
support

Middlemen/ Village traders, agents,

trading
farmers groups/associations

Production
Small producers Medium producers Large producers

Inputs
Input suppliers (saplings, fertilizers and other)
Women’s level of involvement:
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW to NONE

Source: MEDA.

10. Input suppliers. Private shopkeepers, Ag-Depots,57 and farm stores sell inputs, including
fertilizer and pesticide. Cash payment is expected for goods and services, although shopkeepers
may offer some informal, short-term credit. Access to appropriate extension services is limited.
Farmers commonly use a standard fertilizer mix that cannot accommodate the specific needs of
specific crops. Almonds, for example, require a higher ratio of nitrogen and potassium to
phosphorus than is found in standard fertilizer blends.58 Retailers frequently receive inquiries on
input use from farmers, despite extension support provided by MAIL projects and aid agencies.
There are few or no women input suppliers.

11. Commercial nurseries operate in Afghanistan, but only a few provide high-quality
saplings, and their marketing to farmers is poorly organized. MAIL projects, such as HLP and
the EU-supported Perennial Horticulture Development Project (PHDP), are developing this
subsector, for example by identifying high-quality varieties for introduction to Mother Stock
Nurseries, where they can be multiplied to provide foundation stocks. Commercial nurseries are
being organized into associations around Mother Stock Nurseries, which will provide bud wood
and root stocks of the foundation stock to the associations.

57
Input suppliers supported by USAID/Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program (ASAP).
58
Future Harvest Consortium to Rebuild Agriculture in Afghanistan (2003:15).

60
12. Producers. Most almond producers own about 2 jeribs of land, on which they produce
almonds along with a variety of other crops (such as pomegranates, alfalfa, 59 wheat, or
vegetables). The small harvest from these farms is sold to the local fresh (open) market or to
village-level traders. Almond production requires substantial access to water, and the water
management has been an issue among farmers. Some almonds are harvested prematurely
because farmers lack extension advice about the best time to begin harvesting. Most almonds are
sold at harvest; farmers need the cash, and few storage facilities are suitable to maintain quality.
Sales largely take place in cash, although credit is available from the village-level traders on an
informal basis. Some medium- and large-scale farmers produce almonds more extensively as a
cash crop. They are likely to have adequate cash and liquidity in the short term and can store
almonds for several months after the harvest for off-season trade. Larger-scale farmers usually
have direct links to the wholesale market and exporters.

13. According to HLP, the average almond yield obtained in project-supported households
was about 350 kilograms per jerib. Yields differed only slightly between all HLP farmers and
smallholders (those with less than 2–3 jeribs), who constitute about 70 percent of HLP almond
farmers. Only 55 percent of HLP almond farmers produced almonds in 2009, as some orchards
were newly established by the project; the corresponding figure for smallholders was 40 percent.
In contrast to grape producers, who managed to sell just about half of their crop, HLP almond
farmers sold as much as 80 percent of their harvest, although smallholders sold 25 percent less of
their production than all HLP farmers combined. Sales prices ranged from Af 35 to Af 500 per
kilogram. This wide gap results from quality differences. The sale price of low-quality almonds
is estimated at around Af 80–100 (approximately US$ 1.50–2.00) per kilogram, whereas high-
quality almonds bring around Af 180–200 (about US$ 3.50–4.00) per kilogram (table A2.4).
Household income for all HLP farmers and for HLP smallholders also differed, by 27 percent.60

Table A2.4: Differences in almond yields, sales volumes, and income among HLP producer households
All HLP producer HLP smallholders Difference
households (2 jeribs or less)
Almond yield (kg/jerib) 354 342 12 (3.4%)
Sales (kg/household) 214 161 53 (24.8%)
Income from almonds (Af/household) 37,656 27,528 10,128 (26.9%)
(about US$ 753) (about US$ 551) (about US$ 203)
Source: HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey 2009.

14. Women perform many production and processing tasks on the farm but do not shell
almonds, although shelled almonds fetch prices that are 60–70 percent higher throughout the
value chain (table A2.5). Producers lack equipment to shell almonds without cracking them. HLP
supports extension services for women’s producer groups, yet women’s opportunities for training
or extension advice are limited. Men market the crop. Some travel to the local market to sell
small quantities of almonds themselves, but most sell their produce to village-level traders.

59
Alfalfa is an excellent livestock forage crop. Harvested three times a season, it is high in protein and replenishes
soil nutrients.
60
Based on data from the HLP Outcome Monitoring Survey, 2009. The sample consisted of 530 HLP-supported
households, 55 percent of which own almond orchards.

61
15. Middlemen and traders. Local or village-level traders buy almonds directly from
farmers, sometimes in advance of the harvest (farmers are paid a discounted advance and can
sometimes wait a year before completion of payment). The traders are farmers’ sole link to the
market, and traders set the prices, which vary depending on the season, quality of produce, and
variety of almond. This minimal contact with the market leaves farmers with little bargaining
power or knowledge of pricing, quality, or consumer preferences. Nor do farmers know if or
when traders are likely to come, because they travel to villages on a random basis, depending on
market needs. Sometimes part of the harvest is lost if traders do not come to the village.

16. Some aggregation occurs at this level, before almonds are sold to secondary wholesale
traders for export or to wholesale fruit and nut markets (mandvi) in urban centers. Varieties
(including sweet and bitter almonds) are mixed during farm-to-farm collection, and sometimes
stones are added to increase the weight. Traders and middlemen typically have low capacity for
cleaning, sorting, and packing. The price at which middlemen and village traders sell to
wholesalers at the mandvi is estimated at Af 120–150 (approximately US$ 2.50–3.00) per
kilogram for low-quality almonds and Af 200–250 (about US$ 4.00–5.00) per kilogram for high-
quality almonds (table A2.5). Few or no women work as middlemen or village-level traders.
Women cannot lift the large bags (35–105 kilograms) into which almonds are packed for
transport.

17. Wholesalers. As noted, wholesalers source almonds from middlemen and village-level
traders through the mandvi, where almonds imported from the USA are also sold. Processing at
this level includes shelling, sorting, grading, and packaging. Sorting is one of the key activities
occurring at the wholesale level and above, owing to the significant mixing of varieties by
farmers, middlemen, and village traders. Among small wholesalers, processing is an informal
service provided by women family members. Quality control is limited and inconsistent, and no
attention is paid to hygiene.

18. Processing companies, exporters, and/retailers. Almond-processing companies, like

companies processing grapes and raisins, usually export to Pakistan and/or India and/or sell
produce at their own retail shops in urban centers. These companies either contract directly with
owners of large farms, hire their own agents to buy almonds from producers, or contract village-
level traders to buy from farmers. The companies employ women to sort, grade, and package
almonds (at about Af 2 per kilogram), but women do not seem to shell almonds (one processing
company specifically indicated that women do not shell almonds). One reason that this potential
value-adding step is not taken may be that equipment for shelling is unavailable or inadequate,
and high-quality, soft-shelled almonds are exported in-shell to prevent damage that would reduce
their value. Processing companies and exporters have made some trial shipments to the UK,
Germany, and Canada, but Afghan almonds have yet to reach the high HACCP standards and
certification required for exporting to these markets.

19. About five private Dried Fruits Associations of processors and traders operate in key
export provinces, including Kabul, Kunduz, Balkh, Kandahar, and Jalalabad. The Mazar Sharif
Balkh Dry Fruits Processing Association (MBDFA), for example, trades almonds (which
account for half of their sales), raisins (20 percent of sales), and other products.61 Exports
61
The remaining 30 percent of sales come from pistachios, walnuts, sesame seeds, cumin, other spices, and herbs.

62
account for 70 percent of their sales. The association, which has been registered with MAIL
since 2009, has more than 150 active wholesalers (all men) who own shops in the Mazar
Mandvi. The association has a working relationship with transportation companies, which
facilitate exports and assure delivery of products to Pakistan. Some associations participate in
AAIDO, formed with support from HLP and MAIL to improve marketable production and
returns to almond farmers. AAIDO encompasses eight producer associations, four associations
of traders and exporters, and six nursery associations, including two associations of women
producers in Daykundi and Balkh Provinces.

20. Value Added at Each Stage in the Chain. Table 4.5 provides a snapshot of possible
margins along the value chain, based on data collected from value-chain players in Kabul and
Mazar. Figures 4.2–4.4 depict costs and sales at each stage of the value chains for (i) high-
quality, unshelled almonds; (ii) medium-quality, shelled and unshelled almonds; and (iii) low-
quality, shelled and unshelled almonds.62 Because this information is drawn from a very small
sample, it is only broadly indicative of actual costs and prices; the limited scope of the study
precluded obtaining average general costs and sales prices. It is not clear that farmers reported all
of the input costs of bringing a crop to maturity. Even so, AAIDO verified the data, which was
similar to information collected in a 2007 study of the almond subsector (MRRD 2007).

Table A2.5: Prices and costs along the value chain for almonds
Production and processing facts:
 Average cost by area: Af 40,000/ha or Af 8,000/jerib (HLP data)
 Average harvest by area: 1,400 kg/ha or 280 kg/jerib
 Average production cost: Af 29/kg (for high-quality almonds)
 High-quality varieties include Satar Bai, Bela Bai, and Qambari (sold in-shell for export)
 Medium-quality varieties include Qahar Bai, Khairodini, and Adbul Wahidi (some production exported in-
shell and some sold domestically without shells)
 Low-quality varieties are hard-shelled and not destined for export
 Shelling done by large wholesalers
High quality Medium quality Low quality
with shells With shells Unshelled With shells Unshelled
Producers
Cost 29 25 20
Selling price 180–200 120–150 80–100
Village traders, agents, farmer groups, associations
Buying price 180–200 120–150 100–120
Selling price 200–250 150–180 120–150
Large wholesalers
Buying price 200–250 150–180 150–180 120–150 120–150
Selling price 300–550 180–200 300–360 150–180 200–250
Exporters
Buying price 300–550 180–200 300–360 150–180 200–250
Selling price 600–800 250–450 400–600 180–200 250–300
Retailers
Buying price 300–550 180–200 300–360 150–180 200–250
Selling price 600–700 250–400 400–600 200–250 250–350
Source: Prices taken from the interviews with value chain actors and verified with AAIDO, July 2010.
Note: Amounts are per kilogram; prices in US$ (US$ 1 = Af 44); 1 jerib = 0.49 acres or 2,000 m2 (approximately); 1 ser = 7 kg.

62
Values are based on pricing information obtained for almonds (in and off season) and reflect the midpoint of each
price range in the pricing chart.

63
 Figure A2.2: Value chain: High-quality, in-shell almonds

Source: MEDA.
Note: Values are based on pricing information obtained for almonds (in season and off season)
and reflect the midpoint of each price range in the figure.
Figure A2.3: Value chain: Medium-quality, shelled and in-shell almonds Figure A2.4: Value chain: Low-quality, shelled and in-shell almonds
900 600
800
500
700
Unshelled
600 Almonds 400
500 Buying
300 Unshelled
400 cost/price
Unshelled Almonds
300 200 Buying
Almonds
200 cost/price
Selling price
100 100
-
-

Source: MEDA. Source: MEDA.

Note: Values are based on pricing information obtained for almonds (in season and Note: Values are based on pricing information obtained for almonds (in season and
off season) and reflect the midpoint of each price range in the figure. off season) and reflect the midpoint of each price range in the figure.
64
A2.3 Overall Constraints in the Almond Value Chain

21. The almond value chain presents three key constraints: (i) limited access to high-quality
inputs and supplies; (ii) overall lack of access to extension services; and (iii) lack of market
information at the lower levels in the chain, specifically among producers, middlemen, and
village traders. The constraints tree (figure 4.5) highlights some of the other main challenges that
Afghan value chain actors face in producing and selling higher volumes of almonds to high-end
domestic and export markets. Women-specific challenges are highlighted in yellow.

22. Limited Access to Quality Inputs and Supplies. The overall lack of access to inputs of
good quality, including saplings and appropriate fertilizer mixes, affects yields. Despite the
development of Mother Stock Nurseries, Ag-Depots, and other input supply stores, input
supplies remain limited, and outreach to farmers is difficult because of poor transport facilities in
rural areas.

23. No Access to Extension Services. HLP and other projects seek to provide extension
services to almond producers, but focus group interviews in Balkh Province indicated that
outreach was still limited. The lack of extension advice affects yields because farmers do not
always know the best alternatives for managing almond production, such as which specific
fertilizer mix to apply or how to avoid premature harvesting, which reduces the quality of the
almonds.

24. Lack of Market Information at Lower Value Chain Levels. Producers, middlemen,
and village-level traders do not have access to market information and are unaware of the quality
premiums on particular almond varieties. As a result, middlemen and traders mix the varieties
they collect from village to village. The produce must subsequently be sorted and graded by
wholesalers.

25. Limited and Expensive Access to Markets from Rural Areas. As in the grape and
raisin value chains, most farmers, middlemen, and village traders have few means to transport
produce to the nearest market. Almonds are generally packed in sacks, which men bring to the
nearest market or sell to middlemen or village traders. Men belonging to almond producer
associations sometimes share transport costs and sell their produce together in the nearest
market.

26. Poor Quality Control and Post-harvest Handling. Throughout the value chain, shelled
almonds are priced 60–70 percent higher than unshelled almonds, except for the highest-quality
soft-shelled almonds. Producers are aware that shelled almonds fetch a higher price, yet
producers, middlemen, village traders, and even most wholesalers at the mandvi lack appropriate
equipment for shelling. Moreover, as in the raisin value chain, producers’ awareness of sanitation
and quality issues is low, especially when sun-dried, in-shell almonds are collected in bags.
Facilities capable of preserving produce at cooler temperatures and higher levels of humidity
throughout the value chain are unavailable.

65
Figure A2.5: Constraints tree: Almonds

Low volumes of high-quality product for medium and high-end consumers and export markets

Poor production yields Lack of business Poor quality control Lack of access to market Lack of access to formal
management capacity and consistency information for producers regional and global trade
and small-scale processors network

Lack of Traders provide Poor knowledge of Trade Lack of trade

awareness Pests and Premature Lack of Lack of all value added market research by Associations infrastructure
of modern diseases harvesting access to business services farmers have weak
production appropriate management market links
techniques financial training for
services for small Lack of market
farmers and enterprises linkages for value
traders chain actors
Poor Lack of
transportation enforcement
means of trade rules
Lack access to Lack of
good-quality relevant
inputs knowledge Lack of storage Poor quality of Lack of mechanized Lack of
facilities processing processing facilities consumer-friendly
techniques packaging Limited
access to
registration
Effects and
Lack of knowledge certification
Limited and technical skills processes
availability of on packaging
extension Poor processing knowledge and
services technical skills

Causes Lack of access to

inputs

Root causes
Post-conflict War-ravaged Lack of laws Segregation Weak Weak Innumeracy Competition
and Security nut orchards on land of women infrastructure organization and illiteracy from imports
ownership of community and
rights, for economic international
particularly for development market
women

Source: MEDA.
Note: Constraints that significantly limit women’s involvement in higher levels of the value chain are highlighted in yellow.
66
27. Lack of Appropriate Financing Services. Inputs that could improve processing
capacity and skills are lacking, including processing and packaging equipment, partly because
farmers and traders cannot access appropriate financial services. MFIs provide services in urban
and provincial centers and beyond, yet farmers and processors generally perceive loans, in
particular the charging of interest, to be un-Islamic. Yet producers could benefit greatly from
loans, given that almond saplings take five years to start producing nuts and an additional two
years to reach full maturity.

28. Lack of Formal Export Support. Trade associations, including AAIDO, have
developed weak links to high-end international markets, such as EU countries (particularly
Germany and Spain), Japan, and China. Prospects for exporting more in-shell almonds to India
should also be explored. India is the second largest importer of Afghan almonds, but the trade
with Afghanistan accounts for only 2.6 percent of India’s trade values for in-shell almonds. The
physical infrastructure to support trade is lacking, from transport facilities to access roads for
urban centers or even the local market. The regulatory infrastructure is also weak: Trade rules are
not enforced, and it is difficult for producers and processors to become registered or certified. As
mentioned in the grape/raisin case, EPAA and ACCI have started providing formal support to
facilitate exports to lucrative international markets, including the issuance of certificates of
origin.

A2.4 Constraints and Opportunities for Women in the Almond Value Chain

29. Women’s role in village trade has been very small, but the number of women village
traders or sales agents is increasing. A few women are involved at the wholesale, processing, and
export stage of the value chain. For example, APA sold approximately 350 kilograms of almonds
to members of the dried fruit and nut union in 2009; all of this produce was sourced from women
(see box 3.3). As noted, men in the almond value chain, like their counterparts in the grape/raisin
chain, act as the key link between the household and market, purchasing inputs, selling almonds
to middlemen and village-level traders, or traveling to the local market to sell produce.

30. Constraints Specific to Women. The key constraint, as in the grape/raisin value chain,
appears to be the lack of women-to-women service delivery at every stage of the value chain,
from the field to the wholesale market. The lack of extension advice for women to improve the
quality of produce affects quality control at every stage in the value chain. Key limitations on
women’s involvement, especially at higher stages of the value chain, resemble those discussed in
the previous chapter and include:

 Limited access to transport. Women generally have no access to public transportation

without a male escort, but major almond-growing areas in the North, such as Balkh
Province, are relatively open. In these places, women could possibly travel to the market,
most likely in groups.
 Limited or no market information. Women-to-women interactions are limited
throughout the value chain. Because men tend to occupy the positions of input suppliers,
middlemen, traders, and processors, few women are allowed to interact with them and
must rely on the men in their families for extension and market information.
 Little extension support for post-harvest processing. Little or no extension advice on
post-harvest handling is available in rural areas, in particular information on aspects of
67
 quality control in which women are substantially involved, such as sanitation, sorting,
grading, and packing.
 Access to shelling equipment. Women producers, who are intensively involved in post-
harvest handling, as well as women wage laborers in wholesale markets or processing
centers, do not shell almonds because they lack equipment.
 Lack of appropriate financing services. MFIs have few women loan officers and often
provide loans that require collateral. Without support from the men in the family, who
usually hold the title to land, rural women have very limited or no access to agricultural
financial products.

31. Figure 4.6 identifies constraints specific to women in moving up the almond value chain.
The barriers vary with respect to the different positions in the chain, as discussed later, but they
resemble those found in the grape/ raisin value chain: a moderate barrier exists in moving from
producer to middleman/trader, whereas significant barriers exist in moving from
middleman/trader to wholesaler/processor or from wholesaler/processor to retailer/exporter.

Figure A2.6: Gender constraints in the almond subsector

Imports

Domestic/Local Market Exports Support Markets

Post Harvest/
Processing (takes
place at two
levels)

Retailers Packaging, some

shelling and
sorting
MFIs/Banks

Shelling, cleaning
Wholesalers/Processors/Exporters and sorting
Barriers/ Extension
Constraints for Support
Women

Significant
barriers Village Traders/Agents/
Farmers Groups/Associations
Moderate
barriers

Minor barriers

Medium Large Farm

Small Farmers/Producers
Producers Owners

Women’s Level of
Involvement:

High
Medium Input Suppliers (nurseries, fertilizers, etc.)
Low to None

Source: Adapted from Mayoux and Mackie (2009) and USAID (2010)
Note: The shaded (pink) area illustrates the most promising value chain. Barrier icons highlight constraints for women to move up the value
chain, icon color indicating the degree of the barrier: Yellow = a minor barrier, orange = a moderate barrier, and red = a significant barrier. Based
on analysis of qualitative data, barriers were determined to be not applicable (for example, if women were not involved in a given role, upgrading
to the next level was deemed irrelevant); minor (affecting women slightly more than men, typically as a result of socio-cultural norms); moderate
(affecting women much more than men, although some women have overcome the barriers); or significant (affecting women much more than
men, and no woman has overcome the barrier to move up the value chain). Barriers are indicated only for the most promising value chain
(highlighted in pink) and for positions in which women are involved (with green and purple shading indicating women’s level of involvement).
68
32. Opportunities for Women in the Almond Value Chain. It is critical to facilitate
women-to-women service delivery at every stage of the value chain by developing a pool of
women para-professionals to supply inputs; offer extension advice in production, post-harvest
handling, and quality control; and improve women’s access to credit and/or market linkages.
Women-to-women service delivery would also improve through the social mobilization of
women producer associations, which would facilitate greater access to services by reducing
transaction costs. Finally, investments in women-owned and -operated processing centers at the
village or cluster level, supplied with technology for shelling almonds, would enhance the
quality of produce, foster women-to-women learning, and increase producers’ incomes.

 Women community extension workers. Female extension workers would facilitate

women’s access to extension services, skills, and knowledge, thereby improving their
overall production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling capacity.
 Post-harvest handling and quality control. In the almond value chain, it is essential that
women receive extension information on post-harvest handling and knowledge related to
marketing their produce more successfully, particularly knowledge of high-quality
varieties, sanitation (such as the use of mats in drying almonds), sorting, and grading.
 Access to credit through women agents. Women farmers have shown interest in
accessing credit, particularly to buy saplings and shelling equipment. The limited supply
of agricultural loans (especially loans with an extended grace period to account for the
long lags in almond production) and social barriers (including limits on interaction and
mobility) make access to credit a challenge. Through additional financial services and the
increased presence of female officers, women could upgrade their methods and improve
their productivity.
 Mobilization of women producer associations. Women producer associations are being
formed through MAIL and donor projects. Aside from offering a platform for extension
services in post-harvest handling, women’s producer groups/associations have
opportunities to undertake collective activities such as setting up collection points with
low-tech primary storage facilities to enable off-season trade.

33. At the wholesaler/processor level, some opportunities for women are emerging as
middlemen, traders, and processors (APA, which processes and sells almonds to members of the
dried fruit and nut exporters union, is a good example).

 Market access through women middlemen/village traders and input suppliers. Very
few women occupy these roles, but there is an opportunity for their numbers to increase.
Middlemen and village-level traders (women and men alike) would benefit from training
in the different varieties of almonds, their market value, and the importance of separating
rather than mixing varieties. Women center supervisors at APA play a significant role in
quality control and could potentially train women producers in improved sorting and
grading practices.
 Development of women-owned processing centers. Women in urban centers are
predominantly involved in cleaning and sorting almonds for wholesalers and processors.
The investment in women-owned and -managed processing centers could affect women’s
positions within the value chain significantly.

69
A2.5 Conclusion: Adding Value to Almonds to Benefit Women and the Value Chain

34. Afghanistan is a significant exporter of almonds and has considerable potential to

increase its exports, especially to India. Some Afghan processing companies and exporters have
made trial shipments to the EU, another large importer of almonds, but quality improvements are
needed to meet the HACCP standards that apply in this lucrative market.

35. At the producer level, extension services are becoming available but are not yet
widespread, and farmers remain largely unaware of important management issues such as the
correct mix of fertilizer to apply and the need to avoid premature harvesting. Farmers as well as
middlemen and traders would benefit from important market information, such as the quality and
price differences in varieties, which would discourage them from mixing varieties during village-
to-village collections. (At the wholesale level, a key means of adding value is to sort sweet and
bitter almonds.) Another constraint specific to the almond value chain is the lack of appropriate
agricultural credit packages. Almond producers need forms of credit adapted to sharia and the
long agricultural cycle.

117. Given women’s strong roles as producers and processors in the early stages of the value
chain, opportunities to improve productivity and quality control in the almond value chain (and
for women to move up within the chain) seem to depend greatly on improving women-to-women
service delivery. One alternative would be to develop a pool of women para-professionals to
provide high-quality inputs and supplies, offer extension advice and market information, act as
traders and sales agents, and deliver financial services. Social mobilization of women producer
associations would open other avenues for women to move up in the value chain, not only by
facilitating women-to-women service delivery but by enabling group activities such as travel to
markets and purchases of shelling equipment.

70
 Annex 3
Saffron Value Chain
1. Unlike grapes, raisins, and almonds, which are regaining their shares in world export
markets, saffron is relatively a new crop for Afghanistan and is mostly informally traded with
Iran. Production has yet to reach economies of scale, but if this hurdle can be overcome, saffron
clearly has potential as a high-value regional and international export. Although data on this
emerging and informal subsector are scarce and inconsistent, sufficient information is available
to indicate saffron’s prospects as a lucrative alternative to opium poppies, and the crop has
received a high level of support from the government, donors, and NGOs.

2. Women’s involvement in saffron production largely occurs in harvesting (in which

flowers are collected) and post-harvest processing (in which the stigmas are separated from the
flowers and dried). Prospects for women to advance along the supply chain could improve with
the development of women producer associations along the lines of two associations that are
emerging with support from NGOs. These associations undertake collective activities such as the
management of processing units with electric dryers and the pilot marketing of saffron in India.

A3.1 Global Trends in Saffron Production, Consumption, and Exports

3. Saffron is an expensive commodity, highly valued for the vibrant color, aroma, and flavor
it imparts to food. World saffron production is estimated at around 200 tons per year. The largest
producer is Iran, followed by Spain. Iranian production has grown at a fast pace in the last 10 or
so years, while Spain’s is in decline. According to UN Comtrade statistics, the total export value
of saffron is US$ 377 million, almost 80 percent of which is earned by Spain and Iran. Other
exporters include Switzerland, France, Netherlands, the USA, UAE, and Japan (table 5.1).

Table A3.1: World’s top saffron exporters, 2006–09

Exporter Trade value (US$ m) %
Spain 209 55.4
Iran 86 22.9
Other 82 21.8
Total 377
Source: UN Comtrade database.

4. Spain is the world’s largest importer of saffron, followed by Italy and the USA (table
A3.2). Virtually all (95 percent) of Spain’s imports are sourced from Iran. In the past 20 years,
area planted to saffron in Iran grew by an average of 25 percent per year but fell considerably in
Spain.63 Spain increased it saffron exports by 150 percent between 2006 and 2009, however, by
increasing its imports from Iran by 250 percent.64 The shift from Spain to Iran as the world’s
largest saffron producer seems to have been accompanied by a tenfold increase in the
international market price: According to a US retailer, saffron was traded at around US$ 300 per
kilogram in 1999 but was trading at approximately US$ 3,000 per kilogram by 2009.

63
According to the Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR)
64
UN Comtrade statistics. See also Wyeth and Malik (2007).
71
Table A3.2: World’s top 10 saffron importers, 2006–09
Importer Trade %
Spain
value
(US$
m) Italy
Spain 175 29.9 17.1%
2.8%
Italy 91 15.6 29.9%
USA 43 7.3 3.5% USA
France 33 5.7
3.6%
Sweden 33 5.6 France
Switzerland 28 4.8 4.1%
Argentina 24 4.1
15.6% Sweden
United Arab Emirates 21 3.6 4.8%
Japan 20 3.5 7.3%
5.6%
United Kingdom 16 2.8 Switzerland
Other 100 17.1 5.7%
Total $584
Source: UN Comtrade database.

5. Afghanistan is yet to emerge as a key saffron exporter, producing only about 1,500
kilograms in 2009. According to UN Comtrade statistics, Afghanistan exported saffron valued at
US$ 160,000 between 2006 and 2008 to partners including Spain (81 percent of exports), Italy
(15 percent), India (2 percent), and the USA (2 percent)—figures that do not include the informal
exports to Iran.

A3.2 Saffron Value Chain

6. Production Process. Saffron is produced mostly in Herat Province, bordering Iran,

especially in Pashtoon Zarghoon and Ghoryan Districts. Limited quantities are produced in the
eastern provinces (Maidan Wardak, Logar, Kunduz, and Parwan) on a pilot basis. Saffron is the
dried red stigma of the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), which grows from a bulb (corm). Saffron
is highly labor intensive to produce because of the effort involved in harvesting and processing.
Flowers must be handpicked early in the morning as soon as they open. The stigmas are carefully
separated from the blossoms, one by one, and then dried and packed to maintain their aroma.
Saffron cultivation started in early 2000 in Afghanistan, when returnees from Iran brought the
bulbs to Herat. Saffron does not compete for labor with other crops, such as cotton, rice, and
wheat, because bulbs are planted in March/April and flowers harvested and processed in
October/November. Saffron production has grown by 25 times from 2004 (60 kilograms) to 2009
(1,500 kilograms). According to the Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR),
about 200 kilograms of saffron are sold locally in Herat City, with the remainder entering formal
or informal trade channels through exporters in Herat.

7. Role of Women. Rural women are involved in growing but most especially in harvesting
and processing saffron. Women producers process saffron at the village level (they are more
likely to do so if they or their husbands participate in a producer association), and women in
Herat City also work as wage laborers at saffron processing centers owned by exporters. At least
two saffron producer associations for women operate in Herat Province, providing women with
bulbs, processing units with dryers, and collective marketing services.

72
8. Key Actors in the Saffron Value Chain. The key actors are input suppliers (including
bulb and input traders), farmers, middlemen and village-level traders, wholesalers, processing
companies, exporters, and retailers. NGOs have provided substantial support in input supply,
social mobilization, extension services, and marketing for this relatively young industry, 65 in
which the emerging producer associations play a key role at each stage of the value chain. At
least seven such associations participate, with about 1,500 farmers; these include the two
women-only associations, with their 750 members. Figure A3.1 maps the interactions among
value chain actors.

Figure A3.1: Saffron subsector map

Support
End Market Markets
Domestic consumers Informal export Imports Post-harvest
Post-harvest /
processing
Processing:
(takes place at
various levels)
Retailers Domestic retailers Informal exporters Packaging
Packaging**

Extension
Drying
Drying of
Flower traders stigmas
Stigmas
Wholesalers / Saffron Saffron traders (mostly
(mostly
traders associations (stigmas) (saffron dyes) electric),
electric)**,
sorting,
Sorting**,
packaging
Packaging**
MFIs
banks

Separating
Separating
stigmafrom
stigma from
Small producers Large producers flower petals
flower for
Producers for saffron
saffron
product
product***orordye
product (some
dye product***
solar drying)
(respectively);
solar drying***

NGOs, donor
Bulb and Traders
input
agencies, Women’s level of involvement:

traders agricultural HIGH

ministries MEDIUM
LOW to NONE

Input Afghan bulb Iranian bulb Other input

suppliers producers producers suppliers

Source: MEDA.

9. Input suppliers. The main input for saffron cultivation is the bulbs, which are mostly
imported informally from Iran by Afghan saffron traders and sold at around US$ 3–4 per
kilogram in Herat. Bulbs are also available from local farmers between the fourth and seventh
year of cultivation at US$ 4–5 per kilogram. Bulbs produced in Afghanistan are of higher quality
because they are fresher, better adapted to local conditions,66 and less likely to have been
damaged during transport. The bulbs are sold to farmers, other saffron traders, NGOs, the

65
The major NGOs include DACAAR, SDO, HELP, and the National Committee for International Cooperation and
Sustainable Development.
66
Limited quantities of bulbs imported from the Netherlands a few years ago were unsuitable for the harsher Herat
climate.
73
Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT),67 and the Directorate of Agriculture. The agencies
distribute bulbs to farmers for free or as seed capital to be circulated among farmers. Farmers
receive around 10,000 bulbs (or 100 kilograms) per jerib,68 and most farmers also receive
extension advice.69 If farmers purchase bulbs in the market, their investment in the first year for
bulbs alone is around US$ 1,500 per jerib (US$ 7,500 per hectare), if the appropriate planting
density is followed. Other inputs required are fertilizer, fungicide, water, and labor.70 The yearly
investment in these inputs is estimated at around US$ 90 per jerib (US$ 450 per hectare). There
are no women input suppliers.

10. Producers. Smallholders usually cultivate saffron on less than 1.5–2.0 jeribs alongside
other crops such as vegetables or fruit. Larger-scale saffron farmers produce saffron more
intensively on up to 5 jeribs. The bulbs produce flowers up to four to seven years after planting
and multiply about 10 times in the ground. Half of the multiplied bulbs can be replanted or sold.

11. Women undertake planting, weeding, and harvesting where land is visually protected,
and they are also responsible for post-harvest processing. Districts in Herat vary in their levels of
sensitivity to women working outside the home. Of the two saffron-producing districts in Herat,
Ghoryan is relatively more open to women working on farms than Pashtoon Zarghoon, because
returnees’ attitudes became less conservative during their sojourn in Iran. Women are heavily
involved in harvesting saffron from family farms. The plants bloom daily for three weeks
starting in October, and each flower lives for only 48 hours. To enhance the quality of the final
product, the flowers must be picked at dawn as the petals open. In about three hours in the early
morning, a person can collect 3–5 kilograms of flowers. Post-harvest processing then involves
removing the stigmas and drying them at home or at processing units operated by producer
associations. Some 150,000 blossoms, with three stigmas per flower (450,000 stigmas), are
required to make one kilogram of saffron. Small and large landholders hire wage laborers for
harvesting and post-harvest processing at around Af 200–300 per day (US$ 4–6). In homes
without access to electric dryers, women dry stigmas in the open air or over warm charcoal,
techniques that produce the lowest-quality saffron.

12. At the processing units, women (either members of women’s associations or women
relatives of men who participate in producer associations) remove the stigmas and dry them with
electric dryers owned by the association. Dryers are used by members as well as nonmembers in
the villages. Dryers, which are available in Herat City, cost around US$ 500 per unit71 and have
the capacity to dry one kilogram of saffron in 30 minutes. Aside from being a more hygienic way
to dry saffron than leaving it in the open air, dryers significantly improve the final product’s
flavor (by 33 percent) and color (42 percent).72

67
The Italian PRT provided bulbs to one of the women’s producer associations.
68
Or 50,000 bulbs (500 kilograms) per hectare.
69
The ideal planting density is 500–1,000 kilograms of bulbs per jerib (2,500–to 5,000 kilograms per hectare),
according to DACAAR’s saffron production manual (DACAAR undated).
70
Before planting bulbs in March/April, farmers apply animal manure at a rate of approximately 4–6 tons per jerib
(20–30 tons per hectare). Bulbs may be treated with fungicide prior to planting (about 300–500 grams of fungicide
for every 100 kilograms of bulbs). After planting, bulbs require only a single irrigation of 30–40 cubic meters of
water per jerib (150–200 cubic meters per hectare), provided through communal irrigation (DACAAR undated).
71
Quoted by DACAAR in a procurement plan for the women saffron value chain development pilot.
72
Though not its aroma, which is around 20 percent higher if saffron is dried in the open air (DACAAR undated).
74
13. Saffron requires immediate processing after stigmas are separated, and multiple dryers
are required; for example, three dryers are shared by 120 women in an association to produce 6
kilograms of saffron harvested from 3 jeribs (0.6 hectares). Producer associations sell the
processed saffron to traders and wholesalers at around Af 1,700–2,000 per kilogram, and the
associations are also emerging as exporters in their own right through participation in trade fairs.
Saffron is packaged in small containers of 1–5 grams, which are available in local markets at
approximately US$ 0.50 per container.

14. Box 3.3 (in the main report) describes the experiences of two producer associations for
women. One, located in a district bordering Iran, is more amenable to women’s education and
work outside the home. The other is based in a district that is relatively more conservative about
women’s activities. These differing attitudes create differences in opportunities for saffron
financing and marketing.

15. Middlemen and traders. Middlemen and traders either buy flowers prior to processing or
purchase saffron (dried stigmas) from farmers. Flowers are sold to traders at around US$ 24 per
kilogram and then sold to the processing companies and exporters for processing. Saffron is also
sold to processing companies and exporters, wholesalers, and/or retailers at around Af 2,000–
3,000 per kilogram. There are few or no women middlemen/traders.

16. Processing companies, wholesalers, and exporters. At least eight saffron processing
companies and exporters operate in Herat.73 At processing centers in Herat City, women work as
wage laborers to remove stigmas from flowers, dry stigmas, and package saffron for export.
Some traders sell the flowers without stigmas to Iran to produce dyes. Processors and
associations in Herat City sell packaged saffron at US$ 3,500–5,000 per kilogram to export
markets such as Iran, Spain and Italy. DACAAR explains that the high sales price results from
the improved handling, cleanliness, and packaging at the processor/association level, but it may
be that the supply of Afghan saffron is still limited.

17. Retailers. Saffron is not commonly used in Afghan food. Retailers sell saffron in the
Herat City market at around US$ 4,000–7,000 per kilogram (table 5.3). In Kabul, Afghan saffron
is not commonly available, however, since most retailers and the Kabul Mandvi prefer to sell
Iranian or Indian saffron, which is cheaper and imported in 100-gram packets. At US$ 1,500 per
kilogram of packaged saffron, Indian saffron is significantly cheaper (half the price) of
unpackaged Afghan saffron. Iranian saffron is of higher quality than Indian saffron but sells at
less than half the price of Afghan unpackaged saffron (US$ 3,000 per kilogram). While the
reasons for these price differences are unclear, they may be related to the cost structure, quality,
and lower productivity of Afghan saffron production.

18. Value Added at Each Stage of the Chain. Table 5.3 contains pricing information for
saffron produced in Herat and imported for sale in the Kabul Mandvi. These prices are only
indicative; they are a snapshot in time that provides a general overview of the margins that each
value chain actor is earning as well as the potential income that could be gained by upgrading
within the value chain. Information on prices of Herat saffron was gathered from DACAAR in

73
They are Khorshid Saffron, Afghan Zafaran, Afghan Red Gold, Hamidzay International, and Faizi’s Saffron
Processing and Production. Additionally, AREDP (supported by the World Bank and implemented by MRRD) is
developing three small and medium enterprises.
75
July 2010. As noted, the large difference in prices of Herat saffron and the saffron imported from
Iran and India could not fully be explained. The information in the table thus merely indicates
that value chain actors have opportunities to earn higher incomes if they can improve post-
harvest handling and processing, including wider use of electric dryers and packaging. Figure
A3.2 illustrates costs and sales at each stage of the saffron value chain.

Table A3.3: Prices of imported and domestically produced saffron, Afghanistan, 2010
Saffron production facts:
Average cost/kg: US$ 245 (APPRO)a
Average yearly yield: 2 kg dried saffron/jerib (APPRO)
Saffron produced Saffron imported from Saffron imported from
domestically, Iran India
Herat (packaged) (packaged)
Producers
Cost 245
Selling price 1,700–2000
Local middlemen and traders
Buying price 1,700–2,000
Selling price 2,000–3,000
Processors and associations (packaged)b
Buying price 2,000–3,000
Selling price 3,500–5,000
Retailers
Buying price 3,500–5,000 2,000 1,200
Selling price 4,000–7,000 3,000 1,500
Exporters
Buying price 3,500–5,000
Selling price 6,000–15,000
Source: Prices checked and verified by M. Hashim Aslami, Natural Resource Management Specialist, DACAAR, July 2010.
Note: Amounts are per kilogram; prices in US$ (US$ 1 = Af 44); 1 jerib = approximately 0.49 acres (2,000 m2); 1 ser = 7 kg.
a APPRO is the Afghan Public Policy Research Organization.
b DACAAR (undated) reported that in 2008 1 kg of saffron sold at US$ 2,800 at the producer level, at US$ 3,000–5,000 in the
local (Herat) markets, and at US$ 6,000–8,000 for export to the EU and USA.

Figure A3.2: Value chain: Saffron

$12,000

$10,000

$8,000

Buying cost/price
$6,000 Selling price

$4,000

$2,000

$0

ce
rs en or
s
le rs er s
du lem ess tai p ort
Pro idd c Re Ex
lm Pro
ca
Lo

Source: MEDA.

76
A3.3 Overall Constraints in the Saffron Value Chain

19. The Afghan saffron industry is small but growing rapidly, with substantial inputs from
NGOs and donor agencies, including in-kind input supply, social mobilization, extension
services, and support for post-harvest handling and marketing. A key difference between the
saffron value chain and the others under study is that saffron can be transported in a small can or
tin, unlike fresh grapes, raisins, and almonds, which make a large load to sell in a nearby market.
As a result, the key constraints in the saffron value chain differ slightly from those in the other
value chains: Transport is less of an issue than limited access to high-quality inputs, particularly
bulbs, and the lack of formal export support, including certification to facilitate access to high-
end international markets. The constraints tree (figure A3.3) highlights some of the other
challenges that Afghan value chain actors face in producing and selling higher volumes of
saffron in the export market. Women-specific challenges are highlighted in yellow.

20. Limited Access to High-quality Inputs and Supplies. As in the other value chains
studied, high-quality inputs for saffron production are hard to obtain, especially bulbs adapted to
Afghan growing conditions. The rising price of bulbs is another issue; prices rose by 25 percent
between 2007 and 2009. The price increases seem to be driven by increasing interest and demand
from farmers and distributing agencies. Local farmers sell bulbs of better quality at a price 25–30
percent higher than the price of bulbs from Iran, and the increasing demand does not seem to be
met locally. The absence of regulation and quality control for bulbs smuggled from Iran means
that farmers who purchase those bulbs may be unaware of their quality and putting their initial
investment at risk.

21. Lack of Appropriate Financing Services. At the current price for bulbs, the initial
investment in saffron cultivation, if farmers adopt the ideal planting density, is substantial at an
estimated US$ 1,500 per jerib. Farmers would, thus, be bound to a large loan to start producing
saffron, with interest accumulating at 25 percent per year, while saffron would not be profitable
until the second or third year of cultivation. A few MFIs are piloting agricultural loans in
Afghanistan, introducing two- and three-month grace periods to permit farmers to repay loans at
harvest time, but saffron takes eight months from planting to maturity, harvesting, and
processing, and an additional year to become profitable. A saffron-specific loan would have to be
developed to allow farmers to repay the loan in smaller installments after the first harvest (8
months after taking the loan) and in a larger installment after the second harvest (20 months after
taking the loan). A saffron loan package would also have to comply with sharia. Producers’
access to microfinance is also an issue, because saffron-growing districts such as Pashtoon
Zarghoon and Ghoryan are not considered safe for MFIs to function.

22. Access to Extension Services. As saffron is a relatively new crop for Afghanistan,
farmers need extension services, including information on assessing the quality of bulbs and
other specific skills such as bed preparation, row spacing, the timing of irrigation, and the correct
composition and quantity of fertilizer to apply. Not all NGOs or aid agencies provide such
services to farmers when they distribute bulbs. Extension workers with specific training in
saffron production are lacking.

77
Figure A3.3: Constraints tree: Saffron

Low volumes of high-quality product for export markets

Poor production yields Lack of horizontal linkages Poor quality control Lack of access to formal regional
(no aggregation of produce) and global trade networks

Lack of Lack of access to Few active, Limited Limited Little Farmers sun-dry Basic packaging
Trade
awareness of good-quality inputs, well-functional lab delivery to sorting or the saffron with no labeling associations
modern such as bulbs, and farmer groups facilities markets grading instead of electric for differentiation have weak
production technologies for marketing for activities drying or brand links to
techniques quality markets
control,
testing
and
research
Lack of
Limited availability Poor knowledge / market
of extension and lack of training Limited / Lack of access to Lack of local
expensive market information input and linkages to
training support support value chain
transportation such as pricing and technology
means consumer preferences suppliers actors

Lack of local input Lack of Lack of appropriate financing services

and technology appropriate Lack of appropriate financing (MFI loans, financing mechanisms) to
suppliers to rural financing services (MFI loans, financing purchase e.g. electric dryers, packaging
areas services (MFI mechanisms) machinery
loans, financing
mechanisms) to Lack of market
purchase, e.g., linkages to farmers Lack of trade infrastructure
electronic
dryers and Rural farmers do not
packaging all have regular
machineries access to
Limited access Limited / Lack of
traders/middlemen
to registration expensive enforcement
and certification transportation of trade rules
processes means

Root Post-conflict / War-ravaged Segregation of Weak infrastructure and Lack of laws on Innumeracy Competition
causes security farms women weak organization of land ownership and illiteracy from imports
community for economic rights, particularly
development for women

Source: MEDA.
Note: Constraints that significantly limit women’s involvement in higher levels of the value chain are highlighted in yellow.

78
23. Poor Quality Control and Post-harvest Handling. Producers as well as processing and
exporting companies undertake post-harvest activities, which include separating stigmas from
flowers, drying the stigmas, and packing saffron. Farmers are not always aware that stigmas
must be detached from styles or dried by electric dryers for higher quality.74 Nor is there wide
awareness that saffron must be stored in a tightly sealed jar or tin to maintain its flavor and
aroma and permit the product to be sold in the off-season.

24. Limited and Expensive Access to Markets from Rural Areas. Although saffron is
easier to transport than grapes, raisins, and almonds, most farmers, middlemen, and village-level
traders still have few means of transporting it to the nearest market.

25. Lack of Formal Export Support. Overall, actors in the value chain lack information on
the saffron market, including market dynamics and the pricing structure for saffron. Traders from
Iran, Pakistan, UAE, Europe, and the USA have displayed interest in Afghan saffron, and as
prices have soared in the last 10 years, they are likely to seek alternatives to Spain or Iran (for
example, one US trader indicated interest in sourcing Greek and Moroccan saffron). Because
Afghanistan would be a new point of origin for saffron entering the US market, product
certification would be required.

26. Lack of Certification. None of Afghanistan’s 17 certification laboratories can function

properly owing to their poor facilities, equipment, and other infrastructure. Women’s
associations emphasized that they could not prove the quality of their saffron to traders and
suggested that certification would help them negotiate better prices. DACAAR established a
laboratory in Herat and trained technicians to measure and certify moisture content, flavor,
aroma, and intensity of color following grading standards used in Iran. The laboratory was
handed over to MAIL but no longer functions because it has not received budgetary resources.

27. Production Yet to Reach Economies of Scale for Exports. Although processing
companies and exporters are establishing linkages with markets in Europe and the USA,
production must reach economies of scale before Afghan saffron can be established as a quality
brand. Between 2004 and 2009, saffron area increased substantially from 16 hectares to 310
hectares, and yields also rose from 3.8 kilograms per hectare to 4.8 kilograms per hectare.
DACAAR expects that once Afghan saffron production reaches 5,000 kilograms per year (it was
estimated at 1,500 kilograms in 2009), Afghanistan will attract buyers from high-end
international markets.

28. Weak Research System. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas and Washington State University undertook limited research on saffron production and
marketing in 2007 (Wyeth and Malik 2007), but more systematic research and development are
required to provide sound extension advice on saffron’s requirements in the climatic and other
conditions of Herat. The Agriculture Faculty at University of Herat and the Directorate of

74
Laboratory analysis indicates that this process improves flavor by almost 50 percent, aroma by about 40 percent,
and color by more than 70 percent. Flavor and color exceed the ISO Grade I standard if the product is processed
without styles (DACAAR undated).

79
Agriculture in Herat have research facilities to potentially further this agenda, but there is no
higher-level agricultural research institute in Afghanistan.

A3.4 Constraints and Opportunities for Women in the Saffron Value Chain

29. Like their counterparts in the value chains for grapes, raisins, and almonds, women in the
saffron value chain are closely engaged in production and processing, both in rural and more
urban settings, but few or no women input suppliers or processing centers and traders operate in
the private sector. Women’s producer associations support women throughout the value chain,
however, by distributing bulbs, offering extension training, supporting post-harvest processing
with electric dryers, packaging saffron, and marketing saffron through international fairs.

30. Constraints Specific to Women. In the grape, raisin, and almond value chains, the key
constraint on women’s movement up the value chains is the lack of women-to-women service
delivery. In the saffron value chain, women producer associations have provided a platform for
women-to-women learning, and one association is moving up in the value chain to pilot sales in
the Indian market. However, a major constraint observed by women in the associations is that
they do not own land and are given only a small plot to cultivate. The key constraints, including
broad subsector constraints that limit women’s further involvement in the value chain, are
summarized below.

 Small plots. As described in Chapter 2, women rarely own land. Women saffron
producers generally receive small plots to plant the bulbs provided by agencies. As
saffron requires an initial investment of US$ 1,200 per jerib on bulbs and is not profitable
until the second or third year of cultivation, starting small reduces risks for families. In
accelerating production to reach economies of scale, however, women will need access to
larger plots.
 Lack of appropriate financing services. The two producing districts are not served by
MFIs. Even if such institutions begin to operate, they have few women loan officers and
require collateral for loans—a requirement that most women cannot meet, given that men
usually hold title to land. Women saffron producers will have very limited or no access to
agricultural financial products without support from male family members.
 Access to high-quality inputs. Few or no women supply inputs, making the lack of
access to high-quality inputs a significant issue for women producers. The women’s
association in Pashtoon Zaghoon has been cultivating saffron since 2006 and may have
some bulbs to sell to other women. Even so, there may not be enough, considering that
they farm a smaller area than the men.
 Poor quality control and post-harvest handling. Women are substantially involved in
harvesting and post-harvest handling, yet not all women are aware of quality control
practices, especially women who do not participate in producer associations.
 Limited access to transport. Women’s poor access to public transportation and need for
male escorts has a greater impact on saffron marketing by the women producer
association in Pashtun Zarghoon District, which is more conservative than the association
in Ghoryan.

80
  Lack of formal export support. As women’s associations pilot efforts to market saffron
internationally, formal export support, such as certification facilities, will further their
access to high-end international markets.

31. Figure A2.4 presents constraints specific to women in moving up in the saffron value
chain. Constraints vary with respect to the different positions in the chain, as discussed below. A
moderate barrier exists in moving from producer to association or processor, whereas a
significant barrier exists in moving from producer to middleman/trader or from
association/processor to exporter.

Figure A2.4: Gender constraints in the saffron subsector

Imports
Domestic Consumers Export Post-Harvest/ Support Markets
Processing
(takes place
at various
levels)
Domestic Retailers Exporters
Packaging

Drying of
Stigmas
Barriers/ Flower Traders (mostly Extension
Constraints for Saffron Saffron Traders (saffron dyes) electric),
Women Associations (Stigmas) Sorting,
Packaging
Significant
barriers
MFIs/
Banks
Moderate Separating
barriers stigma from
Small Producers Large Producers flower petals
Minor barriers for saffron
product or
dye product
(some solar
drying)

NGOs, Donor
Women’s Level of
Agencies,
Involvement: Traders
Agricultural
Ministries
High
Medium
Low to None

Afghan Bulb Iranian Bulb Other Input

Producers Producers Suppliers

Source: Adapted from Mayoux and Mackie (2009) and USAID (2010).
Note: The shaded (pink) area illustrates the most promising value chain. The barrier icons highlight constraints for women to move up the value
chain. The color of the icon indicates the degree of the barrier. Yellow = a minor barrier, orange = a moderate barrier, and red = a significant
barrier. Based on analysis of qualitative data, barriers were determined to be not applicable (for example, if women were not involved in a given
role, upgrading to the next level was deemed irrelevant); minor (affecting women slightly more than men, typically as a result of socio-cultural
norms); moderate (affecting women in the value chain much more than men, although some women have overcome the barriers); or significant
(affecting women in the value chain much more than men, and no woman has overcome the barrier to move up the value chain). Barriers are
indicated only for the most promising value chain (highlighted in pink) and for positions in which women are involved (with the green and purple
shading indicating women’s level of involvement).

32. Opportunities for Women in the Saffron Value Chain. As the roles of saffron
producer associations for women demonstrate, it is important to scale up social mobilization to
reach more women producers. The development of a pool of women para-professionals could
facilitate social mobilization, input supply, extension services (for production, harvesting, and

81
post-harvest handling), access to credit, and market linkages. Investing in electric dryers for
women-owned and -operated processing centers at the village or cluster level would enhance the
quality of produce through women-to-women learning and would increase producers’ incomes.
DACAAR is piloting the key recommendations from this study through a project to develop the
saffron value chain with women producers (box 3.6 in the main report).

 Women para-professionals. Women para-professionals operating as social mobilizers,

input suppliers, loan agents, extension advisors (in production, harvesting, and post-
harvesting issues), middleman, traders, and sales agents, would being about overall
improvements in production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling by women producers.
 Mobilization of women producer associations. Women producer associations have
provided proven support in input distribution, production, training (in harvesting, post-
harvest handling, and quality control), and marketing. They could also invest in storage
facilities to enable off-season trade in saffron. In addressing key constraints such as the
lack of high-quality bulbs, the associations could establish a bulb bank and introduce a
fee to use the bank or dryers and sustain the associations.
 Access to credit through women agents. Women farmers have shown interest in
obtaining credit, but the limited supply of agricultural loans designed specifically to
accommodate the growing season, along with social barriers (such as limits on interaction
and mobility), make access to credit a challenge. Through additional financial services
and the increased presence of female officers, women would be able to gain key financial
services, upgrade their methods, and improve their productivity.
 Producer associations for women and men aggregated at the cluster or district level.
Experiences in South Asia with rural livelihoods development projects financed by the
World Bank indicate that economies of scale in production or asset creation are attained
by aggregating producers at the cluster level. Women living in households with men who
participate in saffron producer associations are also substantially involved in production,
harvesting, and post-harvest processing; the cluster organization would provide a
platform for extension to reach these women through women-to-women learning. The
cluster as a whole would work throughout the saffron value chain with assistance from
NGOs and para-professionals. The increased production of high-quality saffron would
attract traders, including international buyers.
 Development of women-owned processing centers. Women in urban centers are
predominantly involved in post-harvest processing as wage labors. The investment in
women-owned and -managed processing centers can significantly influence women’s
positions within the value chain. By the same token, processing units owned and
managed by men’s saffron producer associations could be managed by women.

5.5 Conclusion: Inclusive Strategies to Reach Economies of Scale in the Saffron Value
Chain

33. Saffron has considerable potential to emerge as a key export commodity for Afghanistan
with substantial support from NGOs and donor agencies. The two associations formed for
women producers in Herat Province have demonstrated their effectiveness as channels for NGOs
and donors to reach women in need of inputs, extension services, and marketing. Women in one
of the associations (based in a relatively less conservative district) are already moving up the

82
value chain to pilot sales in India. To reinforce these achievements and reach other women
producers, it is critical to develop women para-professionals who can facilitate women-to-
women service provision, acting as social mobilizers, input suppliers, extension workers, village
traders, sales agents, and loan agents. The social mobilization of women producer associations is
also critical, because it will help to scale up women-to-women service delivery and help
producers attain the economies of scale that are vital to reach lucrative export markets. It is also
important to aggregate women’s and men’s producer associations at the cluster or district level to
facilitate women-to-women learning and engage women in households where men already
participate in saffron producer associations.

83
 Annex 4
Meetings with Key Value Chain Participants

Note: MEDA interviews in pink; World Bank interviews in gray, APPRO interviews in white (saffron study).

Value chain player Industry Organization Date of meeting Conducted by Other comments*
identified/position
Focus group discussions Producers Saffron Associations: Ghoryan Women Feb 2010 APPRO
(FGDs) and key informant Saffron Association and Pashtoon
interviews (associations) Zarghoon Women Saffron Association
Women farmers Producers Desabz Area, Kabul May 15, 2010 MEDA
CDC Head Producers Desabz Area, Kabul May 15, 2010 MEDA
FGD: Village facilitators – Producers Through the Garden Gate Project May 16,2010 MEDA
Female (Parwan) (TTGG), various parts of Parwan
FGD: Female grape farmers Producers TTGG, Qakaran Village, Parwan May 20, 2010 MEDA
FGD: Male grape farmers Producers Qakaran Village, Parwan May 31, 2010 MEDA
FGD: Male grape farmers Producers Dashto Opyan Village, Parwan May 31, 2010 MEDA
FGD: Male almond farmers Producers Khulm District, Mazar June 17, 2010 MEDA
FGD: Female almond Producers Khulm District, Mazar June 17, 2010 MEDA
farmers
Zaitoon NGO MEDA May 23, 2010 MEDA
Ambros Dotzer, Head NGO HLP June 9, 2010 MEDA
Kristin Harms, Horticulture
Specialist
Gary Credo, Melvin Montes, NGO WOCCU, Mazar Office June 17, 2010 MEDA
Vic Magallanes
Jawid Hamidzada NGO Afghanistan Almond Industry May 26, 2010 MEDA
Development Organization and Aug 1, 2010
FGD: Lana Mo, Parinaz NGO Various July 18, 2010 MEDA
Hissami, Zainab Wahidi,
Mahbooba Waizi, Mari
M. Hashim Aslami, Natural NGO DACAAR July 28, 2010 MEDA
Resource Management
Specialist
Melissa Albach, Global NGO Mercy Corps June 24, 2010 MEDA
Development Alliance
Manager
Dr. Arif Qaraeen, Director NGO DACAAR Feb 2010 WB
Ms. Daria Musiienko, Grants NGO DACAAR Feb 2010 WB
Adviser
Mr. M. Shah Rauf, Program NGO DACAAR Feb 2010 WB

84
Value chain player Industry Organization Date of meeting Conducted by Other comments*
identified/position
Manager, Rural
Development
Ms. Sachitra Chitrakar, NGO DACAAR Feb 2010 WB
Monitoring and Evaluation
Advisor
Mr. Abdul Aziz Naderi, NGO SDO Feb 2010 WB
Program Manager
Ms. Catherine Sobrevega, NGO MEDA Afghanistan Feb 2010 WB
Country Manager
Baagey Khazana, NGO Women’s Vocational Training Center, Feb 2010 WB
SEWA
M. Hashim Aslami, Natural NGO DACAAR Sep 2009 APPRO
Resource Manager
Abdul Razik Kayhaani NGO DACAAR Sep 2009 APPRO
Mir Aqa Jamshidi, NGO CRS Sep 2009 APPRO
agricultural worker
Bashir Nusrat, Agricultural NGO SDO Oct 2009 APPRO
Engineer
Eng. Wahid Afzali, ADA NGO CRS Jan 2010 APPRO
Officer
Eng. Ramin Nazarian, NGO DADS training services Dec 2009 APPRO
Trainer

Ms. Ghizaal Haress, Deputy Ministries AREDP, MRRD Feb 2010 WB

Executive Director
Mr. Ahmad Javaid Zeerak, Ministries AREDP, MRRD Feb 2010 WB
Head of Program
Mr. Ahmad Jawaid, Chief Ministries EPAA Feb 2010 WB
Executive Officer.

Ms. Anila Aftab, Gender Ministries MAIL Feb 2010 WB

Advisor
Mr. Morwais Niazi, General Ministries Plant Quarantine Division, MAIL Feb 2010 WB
Manager
Ms. Nabila Musleh, Gender Ministries HLP, MAIL Feb 2010 WB
Mainstreaming Consultant
Ms. Cristy Ututalum, Ministries Ministry of Counter Narcotics Feb 2010 WB
Advisor
Bashir Ahmad Ahmadi, Ministries MAIL, Herat Sep 2009 APPRO
Manager Research and
85
Value chain player Industry Organization Date of meeting Conducted by Other comments*
identified/position
Extension Department
Khamosh, Documentation Ministries EPAA Dec 2009 APPRO
Officer
Khalil Amad Yarmand, Ministries Heart Chamber of Commerce Dec 2009 APPRO
Executive Deputy Director
Nabi Jan, Admin Officer Ministries AISA Jan 2010 APPRO
Jailan Khan, Manager, Ministries ACCI – Herat Jan 2010 APPRO
Exports Department
Tamim Kakar, Herat General Ministries ACCI – Herat 2010 APPRO
Manager
Anjuma Naemi, Director of Ministries MOWA May 18, 2010 MEDA
Economic Empowerment
Hadayatullah Hashimi Ministries Agriculture Market Infrastructure June 1, 2010 MEDA
Project Director, AMIP Project (AMIL), ADB-funded
MAIL
Kateb Shams Ministries MAIL June 15, 2010 MEDA
Director – Balkh Province
Abdul Rahim Nasry – NSDP Ministries NSDP August 3, 2010 MEDA
National Program
Coordinator
Engr. Mohd Omar Noori –
Sector Head and Curriculum
Development, Agriculture
Amina Wahab Zada Ministries Attorney / Educator / Lawyer August 3, 2010 MEDA

Ms. Mahbooba Waizi, Private sector AWBC Feb 2010 WB

Regional and Country
Director
Mr. Atiqullah Nusrat, Chief Private sector ACCI Feb 2010 WB
Operating Officer
Ms. Hossai Andar, Member Private sector ACCI (also Board Member & Deputy Feb 2010 WB
of Board Chairman, Afghanistan Producers &
Exporters Association - APEA)
Abdul Ghafar Ahmadzai, Private sector Afghan Safaran September 2009 APPRO
General Manager
Qudratalla Rahmati, General Private sector Afghan Red Gold September 2009 APPRO
Manager
Najbulla Samim, Managing Private sector MADRAC Dec 2009 APPRO
Director
Maryam Sadat, Trade Private sector Afghan Women’s Business Federation Dec 2009 APPRO
86
Value chain player Industry Organization Date of meeting Conducted by Other comments*
identified/position
Development, Manager
Maryam Sadat, Owner Private sector Afghan Pride Association May 15, 2010 MEDA
Mirzaman Popal, Director of Private sector ACCI May 17, 2010 MEDA
Industries and Export
Abdul Hameed Khamosh, Private sector EPAA May 16, 2010 MEDA
Documentation Officer and
Andalib Mushtani, Project
Coordination / Reporting
Officer
S.A. Mustafa Hasheemi, Private sector Afghanistan Raisin, Fruit and May 18, 2010 MEDA
President of Admin Vegetable, Export Promotion Agency and Aug 2, 2010
Dried Fruit/Nut Store Private sector Retailer # 1 (Shar-e-Naw) May 17, 2010 MEDA
Dried Fruit/Nut Store and Private sector Retailer # 2 (Shar-e-Naw) May 17, 2010 MEDA
Bakery
Arghawan Dawar, Office Private sector Kabul Women Farm Store May 18, 2010 MEDA
Assistant and Roya Wasll,
Sales Manager
Mr. Al Haj Zabiulla Ehsan Private sector Tak Dana, Dry and Fresh Fruit May 19, 2010 MEDA Exporter
Processing Company
Abdul Malik ―Mohmand‖, Private sector DFC Foods May 19, 2010 MEDA Processor
President and CEO
Saleha Zareen, Vice Private sector National Organization for Women May 20, 2010 MEDA
President (NOW)
Mohammed Sheriff, Private sector Tobassom May 22, 2010 MEDA
Chairman
Hadji Gull Ahmad, Head Private sector Hadji Painda Mohammad and Sons June 8, 2010 MEDA Exporter/Wholesaler
Company (dried fruits and nuts)
Mohamad Hashim Private sector Wholesaler (Dried Fruits) June 7, 2010 MEDA
Kabul Mandvi
Hadji Gula Jan Private sector Wholesaler (Dried Fruits) June 7, 2010 MEDA
Kabul Mandvi
Haji Badruddin and Hadji Private sector Hadji Ebrahim Company June 7, 2010 MEDA
Mohamand Yousef Wholesaler/Retailer/Processor
Hadji Amir Jan, Head, Private sector Trader/Processor/Exporter (Fresh June 14, 2010 MEDA
Nejabat Haiday Ltd., Fresh Fruits)- Kabul Mandvi
Fruits Commission Agent
Jawad Aziz Zada Fresh Fruit Private sector Kabul Mandvi June 14, 2010 MEDA
Company
Aaji Painda Mohammad Private sector Kabul Mandvi June 14, 2010 MEDA
Atekal Company, Kabul
87
Value chain player Industry Organization Date of meeting Conducted by Other comments*
identified/position
Ahmad Jawid Private sector Mazar-Balkh Dried Fruits Processing June 15, 2010 MEDA
Head Association –
Wholesaler/Processor/Exporter
Engr. Hadji Naser Private sector Trader/Wholesaler/Processor June 16, 2010 MEDA
Abdul Ghani Sharap Private sector Nursery Owner June 16, 2010 MEDA
Director, Baba-i-Degan Seed
Company
Ziauddidd Private sector Retailer, Gulbuddin Market, June 16, 2010 MEDA
Mazar

Mr. Crisitiano Congiu, Law Donors Embassy of Italy Feb 2010

Enforcement Expert
Fazi Rabi, Business Donors USAID/ASMED Oct 2010 APPRO
Development Specialist
Habib Himat, Natural Donors FAO Herat Dec 2009 APPRO
Resource Manager

Mr. Dale Lampe, Director Microfinance Microfinance Investment Support Feb 2010 WB
Operations Facility for Afghanistan
Ms. Meagan Andrews, Microfinance Parwaz Feb 2010 WB
Managing Director
Ms. Storai Sadat, Executive Microfinance Ariana Financial Services Joint Stock Feb 2010 WB
Director Company
Dawood Ahmadi, Deputy Microfinance The First Micro Finance Bank Oct 2009 APPRO
Branch Manager
Fazlul Huque, Country Microfinance BRAC Jan 2010 APPRO
Director
Ben Botha, CEO Microfinance FMFB Jan 2010 APPRO
Afghanistan
Tariq Khan Baluch, CEO Microfinance FINCA Afghanistan Jan 2010 APPRO
Afghanistan
Ghulam Ahmad Shams Microfinance Khulm Agriculture Islamic Investment June 17, 2010 MEDA
Manager Finance and Cooperative (KAIIFC),
Mazar

Abdul Rahim Omid, Dean Education Faculty of Ag, Heart University Feb 2010 APPRO

88
 Annex 5
Interview Data

Note: Research for the saffron value chain was performed by APPRO and unavailable for inclusion in this annex.

Input suppliers
Research questions Information from Kabul Women Farm Service Centre (KFWS), Information from Baba-i-Dehgan Seed Company, Mazar
Kabul
Products, end markets, and customers - Under the Afghanistan Farm Service Alliances (AFSA, a CNFA - They sell tree cuttings to grape and almond farmers. They don’t
- What type of products do you sell to grape/raisin and project); private business owned by an Afghan man. They don’t sell any other inputs but give training to farmers on what fertilizers
almond farmers? know if the owner will continue the business once the CNFA to use and how to use them.
- What kind of fertilizers do you sell? Are you satisfied subsidy is finished. Right now staff salaries are paid through the - They have a nursery of 50 jeribs (10 hectares) in Chintar District
with the quality? AFSA project. of Mazar. They started the business 17 years ago with only 1 jerib.
- Do customers ever ask for specific kinds of fertilizer or - Established in 2009, officially opened in April 2010. They belong to the Nursery Association with 45 members.
other inputs that you do not stock? - Store for women; sells inputs such as seed, fertilizer, irrigation, - Depends on the order of farmers or projects. They sell directly to
- Do you sell other types of agricultural products? agricultural machinery, (sold and rented). farmers and also to projects in need of seedlings to give to farmers.
- How do you decide what to stock? - Grapes: sells trellises, pruning tools; farmers often ask for grape - Recently obtained orders from:
- What is your customer profile? Do you sell to women? input supplies. HLP: 200,000 grape seedlings.
- Who is your competition? -No one thus far has asked for almond inputs. HLP: 20,000 apricot seedlings.
- Stock is based on customers’ needs. HLP: 15,000 pomegranate seedlings.
- Women’s groups come from Kabul to purchase goods, but not IDEA NEW: 33,000 almond seedlings.
from too far away. - For big contracts, agencies pay 75% and farmers have 25%
- Have 5 women employees. counterpart payment.
- They have 3 types of customers: agencies/organization,
*Services: middlemen, and farmers.
- Agricultural training according to needs (free): have one
agronomist that provides extension, will travel to farms to provide
training; 2 trainings have been conducted thus far in Kabul and
Parwan (vegetables, pesticide use).
- Consulting – solutions to problems.
- Also have demonstration plots/greenhouses.

- Think that they have no competition because there are no other

women-only input retailers.
- Will sometimes purchase small amounts of dried fruits from
women which they bring in to the center.
- Center will then sell the product in the showroom or take the
product to the market (future plans).
- Have about 125 women customers, some customers are
representatives of a group and will purchase for other women in
their village (sales-agent type of role). Some are leaders of 25-
member women’s groups.
Inputs - Purchase from wholesalers such as Helal, have contract which - They get the stocks from farmers. They asked farmers to produce
- Where do you get your stock? includes transportation costs, pay cash/sometimes credit. cuttings according to specifications and will buy at Af 5/seedling.
- Where do you obtain your fertilizers? - Have a packaging machine and will soon start to repackage inputs Will take care of the cuttings for a year and then sell them at Af 50
- Are you satisfied with these suppliers? into smaller amounts based on demand. each.
- Are they produced locally or imported? - For almonds, just needs seed and grows out seedlings for 2 years
- Are you a farmer/processor/trader yourself? before they are sold.

89
Research questions Information from Kabul Women Farm Service Centre (KFWS), Information from Baba-i-Dehgan Seed Company, Mazar
Kabul
Technologies and techniques - Provide machinery rental services (for example, tractors). - Yes, they provide technical information and instructions to
- Do you provide technical information and instruction to - Planning to provide women with a packaging service for dried customers. Information comes from their own knowledge and from
your customers? fruits. trainings attended. (Mr.Sharaf is an agriculture graduate and an
- If so, where do you get this information? - They also have greenhouse in the store for demonstration. agriculturist by profession.)
- Are you part of a program or project that supports you - HLP and USAID financed Incentives Driving Economic
with free or subsidized supplies for you to sell? What Alternatives in North, East and West (IDEA-NEW) are buying
supplies? How does this work? Who is involved? cuttings from them, but they are not supported or subsidized. They
give cuttings on credit at times and are paid after 2-3 months.

Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - Have ads and brochures. - Before used to advertise their products and many farmers
- How do you market your products? - Only one shop in Kabul, exploring possibility of opening shop in requested them. Now they no longer advertise because farmers
- Where are your shops located – rural and/or urban other safe provinces. know them already. They are dependent on the needs of the
areas? - Purchase their inputs at a fixed price; 10-15% profit margins market. If they want to introduce new varieties of seeds, they need
- How do you determine pricing? added. to get certification from PHDP.
- What are some of the prices for some of your - Have high sales in spring/summer (for example, sold 700 kg of
equipment? seed/month).
- How do you deal with product quality? Seasonal - Has a contract with a MAIL cooperative.
issues?
- How do you transport products? Do sell directly to
farmers? Do you sell to women farmers?
Financing - Microfinance – women can buy seed on loan, pay back after - They did not apply for any loan but they usually give credit to
- What types and how accessible is financing (formal, harvest. farmers or projects. They also provide advance payments to
informal, MFI, banking system) for your business? - No interest. farmers who will supply them with cuttings. They also pay agents of
- Do you buy supplies on credit or offer credit to your - Need guarantee from well-known organizations, NGOs, AFSA, middlemen in advance. However, most of the time, they do
customers, and what are the terms? MAIL, and so on. business in cash.
- How much does credit cost? - 20 women have loans thus far.
- Do you use other noncash forms of financing, such as
sale or return, bartering, in exchange for labor, and so
on?
- Where do you go to save money?
Cooperation level - Planning to provide a referral service to connect fruit farmers to - The company is a member of the Association of Nursery Growers,
-Are there any supplier associations that you source juicer (for example). where they have 45 active members. They have a board of
from? - Will build contracts and relationships based on needs. directors and operate just like a local NGO. They pay a
- What do they do, and how are they structured? Do you - Belong to an association of 7 Farmer Service Centers (all part of membership fee of Af 300/yr. Also belong to Improved Seeds
buy from any women’s associations? AFSA); determine needs of each center and provide training as Association, paying an annual fee of US$ 750/yr for information on
- Are there any input supplier associations that you are a necessary. improved seed and new technologies.
part of?
Constraints and opportunities Challenges: Constraints:
- What constraints and opportunities do you see in the - Need more shops in other provinces. - Lack of access to modern machinery, unlike neighboring
raisin and almond value chains? - Marketing. countries that all automate production.
- Do you have problems meeting customers’ requests? - Transportation constraints for women travelling from far to - Lack of technical skill in transferring seed during winter so they
- Have you noticed any trends or changes in farmers’ purchase from their shop. will not incur too many losses.
requests? - Most in demand: Vegetable seed. - Lack of storage for their tree seedlings.
- What are the major problems for the growth of your
business? Opportunities:
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In new -Afghanistan weather is suitable for fruit production.
markets? - Cheap labor.
- Availability of professionals who can help in the business.
- Farmers’ willingness to learn new technologies.
- Quality of fresh and dried fruits is best, compared to other
90
Research questions Information from Kabul Women Farm Service Centre (KFWS), Information from Baba-i-Dehgan Seed Company, Mazar
Kabul
countries.

Gender - Women are already involved in production/processing; that is the No-one among nursery growers is female.
- How many women are involved in input supply area with the most potential. Right now, women weed, but recently a group of women wanted to
businesses? - Women cannot be traders/retailers/exporters due to culture. know about grafting so they could also be connected with his
- Is there potential for women to be input suppliers, business.
traders, retailers? What are the main barriers and
opportunities?

Producers – Key Informant Interviews

Research questions Woman producer CDC Head
Desabz – Kabul Desabz – Kabul
Products, end markets, and customers - Widow farmer. - Works with 52 CDCs in this area and is head of this group.
Do you grow grapes, raisins, or almonds for sale? - Grows grapes, produces raisins. - 52 villages = more than 98,000 families.
How long have you been growing almonds or grapes or - Sells to middleman who will bring her fertilizer in exchange for - 80% of the farmers produce grapes, some produce wheat also.
drying grapes? raisins. For 7 kg of fertilizer she has to provide him with 1 kg of - Approximately 20% sold as fresh grapes, remainder converted to
How did you begin growing grapes/almonds? Did anyone raisins. Usually compares fertilizer price with the prices of raisins on raisins.
or any organization assist you in this activity? the market, and then takes equivalent in raisins. - Traders come in to the village; some have links to markets in
What type of almonds/grapes/raisins do you produce? - The middleman is a man and her relative, so she deals directly Moscow.
Do you know what type of grapes/raisins/almonds are with him. - Pricing info – all depends on the middlemen and what they offer.
most in demand in the market? - There are several middlemen in the village.
What are your other sources of income?
Who do you sell your grapes/raisins/almonds to?
Does anyone assist you in selling? If yes, who?
Do traders bring their own labor to harvest or do they buy
grapes already harvested?
Do traders travel to your village to purchase products?
How many traders come to your village? Are there
women traders?
Do the farmers organize themselves for transport to bring
products to market?
Do you travel to the market to sell your products? If so,
does anyone accompany you? Who?
Do you have transportation to travel to market? What is
the cost?
Do you sell to the same customer, or do you look for new
customers as well?
Inputs - Land used to belong to her husband, now it is hers. - Most farmers use traditional method of drying grapes on the floor,
How much land do you have for farming? - Has 1 jerib with 200 grapevines. which produces low-quality raisins and farmers earn low profits.
On what size area do you grow your grapes/almonds? - The trader that has links to Moscow has also brought in medicine,
Who owns this land? Is the ownership under your which decreases the drying time for raisins and produces good
father/husband? results.
If you are a widow, who owns the land that you farm? - He was asking us if we knew of any methods using sulfur for
How many ser of grapes, raisins, or almonds do you improving the color and drying raisins instead of using the mixture

91
Research questions Woman producer CDC Head
Desabz – Kabul Desabz – Kabul
produce on one jerib of land (on average)? that the trader recommends.
Which inputs do you use (seed, fertilizer, irrigation
equipment, drying equipment, packaging)?
Where do you obtain your inputs?
Are the suppliers located close to your village or in the
nearest town?
If the suppliers are in town, do you travel there on your
own or are you accompanied? By whom?
Do the suppliers travel to your village? Who interacts with
the supplier and purchases inputs in your family (you or
the men or both)?
How do you pay for these inputs? Do the suppliers
provide credit?
Do you receive training when you purchase inputs?
Family structure and income sources - Has 2 daughters, 7 grandchildren, and 1 adopted son
How many people live in your home?
How many are men? How many are women?
How many members are involved in farming? How many
are involved in grape/almond farming?
What are the sources of income in your home?
Technologies and techniques - Dries grapes on roof with no mat
Have you ever received training in growing almonds or
growing/drying grapes? If yes, from whom? Did you pay
for the course? How long was the training?
Describe your method for harvesting grapes / almonds.
Do you perform any processing of fresh grapes, such as
cleaning?
How do you store your fresh grapes prior to selling?
Describe method for drying grapes.
Do you clean your raisins prior to selling? Do you remove
stems or perform any other processing?
Do you package your raisins?
Describe your method for processing almonds. Do you
break the shells? How do you store prior to selling?
Which activities are handled by the women and which are
handled by the men?
Would you be willing to try other methods for drying
grapes?
Do you have any storage facilities?
Do you have enough water? Do you use any irrigation? If
so, using what equipment?
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - Sells excess raisins to middleman.
Who in your family sets the price of the almonds or - 1 boojee (sack) for Af 14,000.
grapes/raisins? Is more than one person involved? If so - The middleman then sells to the mandvi.
how is the decision taken? - She recently harvested 7 boojees, and her net profit was only Af
Are you aware of market prices? If so, how do you get 5,000.
this information? - Does not clean raisins, and the middleman has never asked for
Does the demand for almonds and grapes/raisins vary, or raisins.
is it constant throughout the year? - More profitable to make raisins than sell fresh grapes.
Do the prices vary? What price do the traders offer you? - If she needs quick cash, then she will try to sell fresh grapes.

92
Research questions Woman producer CDC Head
Desabz – Kabul Desabz – Kabul
Do you obtain better prices at the farm gate or in town?
What earns higher profit, table grapes or raisins?
Do you ever save any of your income? If so, what do you
use your savings for?

Financing and government assistance

How do you pay for inputs/technologies and other items
required for grape farming, raisin production, or almond
production?
What types of financing are available and how accessible
is financing (formal, informal, microfinance loans, and so
on)?
Have you ever taken a loan? If so, who controls the loan
(who decides what it’s used for and repayment) in your
family?
Do your buyers ever offer you, or the men, credit? What
are the terms?
Does the government provide any training or extension?
If so, is it accessible to both women and men?
Cooperation level
Do you belong to a grape/almond group or organization?
If so, how do they assist/help you? Do they provide
training? Do you pay a membership fee?
If no, do you think joining an association would have any
benefits?
What is the association, what is its mandate, and so on?
Does the association have collection or processing
services?
Do you find it beneficial to be part of this group?
Is the association open to both men and women? What is
the spread (approximately)?
How else do the farmers cooperate?
Constraints and opportunities Constraints: - Farmers have poor access to markets, cannot easily travel to
What are the main barriers and opportunities in growing - Equipment for drying/packaging. Kabul markets.
almonds or grapes/raisins? - Not enough access to water. - Farmers do not have access to cold storage – Iran and Pakistan
Do men and women face similar problems in production? are selling processed/packaged juice products which they produce
If not, why do you think that is? from grapes that were originally sourced in Afghanistan.
How do you think these problems could be solved?
Do you think you could sell more products to your current
customers? If so, how?
Do your customers provide you with information on how
to improve your products?
Does the government or other international organizations
help you with your production/marketing?
Could women take on additional activities in the value
chain that they are not performing already? If yes, what?
If no, why not?
Have you or other women tried to take on more
activities? What was your experience?

93
Research questions Woman producer CDC Head
Desabz – Kabul Desabz – Kabul
What activities do you think could help you be more
profitable?
What obstacles do you face in acquiring new customers?
What activities do you need assistance in to help improve
your incomes?

Gender Men:
How many farmers live in your area? - Perform hard labor.
Are there any women almond/grape/raisin traders? - Prepare the land.
Would any of you be interested in taking that role? - Plant.
Who determines farming activities, purchasing decisions, - Water.
how to spend income, and so on? - Apply fertilizer.
Do you feel comfortable voicing your opinions? - Transfer grapes to drying areas.
- Marketing/dealing with traders.

Women:
- Pruning.
- Weeding.
- Harvesting.
- Preparing food for harvesters.
- In charge of drying process for raisins.

- Women do keep aside some raisins for their own use to buy
clothes and so on.

Producers – Focus group discussions

Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
7 women grape producers, 10 women grape producers, 20 women almond producers,
various villages in Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan Members of KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
Products, end markets, and customers - All produce grapes and raisins for sale; - All grow grapes. - Producing almonds for sale.
Do you grow grapes/almonds for sale? Do learned practices in childhood; family has been - Growing grapes for many generations; - Producing almonds is a practice inherited from
you produce raisins? growing for decades. produce raisins. their fathers and ancestors. It has been their
How long have you been growing almonds - Grapes of lower quality: 20% fresh, 80% dried. - Learn from families. family business for many long years.
or grapes and/or drying grapes? - Grapes of improved quality: Keep/sell up to - Life of orchard: 20–30 years. - They grow almonds based on the local
How did you begin growing 80% fresh. - Traders come to the village, collect grapes and system. There is no assistance from any
almonds/grapes? Did anyone or any - Always have received assistance from raisins. agencies, so far.
organization assist in this? government; last year one cooperative helped - No regular traders or contracts. - Saterbayee and Ghamberbayee demand high
What type of almonds/grapes/raisins do you them in training and equipment. - Purchase both fresh and dried; high-quality price from traders.
produce? - No storage to produce better raisins. grapes sold fresh and lower quality sold as - To the traders in the market. Mostly their
Do you know what type of - Sell to trader/middlemen that work on raisins. husbands and young sons sell the almonds to
grapes/raisins/almonds are most in demand commission and have contracts with - Usually if farmer cannot sell the whole garden, the shops in the Khulm Market. Sometimes the
in the market? wholesalers. they will convert to raisins. women also bring them to the market for selling.
What are your other sources of income? - Middlemen collect supply from the village, pay - Husbands sell to traders; women will often - No, they don’t bring their own labor. They
To whom do you sell your for own transport. advise their husbands regarding pricing and so already buy harvested products.
almonds/grapes/raisins? - 1 village facilitator (VF) sold to a cooperative forth, and men do take their opinions into - Usually they bring the products to the market
Does anyone assist you in selling? If yes, this year (Bagram Fruit Company) that provided account. where they meet different traders. There are
who? her with mats for drying, and she received a - There are no female traders; they all though it times that traders also come to their village to
Do the traders bring their own labor to higher price for her cleaner raisins; also paid was the business of men. buy their almonds. Their husbands deal with the
harvest or do they buy already harvested extra for sorting/cleaning (Af 150/ser market **4 widows deal directly with traders (but traders. However, widows are allowed to deal
94
Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
7 women grape producers, 10 women grape producers, 20 women almond producers,
various villages in Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan Members of KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
grapes? price: Af 300/ser coop price). through the back door) because their sons don’t with them directly. They don’t know how many
Do traders travel to your village to purchase - 1 VF: A person bought the garden at harvest like them selling directly to the trader. traders but there are many and they did not
products? How many traders come to your and harvested himself, got advance, paid the Last year: know any women trader in Khulm.
village? Are there women traders? future market price in 5 months’ time. - Too much rain, low-quality harvest. - Usually, they ask their neighbors so they can
Do the farmers organize themselves for - Men make decisions on price, usually depends - Dried all to make raisins, some families had share in the transportation costs.
transport to bring product to market? on trader; no one travels to market. up to 700 kg of raisins; most of the stock is - They are selling their almonds to Khulm
Do you travel to the market to sell your - Normally trader profits (sells at higher price), still sitting in their homes because they could Market retailers as well; sometimes family
products? If so, does anyone accompany but sometimes trader loses money too if cannot not sell it. members help them. Usually, if they need
you? Who? sell. something from the market, they bring and sell
Do you have transportation to travel to the - No women traders, there may be opportunity their almonds, but most of the time, the
market? What is the cost? but traditionally men do this. If the traders were husbands and young sons bring them.
Do you sell to the same customer, or do you women, these VFs would be happy to sell - There is transport, which cost Af 10–20.
look for new customers as well? directly. - They sell their almonds to any traders who
have the highest price.
Inputs - Inputs purchased from nearest town - Many input suppliers in Charikar, have to - From 1–6 jeribs. Mostly all farmers own 1 jerib
How much land do you have for farming? (Charikar), some suppliers in village. travel there to purchase. of land for almonds and other fruit.
On what size area do you grow your - Only men purchase inputs. - Buy on cash basis. - The husbands own the land.
grapes/almonds? - Have no irrigation equipment. - Only one widow said she will travel herself - It depends on the family of the husband either
Who owns this land? Is the ownership under - Dry on roof. because she needs her inputs and she does not to give it to the wife or to her sons.
your father/husband? - Buy inputs using cash, savings from last year’s care what anyone else thinks about her. - They use animal manure and sometimes
If you are a widow, who owns the land that harvest. purchase fertilizer from the market. They also
you farm? - Men know how to buy good quality from buy medicine and use local system of fertilizing
How many ser of grapes, raisins, or almonds experience. and sun drying. They don’t package the
do you produce on one jerib (on average)? - Supplier provides no training. produce.
Which inputs do you use (seed, fertilizer, - They buy their inputs from Khulm Market and
irrigation equipment, drying equipment, other nearby shops in the villages. They travel
packaging)? to the market if there is a need; otherwise their
Where do you obtain your inputs? husbands travel and provide the inputs.
Are the suppliers located close to your - Yes, sometimes suppliers come to the villages
village or in the nearest town? and the men deal with them. If the men are not
If the suppliers are in town, do you travel in their homes, women deal with them but in the
there on your own or are you accompanied? back door.
By whom? - For input supplies, they pay in cash. Suppliers
Do the suppliers travel to your village? Who do not offer credit.
interacts with the supplier and purchases - Not always satisfied, since the quality of inputs
inputs in your family (you or the men or is not good. We complained several times, but
both)? they are not giving us good-quality inputs.
How do you pay for these inputs? Do the - They don’t know about the exact required
suppliers provide credit? quantity.
Are you satisfied with the quality of these - They purchase according to needs. The
suppliers? Have you ever complained to the supplies are usually packed in small quantities
suppliers? so they can buy them. The suppliers repacked
Do the inputs come packaged in the right them so farmers like them can buy them.
quantity?
Do you receive training when you purchase
inputs?

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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
7 women grape producers, 10 women grape producers, 20 women almond producers,
various villages in Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan Members of KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
Family structure and income sources - All family members involved in grape farming - All women have between 6–8 children. - On average, 11-12 people. More than 50% are
How many people live in your home? and raisin production. - 4 widows in group. women.
How many are men? How many are: - Ownership usually under men; for each VF: - Husbands own the land. - All family members working on almond
women? 1. 3 gardens, 950 vines, lease garden. - Widows: Family owns the land (women and production to harvest.
How many members are involved in 2. I garden, 600 vines, land shared with children). - Their sources of income are almonds,
farming? How many are involved in father-in-law. - Women usually have no documentation for pomegranates, livestock and poultry production,
almond/grape farming? 3. 300 vines, father owns land. land in their name. tailoring, embroidery, and other activities.
What are the sources of income in your 4. 700 trees, father owns land. - 1 widow: Her father-in-law wrote a note saying - Land is property of all family members,
home? 5. 300 trees, family-owned land. that the land now belongs to her and her inheritance from fathers.
Does your family own the land? Is the 6. 100 trees, husband owns land. children, and no-one else in the family bothers
ownership under your father/husband? 7. 450 trees, husband owns land. her about land.
8. 1,000 trees, father owns land.
Technologies and techniques - Last year, one woman received training from - Drying usually performed on roof; bunches are - No training received so far.
How did you learn about growing the coop (Bagram Fruit Company): dried; have no mats. - After harvest they remove the outer shell, then
almonds/grapes? Powder/water to dip grapes into then dry (gives - Since they have too many grapes, not feasible dry in the sun and bring to the market. Outer
Have you ever received training in growing better results); usually men receive training and to purchase cloth or other material themselves shells are used as animal feed.
almonds or growing and drying grapes? If pass it to women; they have distributed to use as matting. - From families and neighbors.
yes, from whom? handbooks. - Processing: Separate stem from raisins, place - They wanted to remove the inner shell so they
Did you pay for the course? How long was - Women prefer direct training. in bag and sell; each bag holds 12 ser can get a better price, but they do not. They lack
the training? Men’s roles: Growing/planting, pruning, bagging equipment and when they try to shell the
Describe your method for harvesting Traditional drying method: of harvest, and carrying to house/roof. almonds the nut cracks (resulting in losses).
grapes/almonds. 1. Bunches placed uncovered on bare roof. Women’s roles: Harvesting, transfer of grapes - They don’t know about any packaging. They
Do you perform any processing, such as 2. Best-quality grapes separated from lower to roof, drying. just use sacks and bring them to the market.
cleaning of fresh grapes? quality by hand. - Have never received training in drying; - The buying of seedlings, planting, irrigation,
How do you store your fresh grapes prior to 3. No packaging, sold to trader. improving the process on their own. Did and grafting are men's duties. Assistance in
selling? experiment and saw that if they hang their weeding, applying pesticides, cleaning, sorting,
How did you learn about drying grapes? - No storage, store in corner of room. grapes and dry with the sun they get better grading, and shelling are done by women.
How do you dry grapes? Describe method. - Grapes stored in underground facility in TTGG quality raisins than drying on the mat, but it’s not Taking the produce to market is done by men.
Do you clean your raisins prior to selling? Do fetch better price: Af 350/ser. always possible to hang grapes if they don’t - After they remove the outer shells and sun-dry
you remove stems or perform any other - Used to have drying rooms, better quality have the space and resources. Often volumes almonds, they store them in one of the rooms of
processing? raisins, but now costly to build, cost of of grapes are too high. the house. They sell them when prices are high
Do you package your raisins? If yes, how? equipment and suppliers is a challenge. - They have no storage but have big separate and if they need money. If they don’t need
Which activities are handled by the women rooms for drying. money, they just keep their almonds.
and which are handled by the men? - There are no storages facilities.
Would you be willing to try other methods for - They have not got enough water. They don’t
drying grapes? know about any other system of irrigation; they
Describe your method for processing have no access to any equipment for irrigation.
almonds. Do you break the shells? How do
you store prior to selling?
Do you have any storage facilities?
Do you have enough water? Do you use any
irrigation? If so, using what equipment?
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - There is no stability in prices for both fresh and - They first ask around for the prices of almonds
Who in your family sets the price of the dried. and then decide to whom they will sell them.
almonds or grapes/raisins? Is more than one - Usually raisins are more profitable. They usually go for those with the highest
person involved? If so, how is the decision prices.
taken? - Through their own market research, they get
Are you aware of market prices? If so, how the suitable prices for each variety of almonds.
do you get this information? - They think the demand for almond is
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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
7 women grape producers, 10 women grape producers, 20 women almond producers,
various villages in Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan Members of KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
Does the demand for almonds and increasing, especially demand for high-quality
grapes/raisins vary, or is it constant almonds like Satarbayee and Ghamberbayee.
throughout the year? - They get better prices at the town markets.
Do the prices vary? What price do the - The almond is more profitable than other fruit
traders offer you? and other business.
Do you obtain better prices at the farm gate - They sometimes save the money they earn
or in town? and use it for other family needs. They are poor
What earns higher profit, table grapes or people, and the size of their land is not big
raisins? enough to produce more.
Do you ever save any of your income? If so, - If they need more capital for their business,
what do you use your savings for? they apply for credit to improve their business.
Financing and government assistance - Cash from savings from last year. - MAIL provides training to men only; they had - They pay cash when they buy inputs and
How do you pay for inputs, technologies, - MAIL has assisted some of them: They stopped activities due to instability but now the equipment.
and other items required for grape, almond, received seed, cuttings, and trellises for free; training is being offered again. Men train the - They know the organization only through the
and raisin production? fertilizer and improved seeds at a 50% subsidy; women in their families. members who are receiving agricultural loans.
What types of financing are available, and MAIL provided handbooks and training. - Have also provided cuttings, fertilizer this year. - All of them have applied for loans, which are
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, - Only men interact with the MAIL extensionists; - 1 family received a trellis from MAIL this year. for 6 and 9 months. They start repayment after
microfinance loans, and so on)? men then train their families. - No female extension agents. harvesting fruit or gaining income from the
Have you ever taken a loan? If so, who - Women expressed interest in receiving direct business plus 2% administrative costs. The
controls the loan (what it’s used for and training, which they think is better. administrative cost is based on the remaining
repayment) in your family? loan balance.
Do your buyers ever offer you or the men -They did not receive any training from the
credit? What are the terms? government and would like to have training to
Does the government provide any training or improve their skills and knowledge.
extension?
If so, is it accessible to both women and
men?
Cooperation level - Belong to TTGG project, group of VFs. - They are members of Khulm Agriculture
Do you belong to an almond/grape group or Islamic Investment Finance and Cooperative
organization? (KAIIFC). They do not know any association for
If so, how do they assist you? Do they men and women almond producers.
provide training? Do you pay a membership - They know that if you join the association, you
fee? can get assistance in solving some of your
If no, do you think joining an association problems by sharing ideas, participating in
would have any benefits? group work, and following some rules: ―When
What is the association, what is its mandate, we get the chance to discuss our problems, we
and so forth? can be aware of others’ problems as well and
Does the association have collection or how they were able to solve them. We can also
processing services? make friends with other women, and we learn
Do you find it beneficial to be part of this from their experiences as well.‖
group? - They only received loans from the cooperative
Is the association open to both men and and they were able to save some of their
women? What is the spread money. They wanted more technical assistance
(approximately)? in processing, harvesting, and marketing.
How else do farmers cooperate? - Their membership in KAIIFC is very beneficial
because they can access credit; That solves
their problems, since they can purchase input
supplies for their farming needs.
- The cooperative is open to men and women
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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
7 women grape producers, 10 women grape producers, 20 women almond producers,
various villages in Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan Members of KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
and includes 1,700 members, of which 350 are
women. The cooperative provides information
about agriculture, which includes almonds.

Constraints and opportunities Challenges: Challenges: Constraints:

What are the main barriers and opportunities - Growing: Hard work; pests. - Rain. - Shortage of water.
in growing grapes/raisins? - Drying: Dust; rain; flies/birds/mice. - Sometimes traders don’t come and raisins - Lack of access to modern technology.
Do men and women face similar problems rot. - Lack information about best-quality inputs
producing grapes/raisins? If not, why do you Opportunities: which are not available in Khulm.
think that is? - Grape juice boiled and jarred for Support that they need: - Lack of extension training in horticulture.
How do you think these problems could be consumption during winter for whole family. - Fertilizer, pesticide at the right time. - Lack of access to packing, cleaning, sorting,
solved? - Raisins used in many recipes. - Growing: proper caring methods. and grading equipment.
Do you think you could sell more products to - Raisin prices and opportunities are - Lack of training in pest and disease
your current customers? If so, how? increasing in the market. management.
Do your customers provide you with - Men and women in this remote area always
information on how to improve your - Could be selling more, but quality is an face problems, but women face more than
products? important factor. men because of culture problems. They said
Does the government or other international - Women trying to take a bigger part in this that ―women suffer twice in this country.‖
organizations help you with your value chain by:
production/marketing? 1. Encouraging husbands to place trellising Opportunities:
Could women take on additional activities in for grapes. - They said that they have capacity to
the value chain that they are not performing 2. Pruning better. increase production if they have more land
already? If yes, what? If no, why not? 3. Preventing pests. and receive training in modern techniques.
Have you or other women tried to take on 4. Regular irrigation. - The traders should provide them marketing
more activities? What was your experience? 5. Improving transfer of harvest to home. information (for example, which varieties of
What activities do you think could help you Current method of transporting on donkey almond fetch good prices).
be more profitable? damages too many grapes. - No help from MAIL but some training from
What obstacles do you face in acquiring new 6. Using better drying equipment. HLP (only for a short period).
customers? Have you approached foreign 7. Obtaining better price information. - Women can do grafting, packing, and
buyers? improve their marketing skills if they can
Have you ever received any complaints receive training to do so.
about your products from customers? - For women to become traders, they will need
What activities do you need assistance in to time to gain the skills and the acceptance of
help improve your incomes? the communities. At present, the people at
Khulm are not yet ready to see women in the
market.
- Women can do a lot of things if given training
and orientation. At present, they already
produce almonds, pomegranates, and other
fruit. They rear livestock, including milking
cows and managing poultry. They raise
children, cook, clean the home, and work on
the farm (assisting with the harvest as well).
These are all women’s contributions, which
are never counted.
- Both almond and livestock production are
more profitable businesses than other
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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
7 women grape producers, 10 women grape producers, 20 women almond producers,
various villages in Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan Members of KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
agricultural activities.
- Traders approach them for their almonds, so
they have no problem marketing them. They
have no opportunities to meet foreign buyers.
- No complaints received from traders since
our products are sweet, good quality, and
what the market demands.
-They need access to more water, technical
assistance, good quality inputs like fertilizers
and pesticides, new irrigation systems, and
market information outside of Khulm.
Gender Men’s roles: - In their area, 169 families reside but there are
How many farmers live in your area? Cutting, irrigation (growing); harvesting; no women traders among them. All are
Are there any women almond/grape/raisin carrying trays of harvested produce; placing interested in learning skills to run any kind of
traders? Would any of you be interested in and initial sorting on roof; packing into sacks; business.
taking that role? carry sacks; marketing. - Husbands, with consultation of women at
Who determines which farming activities to Women’s roles: home.
pursue, what to purchase, how to spend Pruning (growing); harvesting; - They feel very comfortable and enjoy raising
income, and so on? collecting/transferring harvest to trays; their voices and opinions.
Do you feel comfortable voicing your separating fresh from dried grapes; sorting
opinions? out best quality raisins.

- Women keep 1–7 ser (up to 40 kg) of the

raisin production for home, guests, gifts. Men
sell the remainder in the market (the women
receive the money from the men). They receive
up to Af 500/ser if produce is very clean.
- Men perform most activities (widows are an
exception).
- Men mostly make the decisions, but women
feel comfortable voicing their opinions. The men
often ask for women’s opinions. Men make
decisions based on market prices and demand
but often consider women’s opinions.

Producers – Focus group discussions (continued)

Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
3 male CDC members/grape producers, 4 male CDC members/grape producers, 8 male almond producers, 4/8 members of
Dasht-e-Opyan Village, Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
Products, end markets, and customers - All farmers produce grapes and raisins for sale. - All farmers produce grapes and raisins for - They produce almonds for sale.
Do you grow grapes/almonds for sale? Do - Knowledge of growing and drying grapes is a sale. - They inherited their farms from their fathers
you produce raisins? legacy of their parents; they have pursued this - Knowledge of growing and drying grapes is a and grandfathers.
How long have you been growing almonds activity for as long as anyone can remember. legacy of their parents; they have pursued this - No organization assisted them; they learned
or grapes and/or drying grapes? - Like their parents before them, they began activity for as long as anyone can remember. almond production from their fathers and other
How did you begin growing growing grapes as children. - Like their parents before them, they began members of their family.
almonds/grapes? Did anyone or any - Yes, a government cooperative and an NGO growing grapes as children. Nobody helped - Saterbayee and Gambarbayee almonds.
organization assist in this? (Mercy Corps) helps in the following ways: them; they just learned from their parents. - Aside from almonds, we produce other fruit

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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
3 male CDC members/grape producers, 4 male CDC members/grape producers, 8 male almond producers, 4/8 members of
Dasht-e-Opyan Village, Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
What type of almonds/grapes/raisins do you providing training in grape and raisin production - Source of income is horticulture; one such as apricots, pomegranates, and grapes.
produce? and processing that includes methods for participant said some income came from salary But Khulm is most suited to almond and
Do you know what type of planting orchards, pruning vines, harvesting of daughter working with AWBC as VF. pomegranate production because these crops
grapes/raisins/almonds are most in demand grapes, drying grapes to make raisins, and - They sell grapes and raisins to don’t require much water to survive.
in the market? generally caring for orchards (for example, traders/middlemen who sell them afterward to - They bring their almonds to the Khulm Market
What are your other sources of income? methods of dealing with infestations of aphids exporters and middlemen from Kabul and and meet many traders who want to buy their
To whom do you sell your and other pests). Jalalabad. produce. They just buy the harvested and sun-
almonds/grapes/raisins? - The NGO purchased 40 t of raisins this year - The men sell the produce. dried almonds.
Does anyone assist you in selling? If yes, and will purchase about 100 t next year. The - Two to four traders come to their village and - In Khulm, where villages are mostly far apart
who? NGO sent the raisins to the USA last year. They buy the produce of the entire orchard or ready- and there are no big orchards, traders usually
Do the traders bring their own labor to plan to buy grapes this year, too, and will send packed grapes and raisins. just go to the Khulm Market to meet farmers and
harvest or do they buy already harvested them to the UK and Dubai. - Yes, when they require money for immediate buy produce. More than 30 traders are based in
grapes? - They provided sprayers to 25 farmers already needs, they sell some of their produce in the Khulm. They know of no women traders.
Do traders travel to your village to purchase registered with Mercy Corps and also provided local market. - Yes, we travel to the market to sell our
products? How many traders come to your mats to farmers. - Yes, they have transport to the local market; produce, either alone or with neighbors. We
village? Are there women traders? - Farmers sell their grapes and raisins to the it’s almost Af 100 for a round trip. usually talk with our neighbors to see if they will
Do the farmers organize themselves for NGO at a price higher than the current market - No, they are looking for high prices. also bring their produce to the market and want
transport to bring product to market? price (market price for raisins was Af 200 for 7 - Women could sell their products but this task to share transport costs. We pay transportation
Do you travel to the market to sell your kg; NGO purchased at Af 350/7 kg). traditionally belongs to men. Culture prohibits at a cost of around Af 100 per person and
products? If so, does anyone accompany - The men sell the produce. women from selling products to men traders. additional costs depending on how many sacks
you? Who? - Two to four traders come to their village and we have to bring to the market.
Do you have transportation to travel to the buy the produce of the entire orchard or ready- - We first check which of the traders offers the
market? What is the cost? packed grapes/raisins from unregistered highest price and we sell to them.
Do you sell to the same customer, or do you farmers.
look for new customers as well? - No, there are no women traders.
- Yes, when they require money for immediate
needs, they sell some of their produce in the
local market.
- Yes, they have transport to the local market;
it’s almost Af 100 for a round trip.
- No, they are looking for high prices.
- The government cooperative provides training
but they are working with the NGO (Mercy
Corps) for the benefit of the farmers.
- Women could sell their products but this task
traditionally belongs to men. Culture prohibits
women from selling products to men traders.
Inputs - They use seed, fertilizer, irrigation tools, and - They use seed, fertilizer, irrigation tools, and - From 1.5 to 5 jeribs.
How much land do you have for farming? packaging (big bags for raisins and crates and packaging (big bags for raisin and crates and - They own land inherited from fathers.
On what size area do you grow your plastic bags for fresh grapes). plastic bags for fresh grapes). - They use fertilizer and pesticide for almond
grapes/almonds? - The NGO provides some tools to registered - They purchase inputs from the nearest local farms.
Who owns this land? Is the ownership under farmers. market (Charikar). - They buy inputs in Khulm Market. They are
your father/husband? - They purchase inputs from the nearest local - Usually men purchase inputs, but widows located in the center of the district and travel to
If you are a widow, who owns the land that market (Charikar). themselves purchase what they need. the market via local transportation.
you farm? - Usually men purchase inputs, but widows - They have local irrigation tools such as - Input suppliers do not travel to the village to
How many ser of grapes, raisins, or almonds themselves purchase what they need. shovels. sell their products. The men buy supplies from
do you produce on one jerib (on average)? - They have local irrigation tools such as - The men interact with suppliers. the market.
Which inputs do you use (seed, fertilizer, shovels. - To buy inputs they use cash or savings from - They pay cash; suppliers do not provide credit.
irrigation equipment, drying equipment, - The men interact with suppliers. the previous harvest. Sometimes suppliers They can also obtain loans from the cooperative
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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
3 male CDC members/grape producers, 4 male CDC members/grape producers, 8 male almond producers, 4/8 members of
Dasht-e-Opyan Village, Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
packaging)? - To buy inputs they use cash or savings from provide credit. to buy inputs.
Where do you obtain your inputs? the previous harvest. Sometimes suppliers - Men know how to buy good-quality inputs, - The quality of inputs is not good. They
Are the suppliers located close to your provide credit. which are already packed, bagged, or bottled. complain but suppliers do not listen.
village or in the nearest town? - Men know how to buy good-quality inputs, - They’ve received no training from input - Supplies come in small packages that they can
If the suppliers are in town, do you travel which are already packed, bagged, or bottled. suppliers. afford.
there on your own or are you accompanied? - They’ve received no training from input - They receive no training from input suppliers.
By whom? suppliers. They learned how to use inputs only from their
Do the suppliers travel to your village? Who families and neighbors.
interacts with the supplier and purchases
inputs in your family (you or the men or
both)?
How do you pay for these inputs? Do the
suppliers provide credit?
Are you satisfied with the quality of these
suppliers? Have you ever complained to the
suppliers?
Do the inputs come packaged in the right
quantity?
Do you receive training when you purchase
inputs?
Family structure and income sources - 6–14 people (of 14 people, 7 are male and 7 - 8–15 people (of 8 people, 4 are male, 4 - On average 5–150 people. More than 50% are
How many people live in your home? female). female; of 15 people, 7 are female and 8 male). women.
How many are men? How many are: - All family members are involved in grape - All family members are involved in grape - 50% of family members work on almond
women? farming and raisin production. farming and raisin production. production (weeding, harvesting, shelling,
How many members are involved in - The family works together, male and female, - The family works together, male and female, drying, and bringing to market).
farming? How many are involved in because when the grape harvest is finished, because when the grape harvest is finished, - Their sources of income are almonds,
almond/grape farming? raisin production begins. raisin production begins. pomegranates, grapes, and livestock.
What are the sources of income in your - Income comes from horticulture and - Income comes from horticulture and - Land is property of all family members,
home? agriculture. Only one family is supported by agriculture. Only one family is supported by inheritance from fathers.
Does your family own the land? Is the daughter’s income as VF for MEDA. daughter’s income as VF for MEDA.
ownership under your father/husband? - Some families have their own land and some - Some families have their own land and some
lease. Ownership is usually under men but also lease. Ownership is usually under men but also
under women or children over 18. under women or children over 18.
Technologies and techniques - Learned from government cooperative or - Learned from their parents. - No training so far.
How did you learn about growing Mercy Corps. Training was free. 3 days of - They store grapes on the ground or on the - After harvest they shell almonds and dry them.
almonds/grapes? training provided by cooperative and 3 by Mercy floor, but before storing grapes they clean the At times they remove the second shell to get a
Have you ever received training in growing Corps. ground or floor. better price, but because many almonds crack
almonds or growing and drying grapes? If - Yes, we learned about drying grapes and - Yes, before selling raisins they clean them. and the losses are high, they seldom perform
yes, from whom? taking care of orchards, as noted above. - Yes, they put raisins in small and big bags. the second shelling.
Did you pay for the course? How long was - They store grapes on the ground or on the - In all cases men and women work together, - They store sun-dried almonds in one of the
the training? floor, but before storing grapes they clean the but women can’t move heavy produce from rooms in their houses.
Describe your method for harvesting ground or floor. one place to another. - They don’t know about any packaging, they
grapes/almonds. - Yes, before selling raisins they clean them. - Yes, if there are other methods they can use just use sacks and bring almonds to market that
Do you perform any processing, such as - Yes, they put raisins in small and big bags. them, and they will be very happy because the way.
cleaning of fresh grapes? - In all cases men and women work together, but quality of their raisins will be good. - Men are the ones who buy seedlings, plant,
How do you store your fresh grapes prior to women can’t move heavy produce from one - No storage facility in this village. irrigate, graft, and take produce to market.
selling? place to another. - Yes we have plenty, use simple local Women assist in weeding, applying pesticides,
How did you learn about drying grapes? - Yes, if there are other methods they can use irrigation tools. cleaning; sorting, grading, and shelling.
How do you dry grapes? Describe method. them, and they will be very happy because the - There are no storages facilities
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Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
3 male CDC members/grape producers, 4 male CDC members/grape producers, 8 male almond producers, 4/8 members of
Dasht-e-Opyan Village, Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
Do you clean your raisins prior to selling? Do quality of their raisins will be good. - They lack water and know of no other system
you remove stems or perform any other - No storage facility in this village. of irrigation. They have no access to any
processing? - Yes we have plenty, use simple local irrigation equipment for irrigation.
Do you package your raisins? If yes, how? tools.
Which activities are handled by the women
and which are handled by the men?
Would you be willing to try other methods for
drying grapes?
Describe your method for processing
almonds. Do you break the shells? How do
you store prior to selling?
Do you have any storage facilities?
Do you have enough water? Do you use any
irrigation? If so, using what equipment?
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - The men usually go to the market to get current - The men usually go to the market to get - The men usually talk to the traders. They first
Who in your family sets the price of the price information and share it with the rest of the current price information and share it with the ask around for the prices of almonds and then
almonds or grapes/raisins? Is more than one family, especially the spouse and older children. rest of the family, especially the spouse and they decide to whom they will sell them. They
person involved? If so, how is the decision Men also deal with traders. In some families, older children. Men also deal with traders. In usually go to those who offer the highest prices.
taken? women deal with traders, but commonly it is the some families, women deal with traders, but - By asking all the traders, they learn the
Are you aware of market prices? If so, how job of men. commonly it is the job of men. prevailing prices.
do you get this information? - The demand for both grapes and raisins varies - The demand for both grapes and raisins - They get good prices for Satarbayee and
Does the demand for almonds and throughout the year. During the 2 Eids the varies throughout the year. During the 2 Eids Ghamberbayee because these are the varieties
grapes/raisins vary, or is it constant demand for both goes very high. the demand for both goes very high. the traders want to buy.
throughout the year? - Also when there is an export market for - Also when there is an export market for - The prices usually vary among traders
Do the prices vary? What price do the raisins the price and demand are definitely raisins the price and demand are definitely depending on the quality of one’s produce.
traders offer you? high. high. - Almonds give better prices, which is why they
Do you obtain better prices at the farm gate - Usually raisins are more profitable but - Usually raisins are more profitable but continue to take care of their almond trees.
or in town? sometimes grapes are. sometimes grapes are. - If they harvest and do not need money, they
What earns higher profit, table grapes or – Yes, but we use income for our children’s – Yes, but we use income for our children’s just store their almonds and sell them when they
raisins? weddings (daughters, sons, and sometime for weddings (daughters, sons, and sometime for need money. The price of almonds rises when
Do you ever save any of your income? If so, ourselves). ourselves). the supply is almost finished, so it is better to
what do you use your savings for? have storage facilities because you can store
almonds longer and get better prices.
- Savings are used for family emergencies and
social events like weddings.
Financing and government assistance - Cash from savings. Sometimes get credit. - Cash from savings. Sometimes get credit. - They pay cash when they buy inputs.
How do you pay for inputs, technologies, - No, they haven’t gotten a loan so far. - No, they haven’t gotten a loan so for. - They know about the cooperative because
and other items required for grape, almond, - Yes, buyers give producers cash in advance if - Yes, buyers give producers cash in advance if farmers are members and they can borrow for
and raisin production? they ask, and producers return the advance they ask, and producers return the advance their faming needs.
What types of financing are available, and during the harvest. during the harvest. - They can get loans from the cooperative, and it
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, - No, the government never provides any - No, the government never provides any is accessible because it is only in their district.
microfinance loans, and so on)? training for men or women, but our women are training for men or women, but the women are - Men who are members of the cooperative have
Have you ever taken a loan? If so, who interested in receiving training, which they think interested in receiving training, which they think taken loans from the cooperative for 6 and 9
controls the loan (what it’s used for and is better. is better. months to buy inputs.
repayment) in your family? - Traders do not offer advance payments or
Do your buyers ever offer you or the men credit.
credit? What are the terms? - They have received no training from the
Does the government provide any training or government.
extension?
102
Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
3 male CDC members/grape producers, 4 male CDC members/grape producers, 8 male almond producers, 4/8 members of
Dasht-e-Opyan Village, Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
If so, is it accessible to both women and
men?

Cooperation level - At present there is no association, but they are - No. - Half of the men interviewed are members of
Do you belong to an almond/grape group or registered with Mercy Corps and the government KAIIFC, while half want to become members.
organization? cooperative. - They know that to become members of the
If so, how do they assist you? Do they - Both provide training, provide lunch for association, men can get assistance and support
provide training? Do you pay a membership trainees, and pay them Af 100/day during the from other members as well as cooperative staff.
fee? training or meeting. They also learn from the experiences of other
If no, do you think joining an association - To support farmers technically and financially farmers.
would have any benefits? and provide them all the tools that farmers need. - They only received loans from the cooperative
What is the association, what is its mandate, - Yes, this training is very useful and productive and save money. They want technical
and so forth? for all farmers in their village. assistance in production and marketing.
Does the association have collection or - Yes it is for both men and women, and the - KAIIFC is a cooperative of farmer-members.
processing services? women are not allowed by their families to come The mandate is to help farmers. If you get a
Do you find it beneficial to be part of this to the Raisin Cooperative Center. loan, you have to pay a 2% administrative fee on
group? the balance of your loan. The cooperative also
Is the association open to both men and gets 10% of the loan to use as savings and
women? What is the spread capital sharing accounts (both earn interest).
(approximately)? This service is beneficial to the group because
How else do farmers cooperate? they can both save and borrow.
- The cooperative is open to men and women
and has 1,700 members, of which 350 are
women. Famers share their experiences.
Constraints and opportunities Challenges: Challenges: Constraints:
What are the main barriers and opportunities - Grapes: Men and women face similar - Grapes: The men and women face similar - Shortage of water.
in growing grapes/raisins? problems, but the cooperative and NGO assist problems, including diseases; aphids; pests. - Pests and diseases.
Do men and women face similar problems them to solve the problems; other challenges - Raisins: Insects, flies, and birds; dust; rain. - Lack of marketing information.
producing grapes/raisins? If not, why do you include diseases; aphids; and other pests. Men and women both use pesticides to get rid - Poor quality of fertilizers and pesticides being
think that is? - Raisins: Insects, flies, and birds; dust; rain. of these problems. sold.
How do you think these problems could be Men and women both use pesticides to get rid of - Lack of machinery and equipment.
solved? these problems. Opportunities: - Lack of training in new techniques.
Do you think you could sell more products to - When we have a good-quality product
your current customers? If so, how? Opportunities: definitely we can sell more. Yes, sometime Opportunities:
Do your customers provide you with - When we have a good-quality product, they provide us some information - Having our own land is an opportunity.
information on how to improve your definitely we can sell more. Yes, sometimes they - Raisins used in 2 Eids and New Year - Long experience with almond farming for a
products? provide us with information. festivities long period.
Does the government or other international - Raisins used in 2 Eids and New Year - Raisin opportunities will be increased if there - Availability of cooperative in the area.
organizations help you with your festivities. is an export market. - Increasing demand for almonds from traders.
production/marketing? - Raisin opportunities will increase if there is an - The extent to which women can be involved - Availability of good seed.
Could women take on additional activities in export market. in farm activities depends on their energy, but - Yes, we can sell more if we have more land
the value chain that they are not performing - The extent to which women can be involved in cultural influences prevent them from doing so. and improved production (both quality and
already? If yes, what? If no, why not? farm activities depends on their energy, but - No, before we had some traders from quantity).
Have you or other women tried to take on cultural influences prevent them from doing so. Pakistan, but not now. We never received any - Traders inform us which varieties are in
more activities? What was your experience? - No, before we had some traders from Pakistan, complaints about our products from our demand and fetch higher prices.
What activities do you think could help you but not now. We never received any complaints customers. - We don’t know any international organization
be more profitable? about our products from our customers. helping us in production and marketing.
What obstacles do you face in acquiring new - Women can also do grafting, aside from
103
Research questions Focus group discussion Focus group discussion Focus group discussion
3 male CDC members/grape producers, 4 male CDC members/grape producers, 8 male almond producers, 4/8 members of
Dasht-e-Opyan Village, Parwan Qakaran Village, Parwan KAIIFC,
Khulm, Mazar
customers? Have you approached foreign weeding, harvesting, and sun drying. They can
buyers? also go to the market and sell to traders if they
Have you ever received any complaints are allowed by their family and if provided with
about your products from customers? business and marketing training.
What activities do you need assistance in to - If the farmers can go directly to wholesalers to
help improve your incomes? sell their produce, they can earn more. If they
also have equipment to remove the second shell
without large losses, they will earn more as well.
- No, they have approached no foreign buyers
since they go directly to the wholesalers.
- When the traders get their products, they
receive no complaints. Traders are satisfied with
their products.
- Technical assistance in improved production
and processing.
Gender - 80% residents are farmers. - 80% residents are farmers. - Their area has more than 200 families but no
How many farmers live in your area? - No women traders. Women might be interested - No women traders. Women might be women traders.
Are there any women almond/grape/raisin in this role but their families (husbands and interested in this role but their families - Husbands, with consultation of women at
traders? Would any of you be interested in sons) do not permit it. (husbands and sons) do not permit it. home, make decisions.
taking that role? - They always like to talk to visitors so they can
Who determines which farming activities to Men: Men: discuss their concerns. They would like to have
pursue, what to purchase, how to spend - Pruning vines. - Pruning vines. technical assistance from MAIL or other NGOs
income, and so on? - Irrigating and growing. - Irrigating and growing. so they can improve their almond production.
Do you feel comfortable voicing your - Carrying trays of harvested produce. - Carrying trays of harvested produce.
opinions? - Placing and initial sorting on roof. - Placing and initial sorting on roof.
- Packing in sacks. - Packing in sacks.
- Carrying sacks. - Carrying sacks.
- Marketing. - Marketing.

Women: Women:
- Pruning vines - Pruning vines
- Collecting/transferring harvested produce to - Collecting/transferring harvested produce to
trays. trays.
- Sorting out best-quality raisins. - Sorting out best-quality raisins.
- Receiving up to Af 200–300/ser if very clean - Receiving up to Af 200–300/ser if very
clean
- Men mostly makes decisions, but most families
include women in decision making. - Men mostly makes decisions, but most
families include women in decision making.

104
Women’s land ownership – Focus group discussions (continued) - 5 attendees
 Only one woman said she had land registered solely in her name.
 Another had land but the title was not registered in her name because of cultural barriers.
 Legally women have the right to own land, but in practice the government and cultural, family, and village pressures prevent many women from registering title to land in their name.
 Often land is jointly owned with brothers and sisters but seldom is it solely owned by a women or wife.
 The barrier to women owning land is cultural, not religious.
 In the provinces, women who try to own land in their own names run the risk of harm to themselves (and corruption is also involved).
 Women’s land ownership is more difficult in villages and provinces outside of Kabul; therefore in Kabul more women are seen owning land in their names.
 The department in charge of land ownership is the Office of the Governor in each province, under the Ministry of Interior and Municipalities, which is under the Office of the
President.
 A Human Rights Department exists but has influence on women’s land ownership issues.
 MOWA’s legal department can facilitate land titling for women but has no power to enforce the law.
 For women to learn about and exert their right to own land at the local level, strong government policies and the capacity to enforce them must be in place.

Traders / Wholesalers (mandvi)

Research questions Hajji Gula Jan Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Mohammad Hashim Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Hajji Painda Mohammad and Sons Company,
Kabul
Products, end markets, and customers - Dried fruits only in his store. Shops and - They sell all kinds of dried fruits. - Hajji Painda Mohammad and Sons is a private
- Do you sell fresh grapes, raisins, or supermarkets are their customers, along with - No, they get their products from the provinces export and domestic processing company,
almonds? shopkeepers from the provinces. through middlemen. founded by the grandfather of Hajji Gull Ahmad
- What do you sell, where, and who are your - No, they have a local market only. - 40% of sales are raisins and 30% of those are about 100 years ago. This company is one of the
customers (export or local markets)? - 30% are raisins and 30% almonds. almonds. They mainly export their almonds to biggest dried fruit processing and export
- Do you sell to exporters? How many? - Both products bring good incomes; the income the USA. companies in Afghanistan.
- Do you sell to processing factories? How depends on the quality. - Both products bring good income, depending - This company proposes to export most of dried
many? - He doesn’t know actually, but he thinks the on their quality. fruits and nuts, especially raisins, pistachios, and
- Do you sell to the mandvi? highest profits are from almonds. - Not provided. almonds, to India, Pakistan, Russia, and Turkey.
- Do you sell to retailers? How many? - Yes; from time to time, he gets more customers - Yes; from time to time they get more family, - This company is also a member of the Dried
- Are large and small wholesalers at the (retailers and government people). Especially retail, and government customers, especially Fruit Union in Afghanistan; their membership
mandvi? Do you sell to small or large during the two EIDs and New Year, he gets during events like EID and the New Year. fees are based on the union’s annual expenses.
wholesalers, or both? more customers and families. - They get no complaints.
- Do you sell to any local juice companies? - We haven’t gotten any complaints so far. - Yes, export opportunities are growing for
How many juice companies are there? - Yes, there are growing export opportunities for raisins, almonds, and other nuts.
- Do you also import any products? raisin, almonds, pistachios, and other nuts, but
- What percentage (approximately) of your this year there is lack of almonds to export.
sales are grapes, raisins, or almonds?
- Which product provides you with the
highest income?
- How much is your net profit from the sales
of each of the 3 products?
- Is the demand for grapes, raisins, and/or
almonds growing? If so, why do you think
that is?
- Are your customers growing? If so, who are
they?
- Do you ever receive complaints about your
products?
- Have you experienced growing export
opportunities for any of the 3 products?

105
Research questions Hajji Gula Jan Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Mohammad Hashim Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Hajji Painda Mohammad and Sons Company,
Kabul
Inputs - Through middlemen in Parwan, Panjshir, - Panjshir, Ghazni, Samangan, and Kandahar - They get their supply from Ghazni, Samangan,
- Where do you get your supplies of grapes, Ghazni, Samangan, Logar, Kandahar, and through middlemen. Kandahar, Helmand, Parwan, and Logar
raisins, or almonds? Helmand they purchase their stocks of dried - Middlemen supply their products from more provinces.
- Do you have any special arrangements fruits. distant provinces. - Yes, they use brokers or middlemen and
with suppliers? Do you ever take your own - Middlemen supply their products from more - They ask producers to provide dried fruits for others: Middlemen supply products from more
labor to harvest farmers’ crops? distant provinces. them. distant provinces; middlemen purchase dried
- Are there any large grape or almond - They ask producers to provide better-quality - They purchase from both men and women fruits from provincial traders to specifications for
producers? How many? dried fruits for them. directly. quality and type of produce; and provincial
- Who do these large farmers sell to? Do - They purchase from both men and women - No, there is no difference in dealing with traders purchase dried fruits from men and
they perform any processing prior to selling? directly. One woman sold dried mulberries and women and men. women farmers in the villages or from the
- What kind of processing is performed for pies to a wholesaler. - No, the traders and farmers deliver. provincial market.
fresh grapes and by whom? - No, there is no difference in dealing with - Yes, but sometimes they lack money due to - Traders also provide some drying facilities to
- Do you perform any processing of fresh women and men, but women are pushing for drought. farmers for their raisins.
grapes, raisins, or almonds? What kind of high prices. - Yes, they really emphasize the quality of their - Transportation is also provided by traders or
processing is performed for fresh grapes? - They do not provide transport; traders and products. middlemen.
Do you package? farmers deliver. - Yes, they have enough raisin stocks but
- Do farmers ever travel in groups to sell - Yes, but sometimes they lack money due to the usually not enough almond stocks because of a
directly to the market? drought. lack of produce in the countryside. Right now
- Are farmers growing the right kind of - Yes, they informed them to bring good-quality there is high demand for almonds on the
almonds or grapes—in other words, the products that brought good markets and high international market but unfortunately they
varieties that are in demand? prices for producers and sellers. cannot meet it.
- Do you ever provide transportation to - Yes, they really emphasize quality products. - Yes, they really emphasize the quality of
farmers or groups of farmers to bring their products and different types of products
produce to you? according to export market demands.
- Do you ever use the services of a broker or - Usually they use the women for processing;
middleman? If yes, how does this right now 130 women work in their processing
arrangement work? factory in Taimeni.
- Do middlemen perform any processing? Do - Their daily wage is Af 100/50-kg bag.
they outsource any processing? - Processing usually involves the following steps:
- Do you purchase directly from farmers? 1. Washing raisins, and shaking them well to
Women or men? remove any deposits such as sand, rocks,
- Do you find a difference in dealing with and other small objects.
women and men farmers? 2. Afterwards, the women clean the raisins by
- Do the farmers or traders/wholesalers hand.
deliver the products to you? Do you provide 3. After cleaning, women and men package
transportation expenses/means? the produce according to export
- Do you usually have enough supply? If not, requirements.
how do you source more?
- Do you ever provide market information to
suppliers—specifically, information on which
products customers are demanding, the
quality required, and so on?
Technologies and techniques - Yes they clean, grade, sort, and package - Yes, they clean, sort, and package. - Yes, their factory has packaging and labeling
- Do you perform any post-harvest or produce. - Yes, mechanically and by hand; usually equipment for products destined for export.
processing activities, such as cleaning, - Yes, by hand, usually by the women. women do this work. - Yes, women clean, label, sort, and grade by
sorting, or packaging? - Women earn Af 100 for every small (50-kg) - Women earn Af 100 for every small (50-kg) hand.
- If yes, is it done by hand? bag they clean, sort, grade, and package. Men bag they clean, sort, grade, and package. Men - Yes, mechanically and by hand; usually women
- What kind of processing activities are do the delivery and shifting. do the delivery and shifting. do this work.
performed? Are stems removed? - Sometimes they do it mechanically in - Women do all post-harvest activities because
- In these post-harvest activities, which Pulcharkhi processing factory, which processes this is ―soft‖ work that women can do easily.
activities are generally performed by women a large volume (100 t) of produce. - Only men deliver and shift products.
106
Research questions Hajji Gula Jan Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Mohammad Hashim Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Hajji Painda Mohammad and Sons Company,
Kabul
and which are performed by men? Is there a - In Afghanistan, the equipment available is very
difference? low quality machinery made in China. They have
- Do you use any technology or equipment in little confidence in buying or using it, especially
your trade? If so, what? because there is no possibility of fixing it if it
breaks.
- They or their female staff never attend any
training in this regard, either from government or
NGOs.
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - Prices are fixed in the open market and also - Pricing is fixed by the municipality. - First of all, they assess the domestic and
- Market information (how, who, when). How depend on the quality of the produce. - No, it is open market, they fix the price international market for demand and pricing; the
do you determine pricing? - Yes, if they have good quality, especially themselves pricing is adjusted depending on the cost;
- Which products fetch higher prices? Are almonds and raisins. - Yes, if they have good quality, especially afterward they calculate their benefits based on
particular kinds of almonds, grapes, and - Yes, they are able to sell high-quality produce almonds and raisins. an open market situation.
raisins considered high-value types? here in Kabul, because Afghans and foreign - During the Eids and the New Year demand - They also get market information from mandvi;
- Do farmers or traders/wholesalers receive companies prefer good quality. rises and the prices are good. the union also provides them information on
higher prices from you for better quality - During the Eids and at the New Year demand markets, costs, and prices.
product? Are you able to sell the quality rises and prices are quite good. - Transportation is the responsibility of suppliers.
product at a higher price? - Almonds, pistachios, and pine nuts for export
- Is demand higher/lower at certain times of fetch the best prices.
the year? Why? - This company seeks the best quality of
almonds and pistachios that have been shelled,
cleaned, and sorted properly for export.
- Middlemen/traders usually buy unprocessed
produce and sometimes mix low- and good-
quality produce.
- Prices: The price a middleman will obtain from
a provincial trader is Af 350–400/kg of shelled
almonds of the best quality; the same product is
sold at Af 400–500 by middlemen to exporters.
- Middlemen usually go directly to the provincial
market or to traders to purchase dried fruits.
Financing - Yes cash. - Yes cash. - They purchase their entire stock with cash but
- Do you buy/sell with cash? - They never take credit from banks because - Informal credit system; they pay farmers and sometimes pay in advance depending on
- What types of financing are available and that is not allowed in Islam. traders in advance. requests from traders/ middlemen; also they pay
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, - Informal credit system; they pay farmers and - They pay traders on a weekly basis when middlemen/traders on a weekly or monthly
MFI, banking system)? traders in advance. they bring the produce. basis.
- Do you offer credit or purchase on credit? - They pay traders on a weekly basis when they - Informal system; they pay middlemen/traders;
What are the terms? bring the produce. they use their own money to their investments.
- Do you ever provide advances to your - They never get loans from any bank because
suppliers? charging interest is not valid in Islam. If a loan is
offered without interest they can obtain it;
otherwise they never want the credit.
- They save in different banks here in
Afghanistan or abroad but have no arrangement
with the bank or other sources for interest.

107
Research questions Hajji Gula Jan Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Mohammad Hashim Dried Fruit Store, Kabul Hajji Painda Mohammad and Sons Company,
Kabul
Cooperation level - A union of dried fruit wholesalers charges - Yes, unions of dried fruit suppliers charge Af - Yes, there is a union of dried fruit exporters in
- Are there associations of your suppliers? member Af 20/month. 20/month for membership. Kabul; they share the annual expenses of the
How are they structured? Are any of these - There are some women farmers, but the - There are some women farmers, but the union. No monthly membership.
women’s associations? company deals mostly with men, because company deals mostly with men, because - 20–25 exporters belong to the union.
- If you buy products from women or women are not allowed to negotiate over women are not allowed to negotiate over - No women exporters or traders are in their
women’s associations, what are the key produce with men. produce with men. union.
differences in dealing with women rather - Yes they would be willing to purchase from any - Yes, they would be willing to purchase from - Yes, they would be willing to purchase from
than men? women’s association or individual women. any women’s associations. any women’s company.
- Would you be willing to purchase from
women’s associations/groups?
Constraints and opportunities - They have stocking/storing problems; lack - They have stocking/storing problems; lack - They have stocking/storing problems and lack
- What constraints and opportunities do you processing facilities (machinery and technology processing facilities (machinery and technology processing facilities.
see (promising value chains?) and also financing); there are high taxes and low and also financing); there are high taxes and - Good quality machinery and technology and
- What are the major problems for the growth export markets for their products. low export markets for their products. (for some exporters) financing are high
of your business? - Yes the market is growing gradually. - Yes the market is growing time to time. constraints. High taxes and low export markets
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In - Growth in the almond value chain. - Growth in the almond and raisin value chains. are other issues for their business opportunity.
new markets? - Yes, machinery, technology, placing, - Yes, machinery, technology, processing, - Yes, the market is growing gradually for
- Which value chain has the highest growth processing, and marketing. marketing. almonds, walnuts, and pistachios; the market for
potential of all 3 products? raisins is very low this year.
- Is there a particular area that you think - Yes, there are machinery, technology, and
farmers need assistance with? export marketing problems.
- Problems with mixing sweet and bitter almond
varieties.
- Export market, to India, Pakistan, and Turkey is
very promising.
Gender - Not at all. Only a few women come to the - Not really, only a few women sell their - 130 women are working in their processing
- Are there women traders? If few or none, market and sell small volumes of produce. products. factory and all of them are assigned to
why? - Yes, they work in cleaning, sorting, grading, - Yes , they work in cleaning, sorting, and processing dried fruits.
- Are women working with you, or in this line and packaging. packaging. - ―Actually women lack decision-making power,
of business? - Women come here and work for the exporters - The women come here and work for them on and men don’t allow them to take part in
- Are there any women-managed wholesale and wholesalers in the market. the market floor. business or start their own business‖ (the owner
businesses in this area? Do women own - Yes, of course women can do everything but - The women manage the female laborers of the company).
these businesses, too, or are they family unfortunately most families don’t allow their working for wholesalers. - Of course when they have high export demand
owned? women to deal in business. - Government and NGOs assist them with they need to provide more products. In that
- Has the government or other NGOs ever - No, the government or NGOs have never finance. case, the company needs more women to
provided you with marketing support? assisted them in finance. - Women face more challenges than men process dried fruits.
- Do you think there is the potential for - Women face more challenges than men, based based on cultural beliefs.
women to be further involved in producing, on cultural prohibitions. - Yes, women can be involved in all activities.
processing, and marketing grapes, raisins, - Yes, the women can be involved in all market
or almonds? What can they do to improve activities if their families and society allow them
this position? to work or run their own business.
- Do you think men and women farmers face
the same challenges in their businesses?
Why or why not?

108
Wholesalers/traders (mandvi) (continued)
Research questions Haji Ebrahim Company, Kabul Hadji Naseer Dried Fruits, Kabul Nejabat Haidary Ltd.
Fresh Fruit Commission Agents, Kabul
Products, end markets, and customers - Sell almonds, raisins, pistachios, dried apricots, - They sell to the domestic and export market. - Sell all types of fresh fruit, such as grapes,
- Do you sell fresh grapes, raisins, or fried peas, apricot seeds, dried Russian olives, - They don’t import any products; 90% of sales pomegranates, apricots, melons, apples,
almonds? walnuts, dates, dried cherries, and other come from almonds and the rest from raisins, cherries, and so on. Their customers are from
- What do you sell, where, and who are your products. They sell to retailers and sellers who other dried fruits, and spices. India, Pakistan, UAE, as well as other retailers in
customers (export, local)? have carts, to individual customers. They do not - Almonds provide the highest income. Kabul.
- Do you sell to exporters? How many? import or export. They bought imported almonds - He has at least 10–15% income from his - Around 30% of their sales are grapes, but they
- Do you sell to processing factories? How from large wholesalers who import them. sales. are not sure about the quantity because it
many? - 30% of their sales are from almonds and about - Yes, demand for dried fruits is increasing and depends on the market, inside and outside
- Do you sell to the mandvi? 40% from raisins. there are more customers from India and Afghanistan.
- Do you sell to retailers? How many? - The highest profits are coming from walnuts; Pakistan. - The company supplies approximately 644 t/day
- Are there large and small wholesalers at market demand for walnuts is very high at the - No complaints, because my products are of fresh fruit inside and outside Afghanistan.
the mandvi? Do you sell to small or large moment. good quality and what customers request. - They did not specify their net monthly profits.
wholesalers or both? - Demand for almonds is falling while demand - Yes, the export demand for raisins and - Yes, based on their experience, demand for
- Do you sell to any local juice companies? for walnuts and raisins is increasing. Because almonds is growing. grapes and melons is increasing compared to
How many juice companies are there? almonds are oily they are not good for health, past years.
- Do you also import any products? but walnuts are used as medicine to lower blood - Yes, they received complaints and sometimes
- What percentage (approximately) of your fats. Walnuts are also cheaper than almonds customers reject their products.
sales are from grapes, raisins, or almonds? and all levels of customers can afford them. - They experienced growing markets, especially
- Which product provides you with the - Customer numbers are growing compared to for raisins for domestic consumption and export.
highest income? the past for a number of reasons, among others: Last year, they experienced losses in grapes
- How much is your net profit from the sales the farmers are here; NGOs are here, and because of the lack of storage facilities.
of each of the 3 products? NGOs are buying; a number of traders are - Note: On a daily basis, they send 35 t of
- Is the demand for grapes, raisins, and/or coming to Kabul to purchase food, including grapes directly to Pakistan from Tajikistan.
almonds growing? If so, why do you think dried fruits; almonds and raisins are increasingly - There is worldwide demand for Afghan grapes,
that is? used in cakes, cookies, and other sweets but MAIL lacks capacity to manage and respond
- Are your customers growing? If so, who are deserts. to all these needs.
they? - They receive complaints from customers, - Each day the Nejabat Market distributes 644 t
- Do you ever receive complaints about your especially about apricot seeds being bitter. They to traders and retailers inside the country.
products? trust the suppliers who bring the seeds and don’t - From all companies in this market, 100,000
- Have you experienced growing export check the product, so when the customers reject crates (14 kg each) are exported to other
opportunities for any of the 3 products? it they exchange it for something else. They countries.
always consider customers’ demands. - In this market, there is a union of 50
- They are not trying any opportunities for export. importers/exporters who are do processing as
well.
- The very famous traders are Haji Khawani, Haji
Shir Aqa, Haji Hakem, Haji Nejabat.
- They have a monthly fee of Af 200 for the
union.
- Each day 1,050 t of fresh fruit, 30% of which is
grapes, comes from Jalalabad, Kunduz, Parwan,
and Kandahar to this market, and then they
supply that produce to their retailers.
Inputs - They get their supplies from different sources: - Stocks sourced in Samanggan, Kunduz, - They get their supplies from Parwan,
- Where do you get your supplies of grapes, directly from middlemen, from farmers, and also Jawzjan, Mazar. Kandahar, Kabul, and Kunduz. They also get
raisins, or almonds? from individual processors, but mostly from - They buy directly from farmers or through their supplies from Tajikistan and Pakistan.
- Do you have any special arrangements middlemen. their agents. When they go directly to farmers, - They have a special arrangement with
with suppliers? Do you ever take your own - They share the quality and variety they offer a high price, unlike the agents who producers, sharing their requirements and going
labor to harvest farmers’ crops? requirements with suppliers. But they are not in purchase from farmers. It is cheaper to buy directly to the farm with hired labor for
- Are there any large grape or almond a position to improve suppliers’ operations. from traders than going directly to farmers. harvesting, sorting, grading, and packing in

109
Research questions Haji Ebrahim Company, Kabul Hadji Naseer Dried Fruits, Kabul Nejabat Haidary Ltd.
Fresh Fruit Commission Agents, Kabul
producers? How many? - They are processors. They buy sacks of dried - Some farmers travel from other provinces to cartons (10 kg) and crates (14 kg). The cartons
- Who do these large farmers sell to? Do fruits (56 kg) and hire women to break and clean Mazar to sell produce directly to them. If and crates are labeled and ready for export.
they perform any processing prior to selling? the fruit at a rate of Af 100/sack or Af 140–150 farmers come to them, farmers pay for their - They pay for each laborer/processor Af
- What kind of processing is performed for for a day’s work (8 am to 4 pm, breakfast and own transport. Yes, they use agents to buy 400/day. Everything is processed locally. No
fresh grapes and by whom? lunch included). After fruit is cleaned, sorted, from farmers, because their prices are lower. women are involved except for when they buy
- Do you perform any processing of fresh and graded, they send it to Policharkhi area, Agents buy from farmers at cost and then sell grapes from Tajikistan, where women do the
grapes, raisins, or almonds? What kind of where they have machinery to package produce to the company at a margin. processing, cleaning, sorting, and grading.
processing is performed for fresh grapes? in different-sized packages. All of the processors - They purchase from men as well as women, - They don’t use middlemen, since they buy
Do you package? are women. as long as they have produce available. directly from farmers. No women are involved in
- Do farmers ever travel in groups to sell - Sometimes they purchase directly from farmers Usually have enough stock. If they need more, their buying.
directly to the market? in Parwan, but not from any women. they talk with their agents to source more - When they travel to farms to collect grapes,
- Are farmers growing the right kind of - They purchase processed almonds and raisins produce. they pay their own transport costs.
almonds or grapes—in other words, the from women living in west Kabul (Hazara - Yes, they provide market information to - They have enough stock but sometimes
varieties that are in demand? women). They buy fruit and sell it after cleaning farmers and agents so they know what drought, disease, or the end of the harvest
- Do you ever provide transportation to for Af 10–20/kg. But this amount is not enough customers want and the quality they need. reduces stocks and they buy from other
farmers or groups of farmers to bring their to complete the supplies. suppliers.
produce to you? - No difference in dealing with women or men. - They always provide market information to
- Do you ever use the services of a broker or - They don’t provide any transportation for farmers. All farmers have mobile phones, so it’s
middleman? If yes, how does this suppliers and laborers doing processing. easy.
arrangement work? - They have enough stock but problems arise - Customers demand the best variety, very
- Do middlemen perform any processing? Do when the climate changes or there is drought. nicely packed and cleaned, fresh and tasty fruit.
they outsource any processing? - Diseases rarely cause supply problems. They
- Do you purchase directly from farmers? just look for other suppliers in other provinces.
Women or men? - They always provide market information to
- Do you find a difference in dealing with suppliers about quality and which fruits are in
women and men farmers? demand.
- Do the farmers or traders/wholesalers
deliver the products to you? Do you provide
transportation expenses/means?
- Do you usually have enough supply? If not,
how do you source more?
- Do you ever provide market information to
suppliers—specifically, information on which
products customers are demanding, the
quality required, and so on?
Technologies and techniques - They do processing, cleaning, sorting, grading, - Yes, but only by hand. They need cleaning, - They clean, sort, and grade at the gardens.
- Do you perform any post-harvest or and packing. Cleaning, sorting, and grading sorting, and packaging machine. - All processing is done by hand, which is why it
processing activities, such as cleaning, done by hand; packing is done mechanically. - For grapes, it is cleaning and sorting, while for is done by men. They don’t have access to
sorting, or packaging? - Women perform all of the activities mentioned, almonds, it is shelling and sorting. modern technologies.
- If yes, is it done by hand? but men carry sacks up to the roof for cleaning - Women do the cleaning and sorting.
- What kind of processing activities are or the processing center. Men do the - No technology and equipment are being
performed? Are stems removed? transporting. Heavy work belongs to men— used.
- In these post-harvest activities, which processing and cleaning. Packing, sorting, and
activities are generally performed by women grading is easy—it is women’s work.
and which are performed by men? Is there a - They have only a packing machine.
difference?
- Do you use any technology or equipment in
your trade? If so, what?

110
Research questions Haji Ebrahim Company, Kabul Hadji Naseer Dried Fruits, Kabul Nejabat Haidary Ltd.
Fresh Fruit Commission Agents, Kabul
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - Get market information from nearby shops, - They get information from the internet or from - They get market information directly from the
- Market information (how, who, when). How mandvi, also based on expenses and desired their customers from other countries. fresh fruit market; they get the exchange rate
do you determine pricing? profits. But no agency supplies market - Almonds are the most in demand, with high from TV. The high-value grade of raisin is
- Which products fetch higher prices? Are information. prices. Shungul Khani..
particular kinds of almonds, grapes, and - The best almond variety they sell (Af 800/kg) is - Yes, pricing depends on the variety and - For each quality level, there is a specific price
raisins considered high-value types? Shakh Bizo (meaning a type of goat horn); quality of produce that farmers and agents sell. they pay farmers; the quality from farmers is
- Do farmers or traders/wholesalers receive Shungul Khani raisin is the highest-value dried Yes, if they can give the variety and good high, they sell at high prices.
higher prices from you for better quality fruit of all the varieties they sell. quality of product that customers want, they - Demand for fresh fruit is higher at certain
product? Are you able to sell the quality - Dried fruit is a seasonal business. July and can get good profits. times. In summer, since the weather is hot, the
product at a higher price? August is the best time but by the end of need for fresh fruit is going up, especially for
- Is demand higher/lower at certain times of December, business decreases. making juice.
the year? Why?
Financing - They buy with cash. They have not applied for - Yes, only with cash. However, Pakistani - They deal in cash.
- Do you buy/sell with cash? any loan, since it would be like asking for buyers usually pay them when their truck or - They don’t take loans from MFIs or banks.
- What types of financing are available and interest-free credit, which is not an official loan. products are already at the border. They usually borrow from friends, relatives, or
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, The loan is a personal loan from - They don’t borrow from MFIs and banks but money dealers based on trust.
MFI, banking system)? friends/relatives. They don’t like credit from MFIs borrow from relatives or just use own capital. - They offer credit for retailers, but for export,
- Do you offer credit or purchase on credit? or banks, since it is taboo according to Islam. In - They pay cash to farmers and agents. they don’t sell on credit.
What are the terms? Islam getting any benefits or paying benefits - If agents ask for an advance and they have - Yes, they provide advances to farmers and
- Do you ever provide advances to your without any direct involvement in work and money, they can give the advance (always suppliers.
suppliers? efforts are taboo. They are not allowed to based on trust).
receive it. - They also use the help of money dealers
- They buy and sell on credit without any specific when they need money. At times, if they have
conditions or terms (only trust). excess money, they deposit it with the money
- They pay advances to suppliers sometimes but dealer, so by the time they need money, it will
not always. be easy for them to get a loan from the money
dealer.
Cooperation level - Suppliers have no associations, they are - There are farmer associations in some - There is no association of suppliers for fresh
- Are there associations of your suppliers? working individually. provinces that buy members’ produce and sell fruit.
How are they structured? Are any of these - Still no any women’s association; they haven’t as a group. This wholesaler also cooperates - No women or women’s groups supply this
women’s associations? heard of any women’s association to supply with trucking companies so they can guarantee wholesaler.
- If you buy products from women or produce. safe delivery of their products.
women’s associations, what are the key - They would have no problem purchasing from - No difference in dealing with women, but
differences in dealing with women rather women if there were a women’s association. usually deal with men, both farmers and
than men? agents.
- Would you be willing to purchase from
women’s associations/groups?
Constraints and opportunities - They don’t have enough space in the mandvi. Constraints: Constraints
- What constraints and opportunities do you - Rent for shops and government taxes are very - Government regulations from other - No access to underground storage and
see (promising value chains?) high. countries (Pakistan increased their taxes). trucks with cold storage.
- What are the major problems for the growth - Some of their shops are very old and need to - Meeting customers’ requirements—that is - No certification.
of your business? be rebuilt and repaired. The municipality doesn’t why they first check that they have enough - Lack of modern technologies for harvesting,
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In allow them to repair and rebuild. (quantity and quality) before they commit to cleaning, sorting, grading, and packaging.
new markets? - The hygiene of the mandvi is very poor; there orders. - No proper places for fresh fruit market to
- Which value chain has the highest growth is no access to water. They are surrounded by - Farmers should receive technical prevent losses and damage.
potential of all 3 products? drains and rubbish. assistance so they can produce good-quality - Lack of technologies for post-harvest
- Is there a particular area that you think - During winter, they are surrounded by water products. handling (to make juice, jams, and so on).
farmers need assistance with? because of poor drainage. The government - Problems in the harvest because of the - Customs problems with boarders and
cannot control the water, so the customers and water shortage. corruption.
shopkeepers face huge problems. - Lack of packaging technology. - Security problem.

111
Research questions Haji Ebrahim Company, Kabul Hadji Naseer Dried Fruits, Kabul Nejabat Haidary Ltd.
Fresh Fruit Commission Agents, Kabul
- The smoke of nearby restaurants pollutes. - Lack of knowledge on international
- There is no space for processing. They use the standards. Opportunities
roofs of the shops, which in winter and summer - They have good background and experience
creates problem for women processors. Opportunities: in growing grapes.
- For packing, they have space in other areas - Quality and varieties of Afghan dried fruits - The weather is suitable for fruit production.
such as Pulcharkhi but it is very far away. are excellent. - There is access to water.
- No storage facilities. - Demand for dried fruit products within and - The good communication system in the
- No government control of imported dried fruits; outside Afghanistan. country eases trade.
no control at checkpoints. - Products are naturally grown so they are in - There is great demand for grapes, both
- Despite these problems, business is growing demand in other countries. export and domestic.
owing to demand inside and outside the country - Access to pesticides and fertilizers.
for dried fruits. - Good quality and variety of grapes in the
- The fastest-growing part of the value chain is in country.
retail, since wholesalers and retailers like us far
from the community cannot compare with shops - Yes, there is growth both in existing and new
in Shar-e-naw and other commercial areas of markets.
the city. - The highest growth in the grape value chain is
- Farmers’ problems are lack of underground among retailers, because their risk is less
storage and managing pests and diseases. Also compared to wholesalers and exporters.
if farmers process produce, it is sold for a higher - Farmers need technical assistance and
price. training about fertilizer and pruning, time
management, post-harvest handling, solving
pest and disease problems, and storage.
- They also need interest-free loans for
agriculture.
- Updated marketing information and marketing
knowledge.
Gender - They don’t know any women traders because - No women traders at the moment. Almost all - They know of no women working in the fresh
- Are there women traders? If few or none, the national situation is not supportive for the 154 members of the MBDFA are men. fruit business. There are cultural barriers; there
why? women (it is not even suitable for men). There is no woman working for them. is also difficulty dealing with customs and
- Are women working with you, or in this line Especially security and culture are not very - Yes, GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für checkpoints.
of business? ready. Technische Zusammenarbeit), ACCI, IDEA- - No marketing information has been provided by
- Are there any women-managed wholesale - Women are working with them as processors NEW, and ASMED are helping them with the government so far.
businesses in this area? Do women own on the roof of shops and in the packing center in marketing support by providing market - There is potential, but for women to be involved
these businesses, too, or are they family Policharkhi area at a daily wage of Af 140 information, linkage to market, exposure to in business, they have to be supported by their
owned? (including breakfast and lunch). During winter, exhibitions, storage facilities, and packaging families. There should also be awareness in the
- Has the government or other NGOs ever they have few regular days of work but during materials. community that women can be allowed to do this
provided you with marketing support? summer months they come for a few days and - Yes, as long as their family allows them, there kind of business. Some of the problems that they
- Do you think there is the potential for work. Women laborers are controlled by women is no problem. see are insecurity, capacity-building for women,
women to be further involved in producing, supervisors paid Af 180–200/day. - Women will have a harder time dealing with and then the courage of women, which still need
processing, and marketing grapes, raisins, - No women work as wholesalers in this area in Indian and Pakistani traders because they are to be improved. For example, if processing and
or almonds? What can they do to improve the mandvi. more conservative when it comes to women. packing improve, they can play a very key rule in
this position? - No marketing support from government. the fresh fruit value chain.
- Do you think men and women farmers face - There is potential for women to work as traders - Definitely men and women both face problems,
the same challenges in their businesses? if they receive initial support to get courage. but women are more at risk. They suffer twice as
Why or why not? According to Islam, men and women can work much as men—first, because of culture, and
and gain food for the family. It is worship if work second because of the problems women are
and gain. facing at home. A woman needs to balance her
- They think farmers also have lots of problems time between the business and family concerns.
such as too much rain, drought, diseases, She also needs to get business skills so she can
marketing problems, lack of storage facilities, run the business effectively.
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Research questions Haji Ebrahim Company, Kabul Hadji Naseer Dried Fruits, Kabul Nejabat Haidary Ltd.
Fresh Fruit Commission Agents, Kabul
lack of marketing information, fertilizers, poor
irrigation system, lack of knowledge of
pollination and post-harvest handling, lack of
facilities for processing (so their losses during
processing are high), and so on.

Wholesalers/traders (continued)
Research questions Mazar Sharif Balkh Dry Fruits Processing Association Jawad Aziz Zada Fresh Fruit Company
Mazar Kabul
Products, end markets, and customers - MBDFA has been working for the past 2 years and has been registered - Yes, they sell all fresh fruit inside the country and export it abroad. They
- Do you sell fresh grapes, raisins, or for one year with MAIL. There are 7 members on its board of directors and buy grapes from Mazar, Parwan, Logar, Kandahar, and districts of Kabul
almonds? 154 active members. through middlemen and local traders and send it for sale to other
- What do you sell, where, and who are your - They sell cumin, almonds, pistachios, walnuts, raisins, sesame seeds, provinces that produce no grapes. More than 100 local retailers and
customers (export, local)? herbs, and spices. supermarkets purchase fresh fruit from this company as well. The
- Do you sell to exporters? How many? - Sales of almonds are highest (50%), followed by raisins (20%) and the company also exports good-quality Shongul Khani and Khishmishi grapes,
- Do you sell to processing factories? How other dried fruits, herbs, and spices. Almonds provide the highest income apples, pomegranates, apricots, and Melon to Pakistan, India, and Dubai.
many? (at least they have 10–20% net income). - Yes, in the off-season this company imports oranges, bananas, and
- Do you sell to the mandvi? - Yes, demand is increasing. As long as they have supplies and they are of mangoes from Pakistan and bananas, apples, pears, peaches, and
- Do you sell to retailers? How many? good quality, they can sell their products. oranges from Iran and China.
- Are there large and small wholesalers at - Yes, the customers are increasing. They are coming from India and - Seasonally grapes sell more than 50% and the highest income comes
the mandvi? Do you sell to small or large Pakistan. They come to Mazar directly to order or they order through from the grape export market, not the domestic market. They don’t know
wholesalers or both? emails. Usually they complain about the quality. about the profits.
- Do you sell to any local juice companies? - Javid is exporting raisins and almonds; 70% of their almond stock is - Yes, there is high demand for Shonder Khani grapes in the domestic
How many juice companies are there? exported and 30% sold to the domestic market. The export market will be and export markets because of the test and because Afghanistan is the
- Do you also import any products? growing in the next 5 years. only exporter of this type of grape around the world.
- What percentage (approximately) of your - All of the association’s 154 members have shops in a wholesale market in - Yes, their customers are increasing year by year, but last year Pakistan
sales are from grapes, raisins, or almonds? Mazar and all are men. As an exporter, what MBDFA wants is for the raised its taxes very high. Grapes were not exported to Pakistan and
- Which product provides you with the Afghan government to have an agency that will guarantee the contracts of farmers took a huge loss on their grapes. Local customers are the
highest income? Afghan exporters. middlemen who take grapes from Kabul to other provinces that do not
- How much is your net profit from the sales - Other countries have strong government support; Afghanistan does not. grow them.
of each of the 3 products? - There are 5 Dried Fruit Associations in the country (Mazar, Kunduz, -They also have a fresh fruit union in Kabul. They pay Af 100/month to
- Is the demand for grapes, raisins, and/or Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul). the union; they mostly use the union for setting prices.
almonds growing? If so, why do you think - No, but last year they had such a big loss from grapes.
that is?
- Are your customers growing? If so, who are
they?
- Do you ever receive complaints about your
products?
- Have you experienced growing export
opportunities for any of the 3 products?
Inputs - Produce is coming from Samanggan, Jawzjan, Kunduz, and Sarepul. - This company buys grapes from Mazar, Parwan, Logar, Kandahar, and
- Where do you get your supplies of grapes, Farmers bring their produce to Mazar (50%) and then to Kabul (50%). some districts of Kabul Province through middlemen, local traders, and
raisins, or almonds? Produce in Mazar is then processed and exported and sold to retailers for sometime by themselves.
- Do you have any special arrangements the domestic market. - No, they ask middlemen to supply grapes or other products to them.
with suppliers? Do you ever take your own - Farmers harvest and sell produce directly to wholesalers or to agents The middlemen go directly to the farmers in the provinces, purchase
labor to harvest farmers’ crops? traveling to their villages. their produce, and afterward transport it to the wholesalers. This
- Are there any large grape or almond - If they go to the villages to get the harvest, they pay for their own arrangement works well between the wholesalers and the middlemen in
producers? How many? transport; if farmers bring their products to them, they pay for their own supplying products.
- Who do these large farmers sell to? Do transport. - Yes, there are some large grape producers in Parwan, Kandahar,
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Research questions Mazar Sharif Balkh Dry Fruits Processing Association Jawad Aziz Zada Fresh Fruit Company
Mazar Kabul
they perform any processing prior to selling? - They have traders/agents going to the villages to get farmer’s produce, Mazar, and Kabul. They source (or middlemen supply) from more than
- What kind of processing is performed for which the agents then sell to them at a commission. 10 large producers.
fresh grapes and by whom? - At times, they purchase directly from farmers. The advantage is that the - They sell their produce to traders and middlemen or other companies’
- Do you perform any processing of fresh harvested produce is not mixed like it is when one buys from traders, who agents. No processors; the producers clean and package the grapes.
grapes, raisins, or almonds? What kind of mix varieties from the different places they buy them. - They pay Af 400/day to the laborers who work for their company.
processing is performed for fresh grapes? - Yes, they obtain enough stock from sourcing through agents. - Yes, sometimes when the market is down the farmers themselves bring
Do you package? - Products are delivered to them by agents or producers at their own their grapes to the Kabul fresh fruit mandvi.
- Do farmers ever travel in groups to sell expense, but if they get the products from agents or producers, they pay for - Farmers grow different types of grapes, but wholesalers buy according
directly to the market? their own transportation. to what their domestic or export market customers demand. Shonder
- Are farmers growing the right kind of - No difference in dealing with men and women, although most of the time Khani and Kishmishi are in greater demand.
almonds or grapes—in other words, the they deal with men, especially when it comes to trading and marketing. - The middlemen/traders and/or farmers themselves provide the
varieties that are in demand? - In the harvest season (March–July) they harvest, buy, and sell for six transportation.
- Do you ever provide transportation to months and in the other six months of the year (August–February) they sell - They purchase grapes from male wholesalers, traders, or farmers, not
farmers or groups of farmers to bring their (export and domestic). from women.
produce to you? - Yes, they provide information on the varieties in demand. - Yes, they usually have sufficient supply to meet their domestic and
- Do you ever use the services of a broker or export market demands.
middleman? If yes, how does this - Yes, of course they provide market information for their suppliers
arrangement work? regarding the quality and type of produce and rising and falling prices.
- Do middlemen perform any processing? Do
they outsource any processing?
- Do you purchase directly from farmers?
Women or men?
- Do you find a difference in dealing with
women and men farmers?
- Do the farmers or traders/wholesalers
deliver the products to you? Do you provide
transportation expenses/means?
- Do you usually have enough supply? If not,
how do you source more?
- Do you ever provide market information to
suppliers—specifically, information on which
products customers are demanding, the
quality required, and so on?
Technologies and techniques - They are the ones cleaning, processing, and packaging almonds since - Yes, when they buy produce afterward their male laborers clean, sort,
- Do you perform any post-harvest or producers and agents do not clean and process them. They also clean and and package it, all by hand.
processing activities, such as cleaning, process raisins, although producers do the initial cleaning and processing. - No, they never remove the grape stems, because the consumers like
sorting, or packaging? Most of this work is done by hand. grapes with stems. The MOC once provided cartons for traders last year.
- If yes, is it done by hand? - For almonds, most processing activities are still done by men. For raisins, - No women dealers in fresh fruit processing in the market, but on farms
- What kind of processing activities are women are involved in processing and cleaning. women prune, collect the harvest, and dry it, with the remaining activities
performed? Are stems removed? - Not now, but wanted to use solar dryers and packaging equipment. performed by men. Actually there is no difference; the difference is
- In these post-harvest activities, which cultural practice.
activities are generally performed by women - They use technology for labeling only. Otherwise they do everything by
and which are performed by men? Is there a hand.
difference?
- Do you use any technology or equipment in
your trade? If so, what?

114
Research questions Mazar Sharif Balkh Dry Fruits Processing Association Jawad Aziz Zada Fresh Fruit Company
Mazar Kabul
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - They go to the internet café to check on prices of their products in the - Based on an open market, they set prices for their produce. For the
- Market information (how, who, when). How local and export market. IDEA-NEW, a USAID project, will provide an export market they first assess the international market for both demand
do you determine pricing? internet connection to the group in their shops so they can connect directly and pricing; the pricing is set depending on the cost; afterward they
- Which products fetch higher prices? Are with markets outside the country. There are different prices for different calculate their benefits based on the situation in the open market.
particular kinds of almonds, grapes, and products, varieties, and quality levels. - They also get market information from the mandvi. The union also
raisins considered high-value types? - Almonds fetch higher prices than raisins and other dried nuts. The best provides market information and assists wholesalers/traders in setting
- Do farmers or traders/wholesalers receive quality of almonds is Satarbaye and Kambarbaye. prices.
higher prices from you for better quality - March–July is the season for harvesting, buying, and processing. Supply - Shongul Khani, Taifee, and Kishmishi grapes have a good export
product? Are you able to sell the quality is high, so price is low. August–February is the season for marketing. When market and bring good profits as well. Hussaini grapes have a good
product at a higher price? supplies are reduced, the price of dried fruits increases. domestic market.
- Is demand higher/lower at certain times of - Yes, when there is a high-quality product, definitely they ask for high
the year? Why? prices, because afterward the company is getting high prices as well.
Financing - They buy and sell with cash. They do not borrow from MFIs and banks - They purchase all of their stock with cash, informally they obtain
- Do you buy/sell with cash? because they charge interest, which is not good for Islam. They use their financing for their business. They never accept loans from MFIs or the
- What types of financing are available and private funds or borrow from relatives. banking system because they are not valid in Islam. They usually use
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, - Pakistani traders usually pay them after 3 months or once their products their own money for their investments.
MFI, banking system)? reach the border. - Sometimes they pay middlemen and traders in advance if they ask;
- Do you offer credit or purchase on credit? also they pay them on a weekly or monthly basis.
What are the terms?
- Do you ever provide advances to your
suppliers?
Cooperation level - They know of no associations of suppliers but they have cooperation with - Yes there is a union of fresh fruit wholesalers/exporters in Kabul. They
- Are there associations of your suppliers? transport companies. The transport companies in Mazar make their pay their membership (Af 100/month); there is no fresh fruit association
How are they structured? Are any of these exporting activity easier by assuring their products are until they are or union for women and no women traders for fresh fruit.
women’s associations? delivered to Pakistan. - About 30 wholesalers/ exporters have membership in this union.
- If you buy products from women or - Yes, if there are women’s associations, they have no problem dealing with - There is no difference in buying from men or women traders or
women’s associations, what are the key them. One cannot see women in the shops or in their market, because middlemen, and they would be willing to purchase from any women’s
differences in dealing with women rather women are not allowed to go there and because it is hot; the working association/company.
than men? conditions are not suitable for them.
- Would you be willing to purchase from
women’s associations/groups?
Constraints and opportunities Constraints: - They need air-conditioned trucks for collecting produce from the
- What constraints and opportunities do you 1. Lack of market information. provinces on time with less waste.
see (promising value chains?) 2. Problems with standardization of production and quality of products. - No storage for their fruit to keep it a long time.
- What are the major problems for the growth 3. Lack of machinery and equipment. - No proper facility for packaging or labeling exists in Afghanistan.
of your business? 4. Customers from India want to make contract with us, but they would - High taxes and small export market are other issues for their business
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In like to send money later. opportunities.
new markets? 5. Other countries have strong governments that can provide guarantees - Yes, the market is growing gradually for grapes and other fruits.
- Which value chain has the highest growth to them, but there is none on the part of Afghan exporters. - Export market to India, Pakistan, and Dubai is very promising.
potential of all 3 products? 6. Lack of packaging equipment.
- Is there a particular area that you think
farmers need assistance with? Opportunities:
1. Better quality of dried fruits than other countries.
2. Cheap labor.
3. Presence of international agencies/NGOs helping Afghan farmers.
4. Presence of transportation companies that they can use to export their
products.
5. Increasing demand for dried fruits from other countries.

115
Research questions Mazar Sharif Balkh Dry Fruits Processing Association Jawad Aziz Zada Fresh Fruit Company
Mazar Kabul
Gender - Know of no women trader in Mazar. - No women traders or laborers in the central market, but most women
- Are there women traders? If few or none, - His wife helps in the business but does not go to the shop or goes with work in processing fresh fruit on the farms. Women clean, sort, and
why? him when he talks with customers. He just consults with her on some collect fresh fruit and also work in packaging and labeling; they have a
- Are women working with you, or in this line decisions about their business. good role.
of business? - IDEA-NEW, ASMED, GTZ, and ACCI are helping them with marketing - The families owned the business and give no right to women to work as
- Are there any women-managed wholesale information, exposure to trade fairs, and getting machinery and equipment businesswomen or traders, based on cultural practices.
businesses in this area? Do women own for their association. - Yes, there is a good opportunity for women to work as traders or
these businesses, too, or are they family - Yes, there is potential for women to be involved in trading and marketing exporters, but I myself will never let my women do business or be part of
owned? as long as they are supported by their families to be in business. Women the business at all. Women can work and take more part in cleaning,
- Has the government or other NGOs ever traders can also organize themselves so they will also have a voice in grading, packaging, and labeling the products. Women are also part of
provided you with marketing support? dealing with customers. this society, but our culture doesn’t allow us to use our women in
- Do you think there is the potential for - Most customers, especially in this region (India and Pakistan), are men. business.
women to be further involved in producing, They are also conservative and do not want to deal with women.
processing, and marketing grapes, raisins,
or almonds? What can they do to improve
this position?
- Do you think men and women farmers face
the same challenges in their businesses?
Why or why not?

Processors
Research questions Haji Painda Mohammad Atekal Company Afghan Pride Association National Organization for Women (NOW)
Kabul Kabul Charikar, Parwan
Introduction - The organization has a long back story from - Afghan Pride Association (APA), founded by - National Organization for Women (NOW) is
- Describe your organization. What are your father and grandfather called Haji Painda Mariam Sidiqi 3 years ago, is one of the active an association of women farmers.
goals, structure, and so on? Mohammad Atekal. dried fruit producers in the country. Mariam has - Handicraft and Agriculture Department.
- Structure: President, Vice-President, and been part of the MEDA supported Through the - Operational for 5 years.
Secretary. Garden Gate Project (TGGP). - Collaborates with funders such as GTZ,
- There are 130 women processors. - APA is proposing to link the TGGP women- United Nations Development Programme.
- They are exporting pistachios, almonds, farmers to the association by supplying - Women members pay annual fee of Af
walnuts, and raisins to Pakistan and India. cleaned, processed, and dried grapes. 100/year.
- The processing steps are: washing; cleaning by - APA is registered with the Ministry of Justice.
hand; sorting and grading (hand work); packing in Its aim is to improve women’s economic and
2- and 5-kg packs by machines; labeling by social status in Afghanistan by involving them
machine. in economic activities.
- Note: The processing center is located in - APA has 200 members among whom 10 are
Taimanie area, very far from the mandvi. The staff members. APA members produce a wide
packaging is in the name of HPA 888. range of hygienic and high-quality dried fruits
- For the union they pay service fees yearly and nuts.
(whatever the union spent, divided among the 25 - Members are getting assistance from the
members). association in the areas of agriculture,
- The union facilitated the exhibitions, marketing processing, packaging, business, and
and price information, processing visas, and marketing.
presenting processors and traders problems to - APA will be providing grape processing
ACCI and other government agencies. training to TGGP farmers in 2010.

116
Research questions Haji Painda Mohammad Atekal Company Afghan Pride Association National Organization for Women (NOW)
Kabul Kabul Charikar, Parwan
Products, end markets, and customers - Processed almonds, walnuts, and raisins. - Dried fruit/nuts. - Have 500 women members involved in
- What types of products do you process or - Indian and Pakistani traders are their customers. - Main customers are hotels, unions, exhibition horticulture, 100 in handicrafts.
manufacture? - They process about 65–70 t/month; they have participants, and 2 retail shops (Shar-e-Naw - Received a dryer (raisins) from United
- Who buys your products? Are any of the no capacity to produce more. and Harekana in Kabul). Nations Development Program–World Food
buyers women? - Linked to 2 unions that support export Program worth approximately US$ 5,000.
- Do you export directly? activities and in some cases buy the product - Owned by women from association.
- Do you sell to local retailers? themselves then export. - There is a schedule for women to use this
- How much do you produce in a - The head of the union is also an exporter dryer; has 700-kg capacity, services 5 nearby
week/month? (customer). Other members are also willing to villages.
- Are you operating at capacity or could you purchase. - No fee to use dryer since women already pay
produce more? - Last year, the association sold 50 ser of membership fee.
- Are there many processing centers and almonds to union members, most of which had - World Food Program started this program as
factories are in Afghanistan? been sourced from farmer communities. a pilot; wanted a dryer in every village, but that
- Are there any local juice companies? How - Last year the association earned US$ 42,000 did not happen.
many, and where are they located? Who do from sales of its products. Average lowest - Currently the dryer needs to be repaired, but
they buy grapes from? Who do they sell to? sales were 50 kg/month; average highest sales they do not have the funds.
were 100–150 kg/month. - Have link to trader in Moscow, also AWBC.
- Usually the women’s husbands will negotiate
with any traders that come to purchase
produce.
Inputs - Get supplies from Shahresta District in Gazni - Women farmers sell their raisins directly to
- Where do you get your supply? Is it local or and Ghorband District in Parwan. the association. Representatives travel and
imported? - Don’t buy directly from farmers but from the purchase from villages.
- Are there any special arrangements with middlemen. - Traditionally, grapes are dried on mats (15–
suppliers? - No women suppliers. 20 days) placed on rooftops, but this method is
- Do you buy directly from farmers, inefficient, unclean, and does not produce high-
traders/wholesalers, or the market (mandvi)? quality raisins.
- Do you buy from any large farms? How - If farmers are willing to clean the raisins
many large farms? themselves, the association covers the cost of
- Are there small and large wholesalers at this (pay for the cleaning), otherwise cleaning
the mandvi? Who do you purchase from? is usually carried out at the center.
- Are any of your suppliers women? - Processing usually involves the following
- How do you deal with product quality? steps:
1. Shake the raisins to remove any sediment
such as sand and rocks.
2. Clean by hand and shake the raisins on
cheesecloth with a little water for further
cleaning.
3. Shake the raisins in paraffin wax to create
shine.
4. Package according to customer
requirement, usually in 500-g packs.
- The highest-value crops are the large green
raisin variety Kalke Arus and the Ghazni Green
Grape.
- If under-supplied, will sometimes purchase
from wholesale market to complete order.

117
Research questions Haji Painda Mohammad Atekal Company Afghan Pride Association National Organization for Women (NOW)
Kabul Kabul Charikar, Parwan
Technologies and techniques - Use local technology for processing, sorting, and - The center in Kabul is now testing the use of
- Do farmers or middlemen perform and grading. solar dryers, and looking at packaging
processing of raisins or grapes? - For packaging only, they use machinery made in machinery from a company in India (which also
- What kind of processing is performed for China. It is of low quality and they don’t have provides training).
fresh grapes? confidence in using it. If it gets damaged, it will be
- Who does the cleaning, sorting, and impossible to fix.
packaging for fresh grapes? - They don’t receive any training in processing.
- Do farmers, middlemen, or wholesalers do They have experience of long years working in
some of these activities? processing.
- Can you access the technologies you
require?
- Do you receive training?
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - They get market information from the mandvi - Last year the association earned US$ 42,000 - Currently not a good market for raisins.
- How do you obtain market information and also from the dried fruit union. from the sale of all products. Average lowest - Trying to find a market to sell fresh grapes.
(how, who, when)? - Prices are set based on the market; later on, sales were 50 kg/month; average highest sales - 1 ser = Af 400.
- How do you determine pricing? they calculate their profits after deducting were 100–150 kg/month. - Trying to encourage diversification (e.g., into
- Do you have any seasonal issues with expenses. - The association pays a premium for almonds saffron).
sourcing? - Transportation is the responsibility of the that have been shelled, cleaned, and sorted
- Do you make transportation arrangements suppliers. properly. Traders usually buy the products as
to purchase supply? Who pays for this cost? is, with no processing.
- To compare prices: For example, the price a
farmer may obtain from a trader is Af 100–
150/kg of almonds. If they are properly
processed, the association will pay Af 200/kg.
The association then sells the almonds for Af
250/kg. In the export market, they can fetch in
the range of Af 300–450/kg for the same
product.
- Usually difficult for farmers to find transport for
both fresh grapes and raisins. Middlemen
usually go directly to farmers to purchase fresh
grapes.
- The benefit that farmers receive from the
association is that local collecting/drying
centers are set up in their villages for easy
access by the women farmers.
Representatives (Center Supervisors) from the
association will inform farmers of the orders,
travel to the farmers to purchase the raisins,
and transport back to the Kabul center.
Financing - If in need of financing, they ask friends, not MFIs
- What types of financing are available, and or banks, since Islam prohibits giving and taking
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, interest. But they can borrow and give loans just
MFI, banking system)? on trust without any consideration of profits.
- Do you offer credit or purchase on credit? - No dealing in cash.
What are the terms? - Didn’t apply for any savings and credit.
- Do you offer noncash forms of financing,
such as sales or returns, bartering in
exchange for labor and so on?
- Where do you go for savings or credit?

118
Research questions Haji Painda Mohammad Atekal Company Afghan Pride Association National Organization for Women (NOW)
Kabul Kabul Charikar, Parwan
Cooperation level - Around this company, more than 25 companies - Yes, several other women’s associations
-Are there other similar associations? process dried fruits. such as AWBC
- Are there associations of your suppliers? - No association of suppliers in the province of
Parwan and Ghazni, only individual traders.
Constraints and opportunities - No difficulties so far in meeting customers’ - The biggest constraint in the raisin value Challenges:
- Do you have difficulty meeting customer requests. chain is drying. - Marketing.
requests? - The constraints in the almond value chain are - Imports distorting market; too many Iranian
- What constraints and opportunities do you Constraints and problems : the mixing of almond types (sweet and bitter), products, which are also higher quality.
see in grapes/raisins? - Lack of storage facilities. poor shelling, no packaging, and poor post- - Not enough equipment (e.g., storage) for
- What are the major problems for the growth - Lack of equipment causes low-quality harvest handling. Most almonds are easily improved quality
of your business? processing and also processing losses. broken if not shelled properly.
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In - No regular marketing information system. - There are many types of almonds, but the Opportunities:
new markets or customer trends? - No facilities from government. soft-shelled almonds are the best quality. - Packaging, improved quality could lead to
- No access to proper space for processing. - A large amount of mixing also occurs when import substitution opportunities.
- Processing center is very far from the farmers mix the sweet and bitter varieties. - Thinks government should stop imports.
company. To send products from company in Packaging facilities are available to few - Should make links with schools so they sell
mandvi to processing center and back involves farmers and cleanliness of the produce is a students raisins and so on as snacks instead
paying transport costs, time, and traffic jam problem (e.g., poor post-harvest handling; of imported, unhealthy chips and similar
problems. farmers seldom use gloves for handling). foods.
- Many security checkpoints inside the country - Export market, particularly to India, very
(especially in Kabul) are a big problem. It promising.
disturbs the business.
- They think that the almond market is breaking
down. They export almonds to Pakistan and
pay customs fees. Kashmir state, which is not
paying customs fees, also supplies almonds to
India and Pakistan. Customers prefer to buy
from Kashmiri suppliers, whose prices are low
because they do not pay customs fees. Almond
demand is decreasing but the market for
walnuts and raisins remain constant,
Gender - For the moment 130 women work with this - In these value chains, women are involved in - Men’s roles: Growing; pruning; carrying and
- What are the numbers of men and women company; all are doing processing. production and cleaning. As women are not placing on roof; drying.
in the sector and their roles (currently and - They believe that women can play a very allowed in the market, men control the selling. - Women’s roles: Widows grow themselves;
future possibilities)? efficient role at the top of the value chain and in Women realize no profits, and revenues are other women’s roles include weeding; clearing
- Is there a possibility for more women to leadership in business. controlled by the men. of leaves after pruning; cleaning after drying;
become involved in processing? - Women often have no market knowledge and separating raisins from bunch.
such as price information, and they rely on
male family members to travel to the bazaar.
They have a lack of decision-making power
and also a lack of mobility, particularly in
Mazaar-e-Sheriff, which produces a lot of
almonds.
- Women need to be able to sell to other
women in the market, and processing needs to
occur in a women’s environment for women to
be further engaged in these value chains.
- Government support for the private sector is
poor.
- This processor indicates that the government

119
Research questions Haji Painda Mohammad Atekal Company Afghan Pride Association National Organization for Women (NOW)
Kabul Kabul Charikar, Parwan
department with which it is involved is the
Ministry of Commerce for payment of taxes.
- MAIL is not very involved as it has few
extension staff, although some work and
support have occurred through HLP. But no
support for women.

Processors (continued)
Research questions Tak Dana (Dry and Fresh Fruit Processing Dewa Food Company – DFC Foods Tobasom – Raisin Processing Factory
Company) Kabul Kabul
Kabul
Introduction - Private processing and export company that - Private and domestic processing company, - Raisin-processing factory based in Kabul.
- - Describe your organization. What are also sells sell to domestic market; 6-year-old do not yet export. - Only raisins; capacity up to 10,000 t.
your goals, structure, and so on? business. - Purchased machinery in 2009, recently
- Currently have a Kabul factory, soon moving to started operations.
a new location in Mazar e Sheriff. - At trial stage, easier to do business with
- Also building a factory in Charikar for fresh fruit peanuts initially since demand is high in Kabul,
and vegetables, including grapes. especially in winter (import substitution).
- All staff (18) female, doing processing and
packaging as they are better workers.
- Had to train the women using own resources;
these services are not available externally.
Products, end markets, and customers - Sell both raisins and almonds. - Only peanuts so far, potato sticks, and French - Exporter of fresh grapes to Pakistan and
- What types of products do you process or - Sell to Dubai, Pakistan, India, and China. fries. raisins to Moscow. Smaller exports to
manufacture - Last year: 35–56 t of processed/packaged - Planning to move in to dried fruits as get more Germany, England, and Netherlands.
- Who buys your products? Are any of the product sold, of which 15–20 t of almonds/raisins established. - Last year: Pakistan increased its taxes, so
buyers women? were exported. - Planning to sell to shops, not wholesalers, could not export as much. Only 1,000 t fresh
- How much do you produce in a - Plan is to sell up to 300 t in total this year. with a 50:50 incentive to keep product in shop grapes exported to Pakistan. Only 1,000 t
week/month? - Also sell to domestic market (20–25% of sales and promote its sale. raisins exported to Russia, because the grape
- Are you operating at capacity or could you are local). crop was so large, drying was performed too
produce more? late, quality was poor, and demand for raisins
Processing method: fell.
- Wash, sort, oil, package (raisins). - Last year: No fresh grapes exported at all.
- Break, sort (color/size), package (almonds). Crop also suffered from disease.
- Packaging sizes depend on customer: 1kg, - Company has its own farm with more than
5kg, 25kg, 50kg. 10,000 trees, uses pesticide imported from
Iran, ended up ruining entire crop.
- Have 1 contract with import company in Dubai.
- Transport by air, pay cost themselves.
Inputs - Relocating to Mazaar since easier to source a - Packaging supplies, labels, and other - Machinery from USA (California).
- Where do you get your supply – local or lot of produce (especially almonds which are very consumables come from Pakistan; not - Purchase raisins from farms (already dried):
imports? profitable). Mazar is more liberal than Charikar available in Afghanistan. 1. Large farmers: 10,000 t; travels to
- Are there any special arrangements with (fewer cultural and security constrains). - Purchase peanuts from mandvi; prefers farms, purchases, transports back.
suppliers? -Purchase directly from farmers and from shelled. 2. Sales agents: 15,000 t; they are large
- Do you buy directly from farmers, independent traders; do not purchase from traders and travel between villages and
traders/wholesalers? market (mandvi). Kabul.
- Are any of your suppliers women? - In Charikar, deal directly with women farmers.
- How do you deal with product quality? - Only buy from areas that have good, clean
produce.

120
Research questions Tak Dana (Dry and Fresh Fruit Processing Dewa Food Company – DFC Foods Tobasom – Raisin Processing Factory
Company) Kabul Kabul
Kabul
- Prefer to purchase unshelled almonds. If
villagers perform shelling themselves, almonds
are very poor quality (broken, dirty, and so on).
Technologies and techniques - Use machines for drying. - Purchases machinery from Pakistan (also
- Can you access the technologies you China).
require? - China and Pakistan provide after-sales
- Do you receive training? service (hotline); also provide initial training
and user manual.
- In future may need storage but currently will
only buy produce based on demand, so no
long-term storage required.
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - Market info mostly from exhibitions; study - Performed survey of traders; purchased from Before grape season, pay advance to farmers,
- How do you obtain market information markets (shops, potential buyers); have 6 trader with good quality and lowest prices. form verbal agreement (that is, farmers cannot
(how, who, when)? employees doing this kind of research. - Sales will be performed by salesmen who will sell fresh grapes and will sell raisins only to
- How do you determine pricing? - Best prices obtained for almonds, pistachios, drive car and stock around Kabul, provide Tobasom).
- Do you have any seasonal issues with and pine nuts. samples, and deliver orders (on commission). - Price paid later to farmers is the current
sourcing? - Higher prices obtained for fresh table grapes - No women can do this, since they cannot market price at time of sale.
- Do you transportation arrangements to than for raisins. drive in Kabul, owing to cultural limitations. - Will provide mats to farmers for drying;
purchase supply? Who pays for this cost? - Off season sales: Cold storage for grapes would instruct them not to use any chemicals for
increase grape sales. making grapes larger.
- Seasonal demand for products: Currently high,
in the fall it will be normal to low.
- High quality green raisins: Af 300/kg.
- Bad quality: Used for fodder, Af 100–120/kg.
Financing - Difficult; need guarantee and very high interest - Has partners investing in company, no loans
- What types of financing are available, and rates (15–20%). from banks.
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, - Usually purchase with cash, sometimes will write
MFI, banking system)? a 2-3 agreement and pay in installments
- Do you offer credit or purchase on credit? (farmers).
What are the terms? - No credit.
- Do you offer noncash forms of financing, - Often provide advances to suppliers (10–15%);
such as sales or returns, bartering in this practice is very common in Afghanistan.
exchange for labor and so on?
- Where do you go for savings or credit?
Cooperation level - 2 Associations (Union of Dried Fruit; Produce
-Are there other similar associations? and Export Association). Not very helpful; Only 2–
- Are there associations of your suppliers? 3 women are involved and not in dried fruits/nuts.
- 50–60 exporters in total.
Constraints and opportunities Opportunities: Opportunities: Opportunities:
- Do you have difficulty meeting customer - Export of fresh table grapes from Charikar -Large potential in almonds/raisins. -Lots of potential, including new
requests? factory to Dubai. countries/markets.
- What constraints and opportunities do you - Almonds and raisins both very profitable (hence Challenges:
see in grapes/raisins? the move to Mazar). - Little hygienic processing of products up to Challenges:
- What are the major problems for the growth - Could supply but could be purchasing and export standard, but situation is slowly - Quality is a huge challenge to be able to
of your business? selling more. improving and there is lots of potential. export.
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In - Plan to provide training for drying. - Marketing – too many imports. - Financing; farmers are poor and keep
new markets or customer trends? - New markets: Europe (Germany) (almonds). needing advances and so on.

Challenges:

121
Research questions Tak Dana (Dry and Fresh Fruit Processing Dewa Food Company – DFC Foods Tobasom – Raisin Processing Factory
Company) Kabul Kabul
Kabul
- Sourcing women employees (e.g., Charikar).
Security also a concern. In future will consider
providing transportation to women if necessary
and also hire guards.
- Availability of land for constructing factories.
- Financing.

Government:
- Need to improve opportunities for loans.
- Need to make land available.
- Need to provide training at each level of value
chain; farmers need technical assistance to
improve quality, need mats, covers for drying.
Gender - Employee women; currently have 60 women - No women can sell dried fruits in mandvi. - 50 women work in factory, total employees
- What are the numbers of men and women involved in processing. Doesn’t except to see any changes for another are 200.
in the sector and their roles (currently and - Depends on season: In the high season even 50–60 years minimum. - Women’s role in grape production/processing:
future possibilities)? need labor for 2–3 shifts. - Hard for women to be wholesalers, negotiate Pruning, collecting, harvesting, carrying,
- Is there a possibility for more women to - In Charikar will need up to 30 women for prices, demand payments, and so forth in the sorting, and cleaning.
become involved in processing? processing; prefer women for these roles since market. - Women in raisin processing: Put on mats,
very careful and very good at cleaning. - Women usually provide cleaning and collect, sort, and clean.
- In some areas have problems finding women processing services, but they do this work at - No women sales agents.
workers. home and live close to the mandvi. - Women cannot be traders.
- No women exporters. - Women are best for processing by hand:
- When they buy from women there is no They are cooperative, hardworking,
difference in the way they deal with them; product responsible, often need the jobs.
price depends on quality; have women employees - Salary: Af 80–140/month.
that negotiate with them. - Initially, some women were escorted to
- Deal with women individually and in groups. factory by men, worried about timing of shifts,
needed permission of families.
- No transportation is provided to them since
they all live close by.
- Men will not do this job for this kind of salary.
They would need to be paid at least Af 150–
300/month. They have other options for jobs.
- No women salespeople. They could possibly
be sales agents, but have never seen it in
Afghanistan.

122
 Retailers
Research questions Kabul retailer # 1 Kabul retailer # 2 Mazar retailer
Shar-e-Naw, Kabul Shar-e-Naw, Kabul Gulbuddin Mandozia Market
Products, end markets, and customers - Sell various varieties of raisins and almonds, - Sell various varieties of raisins and almonds, - Different almond varieties, pistachios, dried
- What type of products do you sell? other dried fruits, also has convenience store. other dried fruits, also have a bakery. apricots, walnuts, raisins, and so on.
- Do you sell grapes, raisins, and almonds? - Main customers are expats, Afghans. - Main customers are expats, Afghans. - They stock dried fruits according to demand,
- How do you decide what to stock? -Almond, starboyee, and raisins (Shungul Khani). based on shopkeeper’s experience
- What are the most popular varieties of - Activity is high during winter and low in summer - For almonds, the most desirable variety is
raisins and almonds? when weather is hot. Satarbayee, while it is Shungul Khani for
- Which varieties of raisins and almonds - Usual they do not sell to exporters, but could if raisins.
have the highest profit margin? they order from him. - Those specific varieties bring more income.
- What is your customer profile? - Yes, women also come to our shop and - Not selling to exporters, only for local
- Do you sell to exporters? Are there any purchase, no restrictions.. customers.
women exporters? - No women retailers. - Each week, they sell more than US$ 350.
- From whom do exporters purchase their
products? From middlemen, the mandvi, or
retailers?
- Do you export directly? Where?
- How much do you sell in a week/month?
- Who is your competition? Are there any
women retailers?
Inputs - Buy from traders; none are women. - Buy mostly from small traders in mandvi. Do - They get their stock from Mazar Mandvi and
- Where do you get your stock? Do you deal - Travel to mandvi to pick up stock, have not buy from the large wholesalers. have no direct dealings with farmers.
with farmers directly or traders/wholesalers? established relationships, so source from various Responsible for own transportation. - They send their order and requirements to
- Do you purchase from any large farmers? traders. - Have many different traders, each selling their supplier.
From how many large farmers do you - Have US almonds bought from mandvi. Traders different varieties. - They are satisfied with suppliers dealing with
purchase? bring them from Dubai. - Buy stock every 1–2 weeks depending on them.
- Do you purchase products from the market demand. - No women supplier in Mazar Mandvi because
(mandvi)? it is unacceptable for families to allow women
- Are there small and large wholesalers in to work in such a crowded area.
the mandvi? Do you purchase from both? - They are retailers who get their stock twice a
- Do you purchase from any processing week in from the mandvi.
factories? How many?
- Are there any special arrangements with
suppliers?
- Are you satisfied with these suppliers?
- Are any of your suppliers women? Is there
potential for women to be your suppliers?
Why or why not?
- Are you a farmer/processor/trader? Do you
produce raisins and almonds for sale?
- How often do you get new stocks of raisins
and almonds?
Technologies and techniques - Perform cleaning, do all packaging. - Perform own cleaning and employ no women. - No prior sorting or grading before selling,
- Do you have to perform any sorting, - Employ no women at this store but they have - Know that in mandvi women do cleaning. because they buy almonds and raisins already
shelling, or cleaning of grapes, raisins, or another store at the mandvi where they outsource sorted and graded.
almonds prior to selling? their cleaning to women. They pay Af 200/day - They are not part of any program to have
- Who performs these activities? Do you and women work 5 days per week. subsidized support.
employ women? How much does it cost?
- Do the middlemen perform any
processing? Do you outsource any
processing?

123
Research questions Kabul retailer # 1 Kabul retailer # 2 Mazar retailer
Shar-e-Naw, Kabul Shar-e-Naw, Kabul Gulbuddin Mandozia Market
- What kind of processing is performed for
fresh grapes? Who performs this
processing?
- Who packages fresh grapes?
- Are there any local juice companies? How
many, and where are they located? Who do
they buy grapes from? Who do they sell to?
- Are you part of a program or project that
supports you with free or subsidized supplies
for you to sell? What supplies? How does
this work? Who is involved?
Distribution, pricing, and seasonality - Summer: Sales decrease since dried fruits and Prices (per kg) - They sell products inside the city in rented
- How do you market your products? nuts not consumed as much as in winter. June - American almonds: Af 500 premises (Af15,000 rent per month).
- Where are your shops located—rural has lowest supplies. - Local: Af 500 and 200 (most in demand). - Price is based on those in the adjacent retail
and/or urban areas? shops and other markets.
- How do you determine pricing? Prices (per kg): - Best-quality almonds sell at Af 500 and best-
- What are the current prices for the most - Green raisins: Af 100. quality raisin at Af 350.
popular types of raisins and almonds that - Shindokhani (Kandahar) raisins, two quality - For each level of quality, there is a specific
you sell? levels: Less clean is Af 160; cleaned by hand, price and specific demand, which they deal
- How do you deal with product quality? one by one, is Af 350. with accordingly.
- Do you have any seasonal issues when - Black raisins: Af 140. - There are seasonality problems, because at
you are sourcing products? - Big-seeded raisin: Af 500. the end of the season stocks of dried fruits are
- Do suppliers transport the products - Almonds range from Af 800 down to 600, 500, not sufficient to meet customers’ demand.
themselves or do you provide and 250. Right now, there is continuing demand for
transportation? Do you pay for transport? - US almonds: Af 500. Satarbayee but the harvest is already finished.
- Local almonds are most in demand (Af 600). - The shopkeeper goes to the mandvi and pays
- The second-quality Shindokhani raisins are for his transport. If suppliers bring stocks, they
the best seller (Af 160). pay for their own transport.
Financing - If have problems with financing, first ask - Usually pay cash, sometimes pay after in - They face difficulties in accessing finance, but
- What types of financing are available and relatives, then think about getting loans, which installments. solved them with the help of friends. The
how accessible is financing (formal, informal, often require documentation, guarantees. - Have problems with capital, Af 3.86 lakh in shopkeeper borrows from them based on trust.
MFI, banking system) for your business? - Do not sell on credit. debt to suppliers. Since they are regular He never applied for microfinance because
- Do you buy supplies on credit or offer credit customers, the supplier will usually wait for Islam does not allow interest.
to your customers? What are the terms? payment until business gets better. - Shopkeeper provides credit to customers
- How much does credit cost? based on trust and without conditions.
- Do you use other noncash forms of - He saves his money with one money dealer
financing, such as sale or return, bartering, who is his trustee. If he needs money, he will
in exchange for labor, and so on? get it from him. He is not saving with the bank
- Where do you go to save money? because of insecure situation.
Cooperation level - Yes there are associations, but doesn't know
- Are there any supplier associations (raisins how they are structured.
and almonds) that you source from? - No purchasing from women in Mazar, and
- What do they do, and how are they there are no women suppliers or associations.
structured? Do you buy from any women’s - Shopkeeper is not a member of retailer
associations? association; at present there are no
- Are there any retailers’ associations? associations of retailers in Mazar. He has not
received any assistance from any agencies,
(government, NGOs, or associations).

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Research questions Kabul retailer # 1 Kabul retailer # 2 Mazar retailer
Shar-e-Naw, Kabul Shar-e-Naw, Kabul Gulbuddin Mandozia Market
Constraints and opportunities Constraints:
- What constraints and opportunities do you - For almonds, cold weather is not good.
see in the raisin and almond value chains? - If there is too much rain, almond blossoms
- Do you have problems meeting customers’ die and quality of almonds affected.
requests? - Security is also a major factor. If the main
- Have you noticed any trends or changes in highway is closed, supply will be impossible.
farmers’ requests? - Police seeking bribes at checkpoints is a
- What are the major problems for the growth big problem.
of your business? - No support system if they incur losses or
- Do you see growth in existing markets? In have other problems—no insurance program
new markets? or government agencies to provide support.
Gender - No women are involved as retailers in Mazar.
- How many women are involved in retailing? - No women traders or wholesalers, but it is not
- Are there any women traders/wholesalers? impossible for women to gain skills and do the
- Is there potential for women to be traders, job with lots of innovation and hygiene.
retailers, or exporters? What are the main - Barriers are insecurity, cultural constraints,
barriers? and lack of trust in women to start in this area
- What other activities could women take on or become traders.
in the value chain? - Also the situation is not conducive now for
women to work as traders.
- Women do processing, harvesting, sorting,
and grading.

Institutions
Research questions Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) Afghan Almond Industry Development
(ADB/MAIL) Organization (AAIDO)
Introduction - Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project (AMIP) - HLP is a key instrument for implementing the - AAIDO works in partnership with Roots of
- What is your role in the grape, raisin, and is an ADB-funded project under the Project National Agriculture Development Framework Peace. The project is funded by the European
almond industries? Implementation and Coordination Unit (PICU) of in horticulture and livestock production. HLP Commission through HLP. HLP subcontracted
- What is your organizational structure? Do MAIL. The project officially started in April 2010 has selected 11 focus districts in 7 northern Roots of Peace and the creation of AAIDO is
you have women employees? so they are just hiring staff and working on their and 4 central provinces. part of the project’s objectives.
- Do you have members? Who are these timetable. AMIP has 2 primary objectives: -In Horticulture, HLP aims to increase the - AAIDO is composed of 8 producers’
members? Are any of them women? production and productivity of farm households, associations, 4 traders’ and exporters’
- What kind of services or support do you enable them to adopt the most suitable associations, and 6 nursery associations from
i. Improve market support through the
provide to farmers? Traders? Exporters? practices, establish 3,000 new orchards with all over the country. Of the 18 associations,
agricultural market.
60% of saplings surviving, and increase the there are 2 women producer associations in
ii. Provide consultancy to MAIL staff (Private
Extension and training producer price for produce where the value Daykundi and Balkh. Each sector is
Sector Unit, Horticulture Unit and Farmer’s
- Do you provide extension or training chain pilot is implemented. represented on the board, which has 11
Cooperative Unit).
support? Are there any women - Each focus district targets male and female directors (all men). AAIDO has 7 full-time staff
extensionists? Farmer Producer Groups established by the with 1 woman accountant.
- Do you provide any other services or Farmer Organization Development (FOD) - They support their member-associations by
support for women farmers, traders, or - AMIP will operate in 2 sectors – Livestock component of the HLP. providing training and technical assistance in
exporters? Support Project and Horticulture Support Project. - Female Farmer Producer Groups have been pruning, grafting, gaining market awareness,
- Is this offered to women? Is there a fee? - For Livestock Support (LS) plan to establish 5 established following the creation of determining the best inputs to use, packaging,
Do trainers travel to villages? slaughterhouses (2 in Kabul and 1 each in Mazar, Horticulture Interest Groups. The male pollinating, and separating bitter and sweet
Heart, and Kunduz). They are also looking into participants introduced their female family varieties.
building a milk processing plant in Jalalabad. members, other relatives, and friends to the - AAIDO had regional centers in Balkh,
- For Horticulture Support (HS) plan to establish Facilitating Partners for creating female Farmer Samanggan, Ghazni, Laghman, and Daikundi.
200 collection centers in 7 agricultural zones Producer Groups. This is a significant change -The women’s associations from Daikundi and

125
Research questions Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) Afghan Almond Industry Development
(ADB/MAIL) Organization (AAIDO)
(North East, North, South West, South, North, as HLP shifted its focus from individual farmers Khulm Tashqurghan have joined recently. They
East, and Central Regions). The collection to households to reflect the reality of farming are producers and traders/processors. AAIDO
centers will support farmers/producers in activities in the households. These groups has supported these association in processing,
collection as well as processing, packaging, and have been mainly selected out of the packaging, and marketing.
marketing (including cold storage if needed). Horticulture Interest Groups established by - AAIDO provides extension services to
- AMIP is looking into pistachios, almonds, Facilitating Partners for the horticultural producers through their Regional Coordinator
apricots, and raisins. They will be hiring activities. in coordination with MAIL. To the
consultants to do value chain analyses for these - Women Extensionists: They expect to have traders/exporters, AAIDO provides market
products and will have the survey results 100; now they only have 25. More to be hired support, training on value chains, and training
available by November. The study will then be and trained. Training for women are adjusted – in establishing marketing centers in other
their guide when they implement this HS. The they are provided training on intercropping countries like India. No fees are collected so far
collection centers will be owned by farmer groups, rather than pruning. since these services are funded by donors.
associations, cooperatives, with priority given to - There are 1,000 groups (60% male, 40% However, AAIDO is expected to be sustainable
women’s groups. female) implementing Farmer Field Schools. after 4 years.
- Women’s associations will be trained to run the They are provided technical training as well - Training is available to women at no cost as
collection centers and learn what to plant based business services provision, inputs, and well.
on the market demand. The project will also assist marketing linkages. Women’s groups are - For almond production, 1 jerib can
in providing market information through various provided training on orchard management and accommodate 66 trees of 4 varieties. Almond
media (flyers, brochures, radio, and TV). savings boxes. From the money they collected saplings will spend 2 years in the nursery and 4
- AMIP plans to finish the value chain study in from savings boxes, the women financed years on the farm before bearing.
2010 and establish the centers in 2011. economic projects and agricultural production.
- The project will also support the dried fruit and If they need more loans, they are linked to
nut sector by reequipping the Dried Fruits and WOCCU, Ariana Financial Services (Mercy
Nuts Directorate under the Ministry of Commerce. Corps), and First Microfinance Bank (Aga
They will provide laboratory equipment that is Khan). The groups are informal groups with a
acceptable for WTO certification and will also Chairman, Treasurer, and Secretary. They
provide training to laboratory technicians. cannot receive training from the project unless
they are organized as a group. From the group,
they select and develop their Farmer
Extensionists. These groups can be organized
later as Farmers’ Associations or as Village
Savings and Loans Associations depending on
what they want to be.

- HLP’s implementing partners are:

i. Roots of Peace (provide technical support

in livestock and horticulture via 150
Horticulture Extensionists, 25 of whom are
women; they also have 11 Livestock
Extension Workers).
ii. FAO (poultry production).
iii. NGOs, including SDO, Global Partnership
for Afghanistan, Agency for Technical
Cooperation and Development (ACTED),
ZoA, Afghan Aid and Hand in Hand
(implement the social mobilization
component).

126
Research questions Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) Afghan Almond Industry Development
(ADB/MAIL) Organization (AAIDO)
- The project ends in 2011. They are
implementing activities to ensure the
sustainability of their groups by linking farmers
with traders and building up farmers’
associations. They are also looking into an
alternative market aside from Peshawar and
seeking to improve the quality of grapes on the
production side.

- HLP is looking into raisins as a profitable

value chain aside from fresh grapes.
Products, end market, and - Presently HLP focuses only on fresh grapes. - Farmers sell almonds to traders who sell to
national/regional production areas The project helps rehabilitate orchards and the local market or exporters. Each trading
- Are fresh table grapes exported or mostly establishes new ones. Fresh grapes are sold enterprise has its own agents who collect
raisins? If yes, where? domestically and exported to Pakistan through almonds from producers.
- Who are the main suppliers for exporters of Karachi. From Karachi, Pakistani traders sell - Currently the women’s associations just sell
grapes, raisins, and almonds? Are they Afghan grapes to other countries. to traders.
farmers, associations, traders/wholesalers? - HLP hired a Market Support Officer charged - 1st grade almonds are exported to India; 2nd
- Do women supply directly to exporters, with collecting the projected date and size of grade almonds are exported to Pakistan. They
too? the harvest from producers and providing this are also exploring Middle Eastern markets.
- How many large farmers are there of information to traders. Traders will easily get - Almonds are produced where water is not
grapes and almonds? the grapes as soon as they are harvested and abundant, usually in mountainous areas,
- Where are grapes, raisins, and almonds producers will have a ready market upon because they require little irrigation. Almonds
mostly exported to? harvest. can resist cold only as low as –2°C; at colder
- What kind of grapes, raisins, and almonds temperatures buds freeze and die. Of the 67
are in greatest demand in the export - HLP also provides technical support for new varieties of almond known to be grown in
market? orchards at the following costs: Afghanistan, 12 are exported. The best variety
- Where are grapes, raisins, and almonds - Almonds: Af 8,000/jerib (Af 40,000/ha) with is Satar Bari, for which 90% of production is
mostly produced? 25% farmer counterpart funding. exported and 10% is sold locally.
- What kind of grapes, raisins, and almonds - Grapes: Af 7,000/jerib (Af 35,000/ha) with - According to this source, only 13% of all
are most in demand in the domestic market? 25% farmer counterpart funding. almond production is exported because of its
- What volumes of grapes, raisins, and -Costs include all inputs as well the necessary low quality.
almonds are exported from Afghanistan technical assistance. If farmers adopt trellises, -Almonds are imported from California and
every year? they receive trellising at no cost. Australia, but given the lack of statistics, this
- What is the percentage of imports/exports source assumes that they are smuggled into
for each of grapes, raisins, and almonds? - For the Farmer Field School, farmer groups the country.
Have the exports increased over the past must agree on at least 3 key improvements for
few years? increasing production and quality. Policy recommendations:
- Are raisins and grapes imported into - Control and/or minimize the influx of imported
Afghanistan? Where do these imports come almonds.
from? - Imports of low-quality inputs from other
- Is the quality of produce/products an issue countries should be restricted. There should be
for the export market? laboratories at the borders to check them.
- Financing should be accessible to almond
Policy producers and traders/exporters.
- What kind of support is the government - Support traders by providing them marketing
providing to improve production, processing, space (land).
and sales of grapes, raisins, and almonds? - Saplings should be certified (that is, there
should be assurance that they come from
certified mother stocks).

127
Research questions Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) Afghan Almond Industry Development
(ADB/MAIL) Organization (AAIDO)
Pricing of products (domestic and - Producers’ groups are organized and linked - Pricing is dictated by production and the
exports) to provincial traders so they can get better market. During and after almond season,
- How are domestic prices of grapes, raisins, prices. This year, no almonds are expected stocks are high in the market and prices fall;
and almonds determined? because of bad weather. out of season, prices increase.
- Does the government play a part setting - The average domestic price of good-quality
those prices? almonds is Af 450/kg. The average export price
- How are prices of grapes, raisins, and of good-quality almonds is Af 600/kg. Almond
almonds determined for the export market? prices have not risen or fallen significantly in
- What are the current average prices for the past years.
types of raisins, grapes, and almonds most
in demand on the domestic market (per ser
or per kilogram)? Have these prices
changed over the last year?
- What are the current average prices of the
types of raisins and almonds most in
demand on the export market (per ser or per
kilogram)? Have these prices changed over
the last year?
- Is the average price of raisins and almonds
increasing or decreasing?
Players within the value chain and - Most are family-owned businesses. The
cooperation among firms husband is the head of the business; he is
- What are the main characteristics of the helped by the wife in the office or in
businesses (number and processing.
structure/ownership) of traders/wholesalers? - No woman exporters yet, but the 2 women’s
Are women involved in these businesses? associations are buying almonds, processing
- What are the main characteristics of them, and selling to traders/exporters.
businesses (number and - AAIDO assists them in getting market
structure/ownership) of exporters? Are information from their contacts in India and
women involved in these businesses? Pakistan.
- How do traders, wholesalers, and exporters
get pricing and market information?
Business financing - Producers have problems with financing - Financing is not accessible to almond
- What types of financing are available for because MFIs cannot provide loans for growers since most micro loans are for one
traders/wholesalers and exporters? establishing or rehabilitating orchards. They year and monthly repayments are required.
- Is the financing accessible (formal, are looking for loans with Islamic banking. Almond production requires 4–6 years before
informal, MFI, banking system)? the first fruit is harvested and sold. AAIDO
- Do they need further financial support? For reports that farmers’ other issue is that
what activities? charging interest is not Islamic.
- AAIDO recommends that financing be
provided in the form of goods and services. For
example, they can provide inputs to farmers
and profits from the harvest can be used to
repay the loan. Organizations like AAIDO are
best for managing loan products designed
specifically for almond producers.
- Traders/exporters usually borrow from banks,
which also have high interest rates.

128
Research questions Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) Afghan Almond Industry Development
(ADB/MAIL) Organization (AAIDO)
Future: Constraints and opportunities - Domestic demand is growing, especially
- Is domestic demand for grapes, raisins, during Eid.
and almonds growing? - Export demand is growing, especially if the
- Is export demand for grapes, raisins, and quality is good.
almonds growing?
- What are the most promising export Constraints:
markets? Is there interest from other - Lower processing capability (shelling and
countries or new markets for Afghan grapes, packaging).
raisins, and almonds? - Lower quality of branding and packaging.
- What are the main constraints in producing - Credit facility not accessible.
and processing grapes, raisins, and - Lack of cash flow.
almonds? What are the opportunities? - Almonds can grow with little irrigation so
- What are the main constraints for the cannot grow with other crops, although some
grape, raisin, and almond value chains? farmers intercrop and have livestock in the
What are the opportunities? orchards.
- Do farmers and traders have sufficient - Some donors provide almond saplings of
access to the export market? What can be poor quality. One gave 500,000 saplings,
done to improve their access? another 1,000,000, so expect to have
- Which value chain—grapes/raisins or almonds of poor quality in 4 years’ time.
almonds or both—has the most potential in - No branding to promote Afghan almonds.
the export market? - Lack of information about new farming
technology.
Policy - Influx of imported almonds in the domestic
- What policies currently affect production, market.
processing, and sales of raisins and - Mixing of sweet and bitter almonds.
almonds?
- What policy changes do you think should Opportunities:
be implemented to improve production, -Afghan almonds can compete in the global
processing, and sales of raisins and market.
almonds? - Can produce more almonds for domestic
and export market.
- Availability of good tree saplings and of
different varieties.
- Presence of AAIDO so there is a forum for
producers and traders to discuss problems.
- Quality of Afghan almond is the best in the
world.
Gender - AMIP will be hiring a female staff member with a - See HLP’s Gender Mainstreaming Strategy - There are at least 13 exporters in the country,
- How many men and women are involved in background in agriculture and business Paper for MAIL. all men but supported by their wives in the
raisin and almond wholesaling, trading, and economics. She will be in charge of their gender business.
exporting? mainstreaming component and will provide - The 2 women’s associations of almond
- If women are involved, what kind of roles support to women’s associations. producers in Balkh are also considering
do they play? - The project will provide women’s groups with becoming traders themselves.
- Do you see potential for more women to be opportunities for trading and marketing. The - Women can be producers and traders.
involved? In what roles? groups will also manage small infrastructure - Of the 2 associations for women almond
- What are the main constraints that women projects. producers, Khulm Women Association is
face in these value chains? headed by Mariam Sidiqui (279 members, 79
- What kind of support do women farmers from Daykundi and 200 from Dehsabz; all are
and traders need to improve production? To producers). Mariam is collecting their almonds
improve processing? To improve access to for processing and selling to traders/exporters.
export markets? - Habiba Mirazhar heads the other association,
129
Research questions Agriculture Market Infrastructure Project Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP) Afghan Almond Industry Development
(ADB/MAIL) Organization (AAIDO)
Daikundi Women Association. Habiba reported
Policy that they have 1,000 members who are just
- What gender-based policy changes do you processors. The association buys almonds
think should be implemented to improve from Sharestan District in Daikundi which
women’s participation in the raisin and produces famous sweet almonds.
almond value chains? - Women can also be involved in honeybee
production, as bees are needed to pollinate
almond trees. According to a study by AAIDO,
having honeybees on the farm increased
almond yields by 67–132%. If women keep
honeybees, they can increase income from
almond production as well as from beekeeping.
- Most processing is done by women (cracking,
sorting, packing, and packaging).
- Support women need: Extension services that
will be provided by women, training in
beekeeping, training in marketing and
packaging.

Policy Recommendations:
- Provide extension services to women
producers.
- Increase the accessibility of financing for
women farmers.

Institutions (continued)
Research questions EPAA ACCI Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables
EPA
Introduction - Aim: To find and resolve the main challenges - Services: - EPAA: Policy making for all services.
- What is your role in the grape, raisin, and that Afghan businesses face in exporting their 1. Certificate of Origin. - EPAA fruits/vegetables:
almond industries? products. 2. Lobbying with government to solve 1. Specializes in fruits and vegetables.
- What is your organizational structure? Do you - Work in all sectors. common issues such as export tax; resolve 2. More practical work.
have women employees? - Closely affiliated with ACCI. conflicts between members; help businesses 3. Provides facilities for export (facilitating
- Do you have members? Who are these - Provide certification ―Form A‖ (proof that a locate land for factories, and so on. export process).
members? Are any of them women? product originates in Afghanistan). 4. Mentoring: For all levels of value chain,
- What kind of services or support do you - No fees, only charge is cost of form (Af 300), - Have 35,000 business members who are particularly monitoring in processing so that
provide to farmers? Traders? Exporters? printed by ACCI. exporters, wholesalers, service providers, and products meet international standards. When
- Afghanistan has PTA/GSP agreement with importers. a business or farmer feels ready and meets
Extension and training several countries such as India for tax-exempt - If a business is licensed by Ministry of export standards, professionals from EPAA
- Do you provide extension or training support? exports; with China have tax exemption for 278 Commerce can then register with ACCI. fruits will travel to the farm to get samples of
Are there any women extensionists? items. - Of 21 board members, 1 is female. produce, test in lab for quality control, then
- Do you provide any other services or support - Receives funding from GTZ, Harakat. provide certificate for the business to obtain
for women farmers, traders, or exporters? - Services provided: - Has presence in 21 provinces, provides same the following documents for export: a) ACCI
- Is this offered to women? Is there a fee? Do 1. Certification. services. export invoice (usually attached to the goods
trainers travel to villages? 2. Trader visa support. - Pilot project in 2009 provided mats for drying being exported); b) Provincial customs; c)
3. Exhibition arrangements, local and to farmers in Kabul and Ghazni. Ministry of Finance International Trade
international. Department (in charge of statistics); and d)
4. Illegal tax trader hotline (5151). EPAA Form A.
5. Conferences for representatives from all
provinces to discuss and prioritize - Have 45 employees in this office, 10 women.

130
Research questions EPAA ACCI Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables
EPA
challenges to present to the government. - 3 departments: Quality control, marketing,
6. Training: packaging, labeling, and so forth. laboratory.
7. Trying to work with government to set up a - Provide a linkage between government and
―one-stop shop‖ for registration as an private sector.
exporter. Currently have to fill Form A at
EPAA, travel to ACCI, go to customs, and Extension support provided:
pay tax—all in different locations. - Vineyards: Professional training in growing
and using improved varieties.
- Publish magazines as guides for farmers.
- It is their responsibility to provide training; a
service charge levied on exporters covers
the cost of training; training is free for
farmers.
- Also works with processing centers that
export.
Products, end market, and national/regional - Afghanistan exports to 49 countries, of which - Processed raisins are most in demand in - Fresh grapes, raisins, and almonds are
production areas 48 require certificates (only Pakistan needs no Russia. exported.
- Are fresh table grapes exported or mostly certification, hence no data are available on - Unprocessed raisins are mostly in demand in - - Last year 146,000 t fresh fruit and
raisins? If yes, where? trade activities—informal trade). India and Pakistan. vegetables were exported of which 22,000 t
- Who are the main suppliers for exporters of - EPAA has around 150 registered active - Grapes are exported to countries like India, was cleaned and processed raisins (strong red
grapes, raisins, and almonds? Are they exporters; more than 50 are dried fruit/nut Pakistan, Iran, and Tajikistan, but most exports raisin variety mostly).
farmers, associations, traders/wholesalers? exporters. are raisins.
- Do women supply directly to exporters, too? - Russia is main importer of raisins but India is - Quality is a big issue for exporting. - Best quality fresh grapes are exported.
- Where are grapes, raisins, and almonds the best market for dried fruits and nuts (best - Golden raisins are most in demand. - 2 types of raisins are exported:
mostly exported to? prices). - With almonds, lots of mixing occurs, 1. Processed: washed, treated with paraffin
- What kind of grapes, raisins, and almonds are especially with apricot seeds and low-quality wax.
in greatest demand in the export market? almonds. 2. Cleaned by hand.
- Where are grapes, raisins, and almonds - Government has removed taxes and is
mostly produced? improving security during transportation. - 141 exporters are registered.
- What kinds of grapes, raisins and almonds - 9 processing centers in Kabul, 1 in Parwan, 6
are most in demand in the domestic market? in Mazar, 1 in Herat, and 2 in Kandahar.
- What volumes of grapes, raisins, and - Exports have been increasing.
almonds are exported from Afghanistan every - MAIL often provides farmers inputs such as
year? pesticides. This organization provides the
- What is the percentage of imports/exports for methodology to improve production up to
each of grapes, raisins, and almonds? Have export quality standards.
the exports increased over the past few years?
- Are raisins and grapes imported into
Afghanistan? Where do these imports come
from?
- Is the quality of produce/products an issue for
the export market?

Policy
- What kind of support is the government
providing to improve production, processing,
and sales of grapes, raisins, and almonds?
Pricing of products (domestic and exports) - A rate is set by ACCI but only to determine - Prices mostly based on market prices; - Provide no trading services, not involved with
- How are domestic prices of grapes, raisins, the service tax charged to all exporters. government is not involved. pricing decisions.
and almonds determined? - Golden raisins are most in demand: Af 125/kg
- Does the government play a part setting for export and Af 200s/kg for domestic
131
Research questions EPAA ACCI Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables
EPA
those prices? consumption. Domestic price is higher because
- How are prices of grapes, raisins, and this product targets high-income consumers.
almonds determined for the export market? Raisins are sold for export in bulk but domestic
- What are the current average prices for the sales are much smaller amounts to individual
types of raisins, grapes, and almonds most in consumers. Individual domestic consumers are
demand on the domestic market (per ser or per charged higher prices but when selling to
kilogram)? Have these prices changed over the wholesalers for export, can realize a large profit
last year? all at once, which is not possible in domestic
- What are the current average prices of the sales.
types of raisins and almonds most in demand - Current price of almonds without shell
on the export market (per ser or per kilogram)? (export): Af 400–500/kg; with shell (export) Af
Have these prices changed over the last year? 200–350/kg; stone almond Af 60–70/kg.
- Is the average price of raisins and almonds - Current price for red raisins: Af 80s/kg
increasing or decreasing? (export) and Af 30–100/kg (domestic).
- Almond and raisin prices have been
increasing since quality has also been slowly
improving. Exports have also been rising.
- There is a ―cooperative‖ in the mandvi that
sets prices for dried fruits.
Players within the value chain and - All men, practically no women involved.
cooperation among firms - Most traders know from experience what is a
- What are the main characteristics of the good market price in the international market;
businesses (number and structure/ownership) usually only criterion is to earn a positive
of traders/wholesalers? Are women involved in return.
these businesses? - Exhibitions are a great way for traders to
- What are the main characteristics of obtain information about market prices, form
businesses (number and structure/ownership) export contracts; also get pricing via cell
of exporters? Are women involved in these phones and email.
businesses?
- How do traders, wholesalers, and exporters
get pricing and market information?
Business financing - Most traders deal in cash.
- What types of financing are available for - Hard to obtain credit.
traders/wholesalers and exporters? - High interest rates.
- Is the financing accessible (formal, informal,
MFI, banking system)?
- Do they need further financial support? For
what activities?
Future: Constraints and opportunities 1. Illegal taxes (trying to solve with hotline). - Biggest challenge in exporting grapes is Challenges:
- Is domestic demand for grapes, raisins, and 2. Registration procedures (need one-stop transportation. 1. Modern equipment for laboratory.
almonds growing? shop) - During harvest time, Pakistan often increases 2. Equipment for farmers, such as mats for
- Is export demand for grapes, raisins, and 3. Lack of market for Afghan products, huge taxes, blocks roads to limit incoming supply of drying.
almonds growing? transportation costs, trying to find cargo products. 3. Financing of factories.
- What are the most promising export markets? companies that are cost-effective.
Is there interest from other countries or new 4. Political/economic issues. Main challenges: Opportunities:
markets for Afghan grapes, raisins, and 1. Lack of cold storage. 1. Lots of potential, unmet demand; could be
almonds? 2002–09: Exports increasing 2. Packaging. producing more for export.
- What are the main constraints in producing 2009–10: Exports decreasing owing to 3. Processing. 2. Export systems have improved and will
and processing grapes, raisins, and almonds? economic crisis, changes in weather (much 4. Government should provide testing continue to improve.
What are the opportunities? colder), pests. facilities for products (quality control). 3. NGOs are helping Afghan farmers.

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Research questions EPAA ACCI Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables
EPA
- What are the main constraints for the grape, 5. International standards for dried fruits 4. Exhibitions help to increase demand;
raisin, and almond value chains? What are the should be established. winning lots of awards at international
opportunities? 6. Water/irrigation. shows, more recognition/building reputation.
- Do farmers and traders have sufficient access 7. Pesticides.
to the export market? What can be done to - Last year, big problem with exports because
improve their access? - Raisins have more opportunity than almonds. Pakistan kept wanting to block products. This
- Which value chain—grapes/raisins or - Most promising markets: Indian, Pakistan, usually happens every year but last year it was
almonds or both—has the most potential in the Europe, Canada, Russia, Central Asia, and particularly bad.
export market? China. - Previous years, tax was 5%, last year
Pakistan increased it to 25% (political
Policy Opportunities: tensions).
- What policies currently affect production, 1. Packaging. - All other countries including India and Russia
processing, and sales of raisins and almonds? 2. Quality control. are honest with their countries, only a problem
- What policy changes do you think should be 3. Wine production. with Pakistan.
implemented to improve production, 4. Domestic usage in local food and - Since there is no cold storage in Afghanistan,
processing, and sales of raisins and almonds? desserts. if Pakistan increases their tax, they have no
5. Local juice called doshow. choice but to accept these conditions.
- Ambassador of Pakistan invited 3 times last
year to Ministry of Commerce so they could
discuss and negotiate the tax.
- EPAA dried fruit was also invited by the
Ministry of Finance, through the Ministry of
Commerce, regarding taxes.

- The government has an agreement this year

with the Government of Pakistan regarding:
1. Tax.
2. Use of Pakistani transit routes to India.

- No Pakistani traders allowed to come to

Afghanistan to purchase produce; only Afghan
exporters.
- Juice often comes from Pakistan; also
vegetables are bought in-season in
Afghanistan, stored in Pakistan, and often sold
back to Afghanistan when they are out of
season.
- A large quantity of juice is imported into
Afghanistan, and the fruit is usually sourced in
Afghanistan in the first place.
- Packaging is all that is done in Pakistan. They
often label products ―Made in Pakistan‖ and
export them elsewhere. Only Pakistan does
this, no other country does.
Gender - The number of women-owned businesses - Only 2 exporters are women; they are weak
- How many men and women are involved in registered with ACCI has increased. and need motivation.
raisin and almond wholesaling, trading, and - ACCI also has women employees. - Majority of women are involved in processing,
exporting? which is lots of hard work done by hand. Most
- If women are involved, what kind of roles do Main opportunities for women: employees of processing centers are women.
they play? 1. Exporters. - AWBF: For years received lots of funding, but
- Do you see potential for more women to be 2. Lots of women are already in the value have not seen as much progress as should
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Research questions EPAA ACCI Afghanistan Raisins, Fruits, and Vegetables
EPA
involved? In what roles? chain; they can become more involved if they have seen.
- What are the main constraints that women have the motivation to evolve.
face in these value chains? - Women could add further value:
- What kind of support do women farmers and 1. Need to identify women with potential,
traders need to improve production? To who are entrepreneurial.
improve processing? To improve access to 2. Women need support.
export markets?

Policy
- What gender-based policy changes do you
think should be implemented to improve
women’s participation in the raisin and almond
value chains?

Institutions (continued)
Research questions Mercy Corps Afghanistan Khulm Agriculture Islamic Investment MAIL – Balkh
Finance and Cooperative (KAIIFC)
Introduction - Interview with global development alliance - KAIIFC was organized and is supported by - Mazar produces most of Afghanistan’s dried
- What is your role in the grape, raisin, and manager (a woman) for grape and raisin WOCCU. It started in 2007 and now has a fruits. HLP also does a lot of work in Mazar,
almond industries? production. membership of 1,700, of which 350 are where 25,000 ha of orchard were affected by
- What is your organizational structure? Do you - Mercy Corps International works with farmers’ women. Almost all the members are farmers, war.
have women employees? cooperatives in Charikar villages of Parwan since Khulm is an agricultural district where - In 2007, MAIL revitalized 749 hectares of
- Do you have members? Who are these Province. 90% of people have at least 1 jerib or at least orchard and planted 2,000 new ones on 300
members? Are any of them women? - Mercy Corps has women employees in the 100 almond trees. ha. They focus on apples, pomegranates,
- What kind of services or support do you office, not in the raisin centers. - KAIIFC has a cooperative structure with a almonds, apricots, and grapes. They export
provide to farmers? Traders? Exporters? - Mercy Corps supports 300 men farmers; General Assembly as its highest governing more than 150,000 t of dried fruits to Russia
cooperative members are men only. body. Under the General Assembly are 4 every year. Quality has suffered from the
Extension and training - Mercy Corps has specialized staff in their committees (Supervisory, Credit, Education, drought, which brought pests (worms).
- Do you provide extension or training support? centers. Mercy Corps provides training to its and Special Committees) and the Board of - MAIL provides extension services through 40
Are there any women extensionists? farmers in each cooperative center for free. Directors. The Manager reports directly to the cluster groups in 14 districts (25 men’s and 15
- Do you provide any other services or support Their trainers also travel to villages to conduct board; under him are the project staff. women’s groups). They have 15 female
for women farmers, traders, or exporters? professional training for farmers.; - The cooperative provides training and extension workers for the 15 women groups.
- Is this offered to women? Is there a fee? Do - Mercy Corps, together with the MAIL orientation to members about the cooperative’s Training was provided in planting, pest and
trainers travel to villages? provincial directorate, supports farmers. policies and lending system. disease control, pruning, grafting, and weed
- The cooperative advertises through their control. They also provided small equipment to
Information Officer, who goes to villages to farmers for their farming activities.
provide orientation. At times KAIIFC also
invites village elders to their office for
orientation. The elders return to their villages
and do the orientation. When villagers are
interested, they go to the KAIIFC office for
further orientation and they fill application
forms. They have to pay an initial Af 100
membership fee and Af 1,000 as an initial
share deposit.
- KAIIFC now has assets of Af 16 m; savings
deposits of Af 3.5 m and share capital of Af 1.8
m.
- Members can withdraw their savings once
they have finished with their loans, while share

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Research questions Mercy Corps Afghanistan Khulm Agriculture Islamic Investment MAIL – Balkh
Finance and Cooperative (KAIIFC)
capital can also be withdrawn. However, they
need to have a balance of Af 100 so as not to
lose their membership from the cooperative.
Products, end market, and national/regional - Mostly they export raisins to the UK but also - Grape production is lower because of water - Fruit comes from Sar-e-pul and Faryab
production areas to Russia, the USA, Pakistan, India, and Spain. scarcity, especially during summer. Almonds Provinces. They bring it to Mazar for
- Are fresh table grapes exported or mostly - There are five farmers’ cooperatives with 300 are suitable because they need little water to processing and packaging and then export it.
raisins? If yes, where? members in their centers; these farmers grow. - Almonds are exported to Dubai. This year,
- Who are the main suppliers for exporters of provide raisins for export. - Many traders move in and out of Khulm there will be 40% less production because of
grapes, raisins, and almonds? Are they - Almost all of the wholesalers and exporters buying almonds and selling them to the bad weather early in the year. There are 81
farmers, associations, traders/wholesalers? are processers. wholesalers in Mazar. Farmers usually ask varieties of almonds; 2 are saleable: Saterbari
- Do women supply directly to exporters, too? - All suppliers are men. The women’s work and around first for the prevailing price of the and Kadairani.
- How many large farmers grow grapes and efforts are not visible. product before they sell to traders. - 80% of good-quality almonds come from
almonds? - There is high demand for the red raisin called Balkh, Kunduz, and Samanggan.
- Where are grapes/raisins and almonds mostly aftabi (―sun dried‖); they know aftabi and - Farmers are organized into groups; the group
exported to? aayagi (―shade dried‖) raisins. buys from its farmer-members and then sells to
- Where are grapes, raisins, and almonds - There is a strong export market for Kishmishi, the mandvi. At times they invite wholesalers to
mostly produced? Shongulkhani, and Taifee grapes. come to their village.
- What kinds of grapes, raisins and almonds - Mercy Corps provided almost Af 5,000.worth of
are most in demand in the domestic market? mats to 300 farmers for drying grapes.
- What volumes of grapes, raisins, and - They purchased 40 t of raisins from their
almonds are exported from Afghanistan every farmers last year and this year they are going
year? to purchase 100 t from these same farmers;
- What is the percentage of imports/exports for - Mercy Corps exports raisins to the UK every
each of grapes, raisins, and almonds? Have year.
the exports increased over the past few years? - About 30 years ago Parwan had very good
- Are raisins and grapes imported into quality raisins, which is why there is a good
Afghanistan? Where do these imports come market for them in Russia.
from? - Traders import some varieties of grapes and
- Is the quality of produce/products an issue for raisins from China and Iran.
the export market? - The Russians process it for making wine in
big factories.
Policy - Exports are higher but there is no confidence
- What kind of support is the government in the percentage of exports.
providing to improve production, processing, - Yes, quality of production is an issue; the
and sales of grapes, raisins, and almonds? USA always demands high-quality red/black
raisins.
- Russians always purchases low-quality red
raisins.
- The government provides certificates, market
information, exhibitions, and try to find markets
in European countries for raisins, but they pay
more attention to almonds than to raisins and
grapes. Our project has an interest in apples
and pomegranates.
Pricing of products (domestic and exports) - Pricing is determined depending on the - Based on the prevailing market price and
- How are domestic prices of grapes, raisins, quality of produce. The government has no role supply. If supply is high, the price is low; if the
and almonds determined? in setting prices. supply is falling, prices become high.
- Does the government play a part setting - When the volume of produce available in the - Price for export is based on the traders.
those prices? market for export is low, prices rise; when the
- How are prices of grapes, raisins, and volume is large, prices fall.
almonds determined for the export market? - Last year Afghan raisins weren’t exported to
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Research questions Mercy Corps Afghanistan Khulm Agriculture Islamic Investment MAIL – Balkh
Finance and Cooperative (KAIIFC)
- What are the current average prices for the Pakistan because the high tax placed on
types of raisins, grapes, and almonds most in Afghan imports by the Pakistani government,
demand on the domestic market (per ser or per so the price fell and the grapes were sold in the
kilogram)? Have these prices changed over the domestic market only. But many farmers dried
last year? their grapes at home or by the road without any
- What are the current average prices of the mats or carpets, which is why raisin quality also
types of raisins and almonds most in demand was not good last year.
on the export market (per ser or per kilogram)? - Red raisins of low quality are Af 150–200/ser
Have these prices changed over the last year? and those of good quality are Af 250–300/ser.
- Is the average price of raisins and almonds For green raisins the price is Af 500–600/ser in
increasing or decreasing? the villages.
- Last year Mercy Corps paid their registered
farmers Af 300 per 7 kg of raisins.
Players within the value chain and - They get the price from the markets. No - Most businesses are owned by a single
cooperation among firms agencies set prices or provide information person and/or family.
- What are the main characteristics of the about the price. - They get market information from the internet
businesses (number and structure/ownership) and from their groups.
of traders/wholesalers? Are women involved in
these businesses?
- What are the main characteristics of
businesses (number and structure/ownership)
of exporters? Are women involved in these
businesses?
- How do traders, wholesalers, and exporters
get pricing and market information?
Business financing - For small business ventures they borrow from - KAIIFC provides 2 kinds of agricultural loans; - Loans are available from MFIs and banks, but
- What types of financing are available for friends, relatives; if they need more money they one is payable in 6 months and the other in 9 most farmers do not agree with charging
traders/wholesalers and exporters? apply to banks. months. The administrative fee is 2% of the interest. Farmers need loans to increase and
- Is the financing accessible (formal, informal, - Yes, they need financial support for balance of the loan. For agricultural loans, 10% improve their orchards.
MFI, banking system)? expanding their business and gaining access to is deducted from savings and share deposits.
- Do they need further financial support? For national and international markets. For business loans, 15% is deducted from the
what activities? member’s savings and share deposits. Loans
range from Af 5,000 to Af 25,000 depending on
the need of the borrower.
- They have both group and individual loans.
Most women take group loans since they are
grouped together and can guarantee each
other’s loans. Men can have either individual or
group loans. Both loans should be guaranteed
by their village elders. There are 140,000
people in the villages and only 1,700 are
members, so there is a great potential for
KAIIFC to increase their membership.
Future: Constraints and opportunities - Yes, domestic demand is growing for these Constraints: Constraints:
- Is domestic demand for grapes, raisins, and products. 1. Some villages are in remote areas that are 1. Water shortage.
almonds growing? - If the quality is low then the export demand very hard to penetrate because of security 2. Pests and diseases.
- Is export demand for grapes, raisins, and for raisins could be less. concerns. 3. Lack of marketing information and
almonds growing? - There are promising export markets for raisins 2. Members find the 6- and 9-month loans opportunities.
- What are the most promising export markets? such as Turkey, Russia, and some other not enough for their farming business. 4. Lack of information on product standards.
Is there interest from other countries or new European countries. Yet there is no hope for 5. No loans available for farmers from the

136
Research questions Mercy Corps Afghanistan Khulm Agriculture Islamic Investment MAIL – Balkh
Finance and Cooperative (KAIIFC)
markets for Afghan grapes, raisins, and the raisin business in Afghanistan because of Opportunities: government. They either come from banks or
almonds? low quality. Afghanistan is not able to compete 1. Area for expansion is big. MFIs that charge high interest rates.
- What are the main constraints in producing with other competitors in the international 2. Any business once it has capital can 6. Lack of modern technologies.
and processing grapes, raisins, and almonds? market. create jobs in the district.
What are the opportunities? - Lack of technical assistance with farmers is 3. Availability of financing system in the Opportunities:
- What are the main constraints for the grape, the big constraint. district for farmers. 1. Afghanistan’s weather is suitable for fruit
raisin, and almond value chains? What are the - Lack of knowledge for processing raisins and 4. Extension services for both men and production.
opportunities? grapes in Afghanistan. women producers should be available so 2. Availability of farmland in Mazar.
- Do farmers and traders have sufficient access - Lack of access to finance. they can improve their almond production. 3. Cheap labor.
to the export market? What can be done to - Some NGOs are supporting Afghan farmers Other agricultural activities should also be 4. Security is very good in Mazar.
improve their access? (Mercy Corps gave them mats and training, for introduced to producers, such as vegetable 5. Borders many countries; trade is good.
- Which value chain—grapes/raisins or example). production, so they will have other income 6. Proposed railway will make exporting from
almonds or both—has the most potential in the - The main constraint is a lack of storage, aside from almonds. Mazar easier.
export market? uncontrollable imports. 7. Mazar has a two-runway airport.
- Lack of marketing skills, lack of packing 8. There are many professionals.
Policy: facilities. 9. Presence of many NGOs.
- What policies currently affect production, - For women the main constraint is negative
processing, and sales of raisins and almonds? cultural practices imposed on women, so being
- What policy changes do you think should be an Afghan is a problem to deal with all cultural
implemented to improve production, and social problems.
processing, and sales of raisins and almonds? - If Afghanistan produces juice, there are
opportunities to supply domestic and export
markets.
- Controls on imported and exported fruit and
the quality of production and processing should
be improved, and the government should help
find markets in European countries.
- Processing and post-harvest handling of
grapes for juice and other foods for the
domestic market.
Gender - No women involved; she saw no women - KAIIFC has 350 women members of 1,700 - Women are active on the production and
- How many men and women are involved in during her work with the target community, but members. Most are involved in almond processing side.
raisin and almond wholesaling, trading, and definitely they are involved in farm activities, production. They do not know any women - Women can also be involved in marketing but
exporting? taking care of trees and processing. These traders or wholesalers. in this society, men dominate trading,
- If women are involved, what kind of roles do activities are hidden; no-one is counting - Yes, there is potential for women as long as marketing, and exporting.
they play? women. they are supported by their family members.
- Do you see potential for more women to be - Women producers can group themselves and
involved? In what roles? they can select who among their group can act
- What are the main constraints that women as a leader to sell their products. The women
face in these value chains? need extension service from female workers.
- What kind of support do women farmers and They also need orientation or training in
traders need to improve production? To marketing to have confidence in trading or
improve processing? To improve access to selling their produce.
export markets?

Policy
- What gender-based policy changes do you
think should be implemented to improve
women’s participation in the raisin and almond
value chains?

137
 Institutions (continued)
Research questions National Skills Development Program Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MOWA) MOWA Legal Representative (Amina Wahab
(NSDP) Zada)
Introduction - The objectives of NSDP are to (1) identify and - Work at the policy level in the improvement of - This lawyer established the Office in 2006.
- What is your role in the grape, raisin, and support training providers and (2) develop life for women, in all areas. The Ministry has 5 She develops cases to appeal decisions on
almond industries? Afghanistan’s vocational and educational sub-departments: (1) Capacity building; (2) property rights, defends the cases, provides
- What is your organizational structure? Do you training system. Handicrafts; (3) Business development; (4) objections and defends objections, develops
have women employees? - NSDP is doing curriculum development in Exhibitions; and (5) Rural Development. appeal documents and files them with the
- Do you have members? Who are these cooperation with other experts in the country. - Have branch in each province. court, works on land registration issues, and
members? Are any of them women? Right now, there is no coordination in training - Have set up 12 women’s farms in all does counseling to resolve family problems.
- What kind of services or support do you provision between NGOs and government provinces to train women and link them to - Doesn’t work on criminal cases; she knows
provide to farmers? Traders? Exporters? agencies. NSDP will be introducing a system to markets. she cannot deal fairly because of the corruption
be implemented in the whole country by all the and arms/weapons in the community.
Extension and training training providers. They have to follow - She developed 103 cases regarding family
- Do you provide extension or training support? standards and they should be certified and problems, 15 cases related to land registry and
Are there any women extensionists? accredited. Right now, NSDP is still working on appealing land rights, and provided guidance
- Do you provide any other services or support a skills development framework and planning on each step of each case, from local
for women farmers, traders, or exporters? to introduce competency-based training government agencies to supreme courts.
- Is this offered to women? Is there a fee? Do modules. - She works to get business licenses and
trainers travel to villages? permission for women and men.
- She provides these services against fees.
- For each land registry and owning case she
receives US$ 3,000.
- But if her client is a poor woman, she links the
woman with lawyers and NGOs working for
women and providing free services such as
NRC.
Products, end market, and national/regional - NSDP already developed 85 training - Have Memoranda of Understanding with
production areas standards for Level 1 in the following sectors: MAIL and MRRD, also with Ministry of Finance,
- Are fresh table grapes exported or mostly (1) Agriculture; (2) Construction; (3) Services; MOC, AWBF. Organize forums to share and
raisins? If yes, where? (4) Business; (5) Industry; and (6) Social work on action plans for women.
- Who are the main suppliers for exporters of Services. - A dried fruit association that was initially set
grapes, raisins, and almonds? Are they - NSDP developed, with help of experts from up by the Self-Employed Women’s Association,
farmers, associations, traders/wholesalers? MAIL, Level 1 for the Fruits and Vegetables been working for 4 years, has now been
- Do women supply directly to exporters, too? Processing Assistant National Occupational handed over to MOWA. In need of financial
- How many large farmers grow grapes and Skills Standard. If there is a need to hire and support.
almonds? train para-professionals for this sector, they - Have presented 6 policies to the government
- Where are grapes/raisins and almonds mostly already have a standard to follow. over the last 2 years: (1) Beggars program; (2)
exported to? improved facilities for private sector to get
- Where are grapes, raisins, and almonds involved (e.g., transportation); (3) development
mostly produced? of women’s bank – lower interest rates; (4)
- What kinds of grapes, raisins and almonds customs (to ease process for women to be able
are most in demand in the domestic market? to perform cross-border trade safely); and (5)
- What volumes of grapes, raisins, and women’s market.
almonds are exported from Afghanistan every
year?
- What is the percentage of imports/exports for
each of grapes, raisins, and almonds? Have
the exports increased over the past few years?
- Are raisins and grapes imported into
Afghanistan? Where do these imports come
from?

138
Research questions National Skills Development Program Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MOWA) MOWA Legal Representative (Amina Wahab
(NSDP) Zada)
- Is the quality of produce/products an issue for
the export market?

Policy
- What kind of support is the government
providing to improve production, processing,
and sales of grapes, raisins, and almonds?
Pricing of products (domestic and exports)
- How are domestic prices of grapes, raisins,
and almonds determined?
- Does the government play a part setting
those prices?
- How are prices of grapes, raisins, and
almonds determined for the export market?
- What are the current average prices for the
types of raisins, grapes, and almonds most in
demand on the domestic market (per ser or per
kilogram)? Have these prices changed over the
last year?
- What are the current average prices of the
types of raisins and almonds most in demand
on the export market (per ser or per kilogram)?
Have these prices changed over the last year?
- Is the average price of raisins and almonds
increasing or decreasing?
Players within the value chains and
cooperation among firms
- What are the main characteristics of the
businesses (number and structure/ownership)
of traders/wholesalers? Are women involved in
these businesses?
- What are the main characteristics of
businesses (number and structure/ownership)
of exporters? Are women involved in these
businesses?
- How do traders, wholesalers, and exporters
get pricing and market information?
Business financing - Limited access for financing women’s trips to
- What types of financing are available for exhibitions overseas (marketing).
traders/wholesalers and exporters?
- Is the financing accessible (formal, informal,
MFIs, banking system)?
- Do they need further financial support? For
what activities?
Future: Constraints and opportunities - Presently the program has the following Challenges:
- Is domestic demand for grapes, raisins, and constraints: They have not yet established a - Marketing: needs a women’s market and
almonds growing? National Qualifications Authority who will do they have applied to government for land to
- Is export demand for grapes, raisins, and accreditation of training providers. set this up.
almonds growing? - Cultural constraints.
- What are the most promising export markets? Opportunities: - Land rights.

139
Research questions National Skills Development Program Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MOWA) MOWA Legal Representative (Amina Wahab
(NSDP) Zada)
Is there interest from other countries or new 1. NSDP has identified training providers in - Security.
markets for Afghan grapes, raisins, and 34 provinces that can be tapped for training.
almonds? 2. There are NSDP Regional Offices in - Need to improve security, law and land rights,
- What are the main constraints for the grape, Heart, Nangarhar, Kunduz, Jawzjan, and education opportunities, health.
raisin, and almond value chains? What are the Paktia.
opportunities? 3. They have a target of 35% women training
- Do farmers and traders have sufficient access participants.
to the export market? What can be done to 4. As per their evaluation, 91% of their
improve their access? training graduates have found jobs and/or
- Which value chain—grapes/raisins or now engage in businesses.
almonds or both—has the most potential in the
export market? - NSDP is currently successful because of the
following:
Policy 1. The program is not only providing skills
- What policies currently affect production, training but also business development skills,
processing, and sales of raisins and almonds? life skills training, and essential tool kits for
- What policy changes do you think should be participants.
implemented to improve production, 2. The selection of trade is based on market
processing, and sales of raisins and almonds? demand.
3. The selection of trainees is based on
criteria.
4. On-going monitoring and evaluation.
Gender - NSDP has a target of 35% among their - Women work at every level in these value Land ownership:
- How many men and women are involved in training participants. chains but not recognized/formal. - Purchasing and buying land is everybody’s
raisin and almond wholesaling, trading, and - NSDP can provide support in training para- - In processing factories, it will be important to right, no discrimination against
exporting? professionals through linkage to their training equalize wages between men and women. law/constitution and Islamic rules. Women
- If women are involved, what kind of roles do providers in the provinces so they can use the and men have same right.
they play? standards that they have developed. - Women’s right of inheritance from
- Do you see potential for more women to be father/mother and husband is also clearly an
involved? In what roles? absolute right.
- What are the main constraints that women - Women and girls have the right to inherit
face in these value chains? from their fathers half of the amount of land
- What kind of support do women farmers and as boys because women will receive another
traders need to improve production? To share from their husbands.
improve processing? To improve access to - If they claim their land rights or appeal
export markets? decisions on land rights, they can achieve
their goal, otherwise they will not be paid by
Policy their fathers, mothers, or husbands.
- What gender-based policy changes do you
think should be implemented to improve Cultural problems and lack of awareness:
women’s participation in the raisin and almond - Approximately 80% of women in
value chains? Afghanistan are not aware of their rights.
- They prefer to put their inherited property at
the disposal of their brothers, since if they
apply for ownership in their own name, the
family of father will end their relation with her.
- In Afghanistan culture is much stronger
than the constitution and Islamic mentoring.
- High percentage of Afghan women do not
have a national ID card.
- If they earn money or buy some things
140
Research questions National Skills Development Program Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MOWA) MOWA Legal Representative (Amina Wahab
(NSDP) Zada)
owned by their husbands sometimes they
face physical or mental violation and even
divorce.
- She developed a case from a woman who
is a doctor but her husband owns her salary,
car, and land. She feared divorce and the
loss of her children. The case is still in
process.
- The strongest problem with land rights
appeals (like other rights) in Afghanistan is
corruption, which prevents men and women
from demanding their rights.
- Because of illiteracy, women are unable to
develop the cases to demand their land
rights. Also it’s very costly and they need
much time and mentoring assistance.

Recommendations and solution

- Conduct a national awareness campaign
about women’s rights and family inheritance
laws.
- Encourage women to apply for title to land
and other property.
- Create a support system to advocate on
behalf of women at the family, community, and
government levels.
- Form an association to coordinate those who
are working for women’s rights. Develop a
performance plan for this association and
submit it to government agencies to accelerate
action related to women’s legal title to property.

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Other

Meeting with Zaitoon (May 24, 2010)

Zaitoon attended the 2008 Saffron conference in Herat

Land size:
- Average size of land that farmers cultivate saffron on: 1.5–2.0 jeribs.
- Average size of land that farmers have for agriculture in total: 4–5 jeribs; grow vegetables and wheat
in addition to saffron.
- 1 jerib needs about 100 kg of bulbs; most farmers usually plant 60–70 bulbs/jerib.
- 1 jerib = 2 kg of dried saffron each year (if good harvest).
- Takes 5–7 years after planting bulbs to get first harvest, after that get harvest every year. In the first
year of harvest, can collect stigmas 10–25 times.
- Larger farmers own up to 5 jeribs of land and sell their harvest to traders.

Land ownership:
- Families own or lease land.
- Men own the land, no women do.
- A widow will often have a document in her husband’s name; land usually belongs to the women and
children after his death.

Inputs:
- Bulbs that come from Iran are cheaper but also lower quality, since they are damaged during
transport.
- Bulb cost: Iranian (US$ 5/kg); Herat (US$ 6–7/kg).
- Need some manure, not much fertilizer required, saffron is easy to grow.
- Only 1 fungus affects saffron, not that disease prone.

Production:
- Women plant.
- Men prepare land and plant.
- Irrigate every 15 days or so (men or women).

Harvesting:
- Women and children mostly.
- Harvest placed in plastic bags with cover to prevent damage.
- Done by hand, early morning or late afternoon after sundown to prevent damage to stigmas from sun.

Wage labor:
- Families often hire neighboring families (women and children) to help them harvest.
- Wages are same for men and women; pay around US$ 3/day for labor.

Processing:
- Some associations have electric dryers.
- In Herat 6–8 processors. Women farmers sell their stigmas to them for drying and selling.

Products:
- Stigma (dried to make saffron).
- Flower (used to make clothes dyes) (Iran).
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Associations:
- Have own farms or purchase stigmas from farmers.
- Farmers usually bring their harvest to the association’s center.
- Both men and women are able to travel to center.
- Members of the association cannot use drying facilities as a service; have to sell stigmas to
association.
- Association sells to traders  exporters, local shops in Herat and exhibitions.

Processing centers run by associations:

- Mostly women employees, since this work needs patience (operation of dryers).
- Individual women do come to sell their harvest, not usually in groups.

Traders:
- Some traders purchase flowers only to be used to be as dyes.
- Farmers that sell stigmas to traders usually have a contract in advance (verbal agreement); will often
provide an advance to farmers, farmers will then sell their harvest to that trader after 1 year.
- Traders are all men.
- There are many Afghani traders.
- Have experience with quality, can sort saffron based on quality before selling.

Are saffron imports from Iran (the biggest producer) available in Afghanistan? (Zaitoon not sure.)

Prices:
- US$ 1,200/kg in 2007 is correct (as in report).
- US $2,000–2,500/kg in 2010 (approximately).
- Prices have increased as previously saffron was sold cheaply at the Iranian border as traders had no
knowledge of prices. Now everyone has pricing knowledge especially since the setup of the
associations, exhibitions, and so on.
- Export price is US$ 2,000/kg; farmer sells to trader or association at US$ 1,500/kg.

Training:
- Members of association receive free training; for others there is a charge.
- NGOs provide training.
- No government extension.

Quality:
- Clean plastic bags/covers necessary during harvest.
- Use of gloves/face masks.
- Cleanliness is extremely important for quality.
- Electric drying is best, sun dried is not good quality.

Exporters:
- Not the same as traders, different value chain players.
- There are several large exporters.
- Do some packaging.
- A lot of smuggling occurring since taxes are high.

Challenges:
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- Security (transporting harvest to processing center or market).

Opportunities:
- Women can become traders in domestic markets.

Value chain map:

- Farmer sells to trader or association (US$ 800/kg).
- Trader sells to exporter ($1200/kg).
- Association sells to exporter, trader (US$ 1,200/kg).
- Exporter sells US$ 2,000/kg.

Note: Pricing above was used as a relative example to see what kind of profit margins each player
earns.

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 Annex 4
Stakeholder Workshop

A stakeholder workshop on July 26, 2010 included representatives of key ministries—MAIL,

MRRD, the Ministry of Education, and MOWA—as well as representatives of MFIs, NGOs, the
UN, donor agencies, and the World Bank. MEDA presented a draft report, and group discussions
focused on opportunities for women producers to move up in the value chains of Afghanistan’s key
export products. Issues and recommendations raised during the workshop have been incorporated
into this Policy Note.

1. Key observations on the draft report.

 Although there is no lack of microfinance, high interest rates and small credits coupled with
tight repayment schedules discourage women from using microfinance.
 MFIs should be encouraged to provide women with some grants. (If MFIs cannot do so,
explore other channels—for example, provide matching grants to women through programs
such as AREDP; link grants with other NGOs, and so on).
 The government should provide women’s groups with land for a limited period (10 years, 5
years) just to encourage women to work in agriculture and become self-sufficient. In some
parts of the country, such as Kapisa, MOWA has been active in this regard. It has given
some land to a group of around 50 people for few years and even provided saffron bulbs).
 Women farmers or their cooperatives should receive basic literacy and numeracy courses as
well. This will enable them to have better control over their businesses.
 There should be coordination among NGOs working for women. They should share their
experiences and wherever possible combine efforts to achieve bigger goals.
 Women's work and contribution in agriculture should be recognized frequently through the
media.
 Having some social places for women would promote not only value chains but also other
sectors and gender aspects.
 Additional information that would be good to include in a study of this nature:
a. Mapping: Identify the actors and flow of products.
b. Benchmarking: Assess value chain performance.
c. Distribution of the added value in the value chain.
d. Individual enterprise performance.
e. Vertical inter-firm linkages.
f. Horizontal cooperation.
g. Value chain coordination.
h. Analysis of the support actors of the value chain.
i. Commercial support and noncommercial support.
j. Consultation with many big stakeholders like BRAC and other MFIs is missing.
They are providing many services.
k. Russia is missing but it is one of the biggest importers of raisins.
l. Other provinces in Afghanistan are contributing to these products, thus playing a big
role in the value chain, but are missing here.
m. Women’s role as input suppliers is missing.
n. Inaccurate presentation regarding women’s involvement in the value chain at all
levels. We should know the roles of women in these value chain studies as primary

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 actors (who own the produce) or as secondary actors (who provide services) at all
levels from input suppliers to consumers.
o. To have figures, maybe in percentage.
p. To take advantage of secondary data.
q. Lack of analysis of actors.

2. Recommendations from group discussions.

 Mobilizing women based on their needs and opportunities through self-help groups,
associations, cooperatives, or unions.
 Conduct training courses on technical subjects and in literacy.
 Building women’s business capacities for business management and marketing.
 Establishment of vocational centers so women can learn other skills.
 Government should ensure that there is enabling environment for all women in all the levels
of the value chain and donors should help in supporting a women-friendly environment
(examples: markets should have bathrooms and toilets; market should be in area where
women can securely come and go).
 MFIs should have flexible loan funds and grants for women.
 Vocational/technical training centers to increase women’s capacity.
 Establishment of women’s cooperatives, platforms, and forums.

3. Participants
No. Name Title Organization
1 Mahbooba Director AWBC
2 Che Cruspero ASAP
3 Mina Ali Specialist AREDP
4 M. Omar Noori Agriculture - Sed Head NSDP
5 Silvia Kaufmann F.S Advisor FAO
6 Martine UNOPS
7 Dr. Ajab Gul Niaz Sr. Esm Officer UNOPS
8 Nafisa Kohistani Head of International Unit MOWA
9 Mohammad Ishaq Sr. Safeguard Officer NRAR/MRRD
10 Mirwaise Sadaat Pros. Associate UNOP/GEP
11 Mariam Director APA
12 M.Hashim Aslami NRM Specialist DACAAR
13 Gul. Habib Reporting Manager MAIL
14 Yuosuf Ali MAIL
15 Dr. Shamshad Sadaf Gender ASAP
16 Renia Sdinas Technical Advisor WOCCU
17 M.Shafi Afzali Admin /Finance Manager AMCP/MAIL
18 Sharifa HLP/FOD HLP
19 Marzia Meena Gender HLP
20 Iqbal M Agri-Specialist CARD - F
21 Dr.Haqeeq Facility Officer CARD - F
22 Ahamd Zia Senior Project Officer JICA
23 Anjuma MOWA

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No. Name Title Organization
24 Gul Rokh Badakhshi MOWA
25 Eng. Zahira NOF. Adv NSDP
26 Ah. Fawad P.O SDO
27 Dr.Farida Manager Quality Control
28 Rahila MAIL
29 Nasima MAIL
30 Anjani Kr. Singh AREDP
31 Matiullah MAIL
32 Tayebullah
33 Fahima Bayan Member of HED MAIL
34 Mohaqiq Eng Maliha Reform Officer MAIL

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