I ET

MAHATMA JYOTIBA PHULE ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY BAREILLY

A TRAINING REPORT ON RADAR

SUBMITTED BY:RAKESH KUMAR YADAV 08EC34

PREFACE
With the ongoing revolution in electronics and communication where innovations are taking place at the blink of eye, it is impossible to keep pace with the emerging trends. Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in culcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between a student and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. During this period, the student gets the real experience for working in the industry environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of their studies is put to test here. Apart from this the student gets an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely helps in them in building their career. We had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased our sphere of knowledge to great extent. We got a chance to learn many new technologies and also interfaced too many instruments. And all this credit goes to organization Bharat Electronics Limited.

ACKOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my sincere thanks to the management of Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Bharat Nagar, Ghaziabad including the Head of the Human Resource Development Department Mrs Vanita Bhandari (DGM, H.R.D.) for providing me an opportunity to receive training in this esteemed company. to Mr. I am deeply indebted Manager, Radar

Division (TESTING) for sparing his most precious time in providing guidance to me in training. Without his wise counsel, inestimable encouragement, it would have been difficult for me to have knowledge of the functioning of various types of electronics equipment particularly radars. Gratitude is also due to him for his constant guidance and direction in writing this piece of work. Special thanks to valuable guidance, help and co-operation. It is a great pleasure to express my heart full thanks to staff of BEL who helped me directly or indirectly throughout the successful completion of my training. There is no substitute to Team Work; this is one of the lessons I learnt during my training in Bharat Electronics Limited , Deputy Manager for her

CONTENT
S.NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Title Certificate Declaration BEL Introduction Product ranges BEL Ghaziabad Unit Rotation program Test equipment & Automation Magnetics Microwave lab PCB Fabrication Quality control Introduction to radar Types of radar Working of simple radar Application of radar SRE Conclusion Page No 5 6 7 11 14 21 21 23 25 26 29 33 37 40 43 45 55

CERTIFICATE

TO WHOM SO EVER IT MAY CONCERN This is to certify that RAKESH KUMAR YADAV, the students of B.tech Electronics and Communication Engineering from MAHATMA JYOTIBA PHULE ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY BAREILLY has undergone an industrial training on project titled Study of RECEIVER of SRE at BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED, GHAZIABAD w.e.f 21 JUNE 2011 to 30 JULY 2011 under the guidance of , Deputy Manager. They worked diligently and made valuable contribution during this period. All their works are genuine and original.

Mr ( MANAGER)

Mr (DEPUTY MANAGER) (PROJECT GUIDE)

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled UPT RECORD FORM is an authentic work carried by me at Bharat Electronics Limited, Ghaziabad , under worthy and esteemed guidance of Mr. (DEPUTY ENGINEER) at Bharat Electronics Limited , Ghazi bad.

This work has not been submitted to any other institution or university for award of any degree RAKESH KUMAR YADAV UPT 1148/B.Tech/2011 Roll No. 08ec34

BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED

INTRODUCTION
India, as a country, has been very lucky with regard to the introduction of telecom products. The first telegraph link was commissioned between Calcutta and Diamond Harbor in the year 1852, which was invented in 1876. First wireless communication equipment were introduced in Indian Army in the year 1909 with the discovery of Radio waves in 1887 by Hertz and demonstration of first wireless link in the year 1905 by Marconi and Vacuum Tube in 1906. Setting up of radio station for broadcast and other telecom facilities almost immediately after their commercial introduction abroad followed this. After independence of India in 1947 and adoption of its constitution in 1950, the government was seized with the plans to lay the foundations of a strong, self-sufficient modern India. On the industrial front, Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) was announced in the year 1952. It was recognized that in certain core sectors infrastructure facilities require huge investments, which cannot be met by private sector and as such the idea of Public Sector Enterprises (PSR) was mooted. With telecom and electronics recognized among the core sectors, Indian Telephone Industry, now renamed as ITI Limited, was formed in 1953 to undertake local manufacture of telephone equipment, which were of electro-mechanical nature at that stage. Hindustan Cable Limited was also started to take care of telecom cables. Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence as the fountainhead to manufacture and supply electronics components and equipment. BEL, with a noteworthy history of pioneering achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional electronic equipment for Defence, broadcasting, civil Defence and telecommunications as well as the component requirement of

entertainment and medical X-ray industry. Over the years, BEL has grown to a multiproduct, multi-unit, and technology driven company with track record of a profit earning PSU. The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the generations of electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in collaboration with T-CSF of France, the companys equipment designs have had a long voyage through the hybrid, solid-state discrete component to the state of art integrated circuit technology. In the component arena also, the company established its own electron value manufacturing facility. It moved on to semiconductors with the manufacture of germanium and silicon devices and then to the manufacture of Integrated circuits. To keep in pace with the component and technology, its manufacturing and products assurance facilities have also undergone sea change. The design groups have CADD facility, the manufacturing has CNC machines and a Mass Manufacture Facility. QC checks are preformed with multidimensional profile measurement machines, Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme weather and other operational conditions. All these facilities have been established to meet the stringent requirements of MIL grade systems. Today BELs infrastructure is spread over nine locations with 29 production divisions having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of the company are spread over the entire Electro-magnetic (EM) sp 3ectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency semiconductor to huge radar systems and X-ray tubes on the upper edge of the spectrum. Its manufacturing units have special focus towards the products ranges like Defence Communication, Raders, Optical & Opto-electronics, Telecommunication, sound and Vision Broadcasting, Electronic Components, etc. Besides manufacturing and supply of a wide variety of products, BEL offers a variety of services like Telecom and Rader Systems Consultancy, Contract Manufacturing, Calibration of Test & Measuring Instruments, etc. At the moment, the company is installing MSSR radar at important airports under the modernization of

airports plan of National Airport Authority (NAA). BEL has nurtured and built a strong in-house R&D base by absorbing technologies from more than 50 leading companies worldwide and DRDO Labs for a wide range of products. A team of more than 800 engineers is working in R&D. Each unit has its own R&D Division to bring out new products to the production lines. Central Research Laboratory (CRL) at Bangalore and Ghaziabad works as independent agency to undertake contemporary design work on state-of-art and futuristic technologies. About 70% of BELs products are of in-house design. BEL was among the first Indian companies to manufacture computer parts and peripherals under arrangement with International Computers India Limited (ICIL) in 1970s. BEL assembled a limited number of 1901 systems under the arrangement with ICIL. However, following Governments decision to restrict the computer manufacture to ECIL, BEL could not progress in its computer manufacturing plans. As many of its equipment were microprocessor based, the company, Continued to develop computers based application, both hardware and software. Most of its software requirements are in real time. EMCCA, software intensive navel ships control and command system is probably one of the first projects of its nature in India and Asia. BEL has won a number of national and international awards for Import Substitution, Productivity, Quality, Safety, Standardization etc. BEL was ranked No. 1 in the field of Electronics and 46th overall among the top 1000 private and public sector undertakings in India by the Business Standard in its special supplement The BS 1000 (1997-98). BEL was listed 3rd among the Mini Ratanas (Category II) by the Government of India, 49th among Asias top 100 worldwide Defence Companies by the Defence News, USA.

CORPORATE MOTTO , MISSION AND OBJECTIVES:

The passionate pursuit of excellence at BEL is reflected in a reputation with its customers that can be described in its motto, mission and objectives:

CORPORATE MOTTO
Quality, Technology and Innovation.

CORPORATE MISSION
To be the market leader in Defence Electronics and in other chosen fields and products.

CORPORATE OBJECTIVES
To become a customer-driven company supplying quality products at competitive prices at the expected time and providing excellent customer support. To achieve growth in the operations commensurate with the growth of professional electronics industry in the country. To generate internal resources for financing the investments required for modernization, expansion and growth for ensuring a fair return to the investor. In order to meet the nations strategic needs, to strive for self-reliance by indigenization of materials and components. To retain the technological leadership of the company in Defence and other chosen fields of electronics through in-house research and development as well as through Collaboration/Co-operation with Defence/National Research Laboratories, International Companies, Universities and Academic Institutions. To progressively increase overseas sales of its products and services. To create an organizational culture which encourages members of the

10

organization to realize their full potential through continuous learning on the job and through other HRD initiatives.

CUSTOMER PROFILE & BEL PRODUCT RANGE

Equipments:
DEFENCE ARMY Tactical and Strategic Communication Equipment and Systems, Secrecy Equipment, Digital Switches, Battlefield Surveillance Radar, Air Defence and Fire Control Radar, Opto-Electronic Instruments, Tank Fire Control Systems, Stabilizer Systems, Stimulators and Trainers. Navigational, Surveillance, Fire Control Radar, IFF, SONAR Systems, Torpedo Decoys, Display Systems, EW Systems, Simulators, Communication Equipment and Systems. Surveillance and Tracking Raiders, Communication Equipment and Systems, IFF and EW Systems.

NAVY

AIR FORCE

NON-DEFENCE PARA-MILITARY SPACE DEPARTMENT Communication Equipment and Systems. Precision Tracking Radar, Ground Electronics, Flight and Onboard Sub-Systems. MW, SW &FM Transmitters.

ALL INDIA RADIO

11

DOORDARSHAN (TV NETWORK)

Low, Medium and High Power Transmitters, Studio Equipment, OB Vans, Cameras, Antennae, Mobile and Transportable Satellite Uplinks. TV Studios on turnkey Basis for Educational Programs. Transmission Equipment (Microwave and UHF) and PCM Multiplex, Rural and Main Automatic Exchanges, Flyaway Satellite Terminals, Solar Panels for Rural Exchanges. MCPC VSAT, SCPC VSAT, Flyaway Earth Stations. Hub Stations, Up/Down Converters, LNA Modems.

NCERT DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION VIDESH SANCHAR NIGAMAND OTHER CORPORATE BODIES CIVIL AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT POWER SECTOR OIL INDUSTRY FOREST DEPARTMENTS, IRRIGATION & ELECTRICITY BOARDS MEDICAL & HEALTH CARE RAILWAYS

Airport Surveillance Radar, Secondary Surveillance Radar. Cyclone Warning and Multipurpose Meteorological Radar. Satellite Communication Equipment. Communication Systems, Radar. Communication Systems.

Clinical and Surgical Microscope with Zoom, Linear Accelerators. Communication Equipment for Metros, Microwave Radio Relays and Digital Microwave Radio Relays.

Components:
DEFENCE Transmitting Tubes, Microwave Tubes, Lasers, Batteries, Semiconductors-Discrete, Hybrid and Circuits.

NON-DEFENCE

12

All India Radio, Doordarshan (TV Network), Telecommunications and Civil Industries Entertainment Industry

Transmitting Tubes, Microwave Tubes, and Vacuum Tubes.

B/W TV Tubes, Silicon Transistors, Integrated Circuits, Bipolar and CMOS, Piezo-Electric Crystals, Ceramic Capacitors and SAW Filters. Integrated Circuits, Crystals. Vacuum Interrupters. X-ray Tubes.

Telephone Industry Switching Industry Medical & Health Care

Instrumentation Industry Liquid Crystal Displays.

System/Networks: Identity Card Systems Software, Office Automation Software, LCD On-line Public Information Display Systems and Communication Networks / VSAT Networks.

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
BEL has a unique history of profit making Public Sector Enterprise right from its inception. There have been events of decrease in turnover and profit after Tax due to reasons beyond reasonable control of the company. But the companys strength lies in its capability to combat the threats, for example US Embargo on exports to BEL. BEL hopes to generate 25 per cent increase in turnover with a 15 per cent rise in net profit in the current fiscal year over the previous. Corrective measures against western sanctions have been undertaken, which are likely to translate into higher turnover and profitability. The company is putting all efforts to minimize the effect of the restrictions by early establishments of alternative arrangements. The Defence Research Laboratories and Academic Institutions are also being persuaded with for indigenisation of certain special category of devices and components. The company is

13

also opening an office in Singapore to procure components from Asian markets. Thus in the long run the restrictions will prove as blessings resulting in self-dependence and better profit margins. Also several R&D projects with long gestation periods will go into commercial production during the current fiscal.

BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT

Formation
In the mid 60s, while reviewing the Defence requirement of the country, the government focused its attention to strengthen the Air Defence system, in particular the ground electronics system support, for the air Defence network. This led to the formulation of a very major plan for an integrated Air Defence Ground Environment System known as the plan ADGES with Prime Minister as the presiding officer of the apex review committee .At about the same time, Public attention was focused on the report of the Bhabha committee on the development and production of electronic equipment. The ministry of Defence immediately realized the need to establish production capacity for meeting the electronic equipment requirements for its plan ADGES. BEL was then inserted with the task of meeting the development and production requirement for the plan ADGES and in view of the importance of the project it was decided to create additional capacity at a second unit of the company. In December 1970 the Govt. sanctioned an additional unit for BEL. In 1971, the industrial license for manufacture of radar and microwave equipment was obtained, 1972 saw the commencement of construction activities and production was launched in 1974. Over the years, the unit has successfully manufactured a wide variety of

14

equipment needed for Defence and civil use. It has also installed and commissioned a large number of systems on turnkey basis. The unit enjoys a unique status as manufacture of IFF systems needed to match a variety of primary raiders. More than 30 versions of IFFs have already been supplied traveling the path from vacuum technology to solid-state to latest Microwave Component based system.

PRODUCT RANGES
The product ranges today of the company are:

RADAR SYSTEMS
3-Dimensional High Power Static and Mobile Radar for the Air Force. Low Flying Detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force. Tactical Control Radar System for the Army. Battlefield Surveillance Rader for the Army. IFF Mk-X Radar systems for the Defence and export. ASR/MSSR systems for Civil Aviation. Radar & allied systems Data Processing Systems.

COMMUNICATIONS
Digital Static Tropo scatter Communication Systems for the Air Force. Digital Mobile Tropo scatter communication System for the Air Force and Army. VHF, UHF & Microwave Communication Equipment. Bulk Encryption Equipment. Turnkey communication Systems Projects for Defence & civil users. Static and Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for Defence. Telemetry /Tele-control Systems.

15

ANTENNA
Antennae for Radar, Terrestrial & Satellite Communication Systems. Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications. Antennae for Line-of-sight Microwave Communication Systems.

MICROWAVE COMPONENT
Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, Receivers etc. Passive Microwave components like Double Balanced Mixers,etc. Most of these products and systems are the result of a harmonious combination of technology absorbed under ToT from abroad, Defence R&D Laboratories and BELs own design and development efforts.

THE ORGANIZATION
The operations at BEL Ghaziabad are headed by General Manager with Additional / Deputy General Manager heading various divisions as follows:

1.

DESIGN & ENGINEERING DIVISIONS

Development and Engineering-R Development and Engineering-C Development and Engineering-Antenna.

2. EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING DIVISIONS

Radar Communication Antenna Systems Microwave Components

3. SUPPORT DIVISIONS
Material management Marketing & Customer Co-ordination

16

Quality Assurance & Torque Central Services PCB & Magnetics Information Systems Finance & Accounts Personnel & Administration Management Services.

DESIGN & ENGINEERING

The pace of development and technological obsolescence in their field of electronics necessitates a strong Research and Development base. This is more important on the area of Defence Electronics. BEL Ghaziabad has since its inception laid a heavy emphasis on indigenous research and development. About 70% its of manufacture today relate to items developed in-house. For the development and production of the Mobile Torpo scatter System and the equipment, BEL was awarded the Gold Shield for Import Substitution. Design facilities are also constantly being modernized and substantial computer-aided design facilities are being introduced including installation of miniand microcomputers and dedicated design application. About 170 graduate and postgraduate engineers are working on research and indication of the importance R&D has in BELs growth. Three Design and Engineering group are product based viz. Communication, Radar and Antenna. These divisions are further divided into different departments to look after products of a particular nature. each of them has a drawing office attached to them, which are equipped with latest drafting and engineering software. The PCB layout and PCB master making is done at CADD Center. A central Records & Printing section takes care of the preserving the engineering documents and distribution thereof. Most of the engineering documents are available online.

17

EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING DIVISIONS

As a supplier of equipment to the Defence services and professional users, strict adherence to specifications and tolerances, has to be in-built into the design and manufacturing process. For this BEL Ghaziabad has well defined standards and processes for as well as manufacturing and testing activities. Activities are divided into various departments like Production Control, Works Assembly, and QC WORKS. The manufacture and control of production is through a central systems, BELMAC, BELs own homegrown ERP system. Apart from conventional machines, BEL Ghaziabad has been equipped with several repeat occurrences and increased throughput. A separate NC programming cell has been set up to develop the programs for execution on the CNC machines.

MICROWAVE COMPONENT GROUP

Frequencies greater than 1 GHz are termed as Microwaves. Microwaves Integrated Circuits (MIC) used extensively in the production of subsystems for Radar and Communication equipment constitutes a very vital part of the technology for these systems and is generally imported. Owing to the crucial and building block nature of the technology involved, BEL is currently setting up a modern MIC manufacturing facility at a planned expenditure of Rs. 2 crore. When in full operation, this facility will be the main center for the MIC requirements of all the units of the company. The manufacturing facilities of hybrid microwave components available at BEL, Ghaziabad includes facility for preparation of substrates, assembly of miniaturized component viz. directional couplers, low noise amplifiers, phase shiftier, synthesizers etc. involves scalar as well as vector measurements. For this state of the network analysis are used.

MATERIAL MANAGEMENT
Material Management division is responsible for procurement, storage handling, issue of purchased parts as well as raw materials required to manufacture

18

various equipment and spares. It also takes care of disposal of unused or waste material. The division is divided into purchase, Component store, Raw material store, Chemical store, Custom Clearance Cell, Inventory management & disposal.

MARKETING AND CUSTOMER CO-ORDINATION

This division is responsible foe acquisition and execution of customer orders and customer services. Marketing department looks after order acquisition. Commercial department looks after order execution. Shipping takes care of packing and dispatch of material to customer.

QUALITY ASSURANCE & TORQUE

In the area of professional Defence electronics, the importance of Quality and Reliability is of utmost importance. BEL has therefore established stringent processes and modern facilities and systems to ensure product quality- from the raw material to the finished product. IGQA, Environmental Labs, Test Equipment Support and QA departments are grouped under this division. All material for consumption in the factory passes through stringent inward goods screening in IGQA department before being accepted for use. Subsequent to manufacture and inspection, the end product is again put through a rigorous cycle of performance and environmental checks in Environmental Labs. The testing, calibration and repair facility of test Instruments used in the factory is under the control of Test Equipment Support. All the instruments come to this department for periodic calibration. Quality Assurance department facilitates ISO 9000 certification of various divisions. All production divisions of BEL Ghaziabad are ISO9000 certified. The microwave division is ISO9001 certified whereas the remaining three division viz.

19

Radar, Communication and Antennae are also ISO9002 certified.

CENTRAL SERVICES
Central services Division looks after plant and maintenance of the estate including electrical distribution, captive power generation, telephones, transport etc.

PCB FABRICATION & MAGNETICS

PCB Fabrication, Coil and Magnetics, Technical Literature, Printing Press and Finished Goods are the areas under this division. Single sided PCB blanks- having circuit pattern on one side of the board and double sided- having circuit pattern on both sides of the board are manufactured in house. However, Multi-layered PCBs, having many layers of circuit, are obtained from other sources. Magnetic department makes all type of transformers & coils that are used in different equipment. Coils and transformers are manufactured as per various specifications such as number of layers, number of turns, types of windings, gap in core, dielectric strength, insulation between layers, electrical parameters, impedance etc. laid down in the documents released by the D&E department.

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
IS Department is responsible for BELs own home grown manufacturing and control systems called BELMAC.it comprises of almost all modules a modern ERP systems but is Host and dumb terminal based.

FINANCE & ACCOUNTS

The F&A division is divided into Budget & Compilation, Cost and Material Accounts, Bills Payable, Bill Receivable, Payrolls, Provident Fund, Cash Sections.

PERSONAL & ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT

There are at present about 2300 employees at BEL Ghaziabad, of which more than 400 are graduate and postgraduate engineers

20

ROTATION PROGRAM

Under this students are introduced to the company by putting them under a rotation program to various departments. The several departments where I had gone under my rotational program are: Test Equipment and Automation P.C.B. Fabrication Quality Control Works-Radar Work Assembly- Communication Magnetic Microwave lab Rotation period was to give us a brief insight of the companys functioning and knowledge of the various departments. A brief idea of the jobs done at the particular departments was given. The cooperative staff at the various departments made the learning process very interesting , which allowed me to know about the company in a very short time.

TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION :

This department deals with the various instruments used in BEL. There are 300 equipments and they are of 16 types.

21

Examples of some test equipments are: Oscilloscope(CRO) Multimeter Signal Analyzer Logical Pulsar Counter Function Generator etc.

Mainly the calibration of instruments is carried out here. They are compared with the standard of National Physical Laboratory (NPL). So, it is said to be one set down to NPL. As every instrument has a calibration period after which the accuracy of the instrument falls from the required standards. So if any of the instruments is not working properly, it is being sent here for its correct calibration. To calibrate instruments software techniques are used which includes the program written in any suitable programming language. So it is not the calibration but programming that takes time .For any industry to get its instrument calibrated by NPL is very costly, so it is the basic need for every industry to have its own calibration unit if it can afford it. Test equipment and automation lab mainly deals with the equipment that is used for testing and calibration .The section calibrates and maintains the measuring instruments mainly used for Defense purpose. A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is done with the help of standard equipment should be of some make, model and type. The national physical laboratory (NPL) ,New Delhi provides the standard values yearly. BEL follows International Standard Organization (ISO) standard. The test equipments are calibrated either half yearly or yearly. After testing different tags are labeled on the equipment according to the observations. Green O.K , Perfect Yellow Satisfactory but some trouble is present. Red Cant be used, should be disposed off.

22

The standard for QC, which are followed by BEL are: WS 102 WS 104 PS 520 PS 809 PS 811 PS 369

Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard After the inspection of cables, PCBs and other things the defect found are given in following codes. A B C D E F G H I J --- Physical and Mechanical defects. --- Wrong Writing --- Wrong Component / Polarity --- Wrong Component / Mounting --- Bad Workmanship/ Finish --- Bad Soldering --- Alignment Problem --- Stenciling --- Others (Specify) --- Design & Development

After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible department which is rectified there.

MAGNETICS
In this department different types of transformers and coils are manufactured , which are used in the various defense equipments i.e. radar , communication equipments.

23

This department basically consists of three sections: 1.) PRODUCTION CONTROL :- Basic function of production control is to plan the production of transformer and coils as per the requirement of respective division (Radar and Communication). This department divided into two groups: (a) Planning and (b) Planning store. 2.) WORKS (PRODUCTION) :- Production of transformers and coils are being carried out by the works departments. 3.) QUALITY CONTROL :- After manufacturing the transformer/coils the item is offered to the inspection department to check the electrical parameters(DCR , No load current , full load current , dielectric strength , inductance , insulation resistance and mechanical dimension as mentioned in the GA drawing of the product. The D&E department provides all the information about manufacturing a coil and the transformer. The various types of transformers are as follows : i) ii) iii) iv) Air cored transformers Oil filled transformers Moulding type transformers P.C.B Mounting transformers :(a) Impedance matching transformers (b) RF transformers (c) IF transformers The various types of cores are as follows : i) ii) E type C type

24

iii) iv) v)

Lamination Ferrite core Toroidal core

Steps involved in the process of manufacturing of transformer/coils: a.) Preparation of former : Former is made of plastic bakelite comprising a male and female plates assembled and glued alternately to form a hollow rectangular box on which winding is done. b.) Winding : It is done with different material and thickness of wire. The

winding has specified number of layers with each layers having a specified number of turns. The distance between the two turns should be maintained constantly that is there should be no overlapping. The plasatic layer is inserted between two consecutive layers. The various types of windings are as follows : i) ii) iii) Layer Winding Wave Winding Bank Winding

c.) Insulation : For inter-winding and inter layer , various types of insulation sheets viz. Craft paper , paper , leather , oil paper , polyester film are being used. d.) Protection : To protect the transformer from the external hazards , moisture , dust and to provide high insulation resistance , they are impregnated.

MICROWAVE LABORATORY
Microwave lab deals with very high frequency measurements or very short wavelength measurements. The testing of microwave components is done with the help of various radio and communication devices. Phase and

25

magnitude measurements are done in this section. Power measurements are done for microwave components because current and voltage are very high at such frequencies. Different type of waveguides is tested in this department like rectangular waveguides, circular waveguides. These waveguides can be used to transmit TE mode or TM mode. This depends on the users requirements. A good waveguide should have fewer loses and its walls should be perfect conductors. In rectangular waveguide there is min. distortion. Circular waveguides are used where the antenna is rotating. The power measurements being done in microwave lab are in terms of S- parameters. Mainly the testing is done on coupler and isolators and parameters are tested here. There are two methods of testing: 1. 2. Acceptance Test Procedure(ATP) Production Test Procedure(PTP)

Drawing of various equipments that are to be tested is obtained and testing is performed on manufactured part. In the antenna section as well as SOHNA site various parameters such as gain ,bandwidth ,VSWR , phase ,return loss, reflection etc. are checked. The instruments used for this purpose are as follow: 1. Filters 2. Isolators 3. Reflectors 4. Network Analyzers 5. Spectrum Analyzers 6. Amplifiers and Accessories

P.C.B. FABRICATION
P.C.B. stands for Printed Circuits Board. Its an integral part of the Electronics equipment as well as all the components are mounted on it. It Consists of the fiberglass sheet having a layer of copper on both sides.

26

TYPES OF PCBs
1. 2. 3. Single Sided Board Double Sided Board Muti-layer Board : Circuits on one side. : Circuit on Both side. : Several layers are interconnected through hole metalization.

Raw material for PCBs

Most common raw material used for manufacturing of PCBs is copper cladded glass epoxy resin sheet. The thickness of the sheet may vary as 1.2, 2.4 and 3.2mm and the standard size of the board is 610mm to 675mm.

Operation in process
Following steps are there for PCB manufacturing : CNC Drilling Drill Location Through Hole Plating Clean Scrub and Laminate Photo Print Develop Cu electroplate Tin electroplate Strip Etching and cleaning Tin Stripping Gold plating Liquid Photo Imageable Solder Masking (LPISM) Photo print Develop Thermal Baking Hot Air leaving

27

Non Plated Hole Drilling Reverse Marking Sharing & Routing Debarring & Packing

P.C.B. is a non-conducting board on which a conductive board is made. The base material, which is used for PCB plate are Glass Epoxy, Bakelite and Teflon etc.

Procedure for through hole metallization

Loading-Cleaner-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Mild Etch-Spray Water-Rinse-Hydrochloric Acid-Actuator-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Accelerator Dip-Spray Water- Rinse- Electrolyses Copper-Plating-Plating- Spray water-Rinse-Anti Tarnish Dip-Hot Air Drying- Unloading. After through hole metallization, photo tool generation is done which is followed by photo printing. In this the PCB is kept b/w two blue sheets and the ckt. is printed on it. A negative and a positive of a ckt. are developed. To identify b/w the negative and positive, following observation is done. If the ckt. is black and the rest of the sheet is white, it is positive otherwise negative. Next, pattern plating is done. The procedure for pattern plating follows : Loading- Cleaner- Water rings- Mild etch- Spray- Water Rinse-Electrolytic- Copper platingWater rinse- Sulfuric acid-Tin plating- Water rinse- Antitarnic dip- Hot air dry- Unloading. To give strength to the wires so that they can not break. This is done before molding. Varnishing is done as anti fungus prevention for against environmental hazard. After completion of manufacturing proceeds it is sent for testing. This is followed by resist striping and copper etching. The unwanted copper i.e. off the tracks is etched by any of the following chemicals. After this, tin is stripped out from the tracks. After this solder marking is done. Solder marking is done to mark the tracks to get oxidized & finally etch. To prevent the copper from getting etched & making the whole circuit functionally done.

There are three types of solder marking done in BEL: Wet solder mask: Due to some demerits this method is totally ruled out. The demerit was non- alignment, which was due to wrong method applied or wrong machine.

28

Dry pin solder mask: Due to wastage of films about 30% this method is also not used now. Liquid photo imaginable solder mask (LPISM): In this first presoaking is at 80 degree Celsius for 10 to 20 minutes. Next, screen preparation is done. The board is covered by a silk cloth whose mesh is T-48. The angle to tilt of the board is 15 degree to 22.5 degree. The next is ink preparation: Ink + Hardener 71 % : 29 % (150 gms.) : (300gms.) + Butyrate solo solve 50gms/kg.

Ink preparationIt uses :Ink-----100gm Catalyst----10% of total weight Reducer-----10% of total weight The catalyst is used as binder and prevents the following, while reducer is used as thinner. The three things are then fully mixed. For wash out, following procedure takes place. Water-Lactic acid-Water-Bleaching power-Water-caustic Soda-Water-Air dry-TCE. After wash out, final baking for one hour at the temt. of 20degree C is done. After this shearing or routing is done which is followed by debarring and packing.

QUALITY CONTROL

(WORK ASSEMBLY)

29

According to some laid down standards, the quality control department ensures the quality of the product. The raw materials and components etc. purchased and inspected according to the specifications by IG department. Similarly QC work department inspects all the items manufactured in the factory. The fabrication department checks all the fabricated parts and ensures that these are made according to the part drawing, painting , plating and stenciling etc are done as per BEL standards.

The assembly inspection departments inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB , cable assembly ,cable form , modules , racks and shelters as per latest documents and BEL standards .

The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as: 1. D & E mistakes 2. Shop mistakes 3. Inspection mistakes

The process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PC is entered in the process card by certain code specified for each error or defect.

After a mistake is detected following actions are taken: 1. Observation is made. 2. Object code is given. 3. Division code is given. 4. Change code is prepared. 5. Recommendation action is taken

WORK ASSEMBLY

30

This department plays an important role in the production. Its main function is to assemble various components, equipments and instruments in a particular procedure.

It has been broadly classified as:

WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. INDRA II, REPORTER. WORK ASSEMBLY COMMUNICATION e.g EMCCA, MSSR, MFC. EMCCA:EQUIPMENT APPLICATION. MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL

MSSR: MONOPULSE SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR. MFC: MULTI FUNCTIONAL CONSOLE.

The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is: 1. Preparation of part list that is to be assembled. 2. Preparation of general assembly. 3. Schematic diagram to depict all connections to be made and brief idea about all components. 4. Writing lists of all components. In work assembly following things are done : Material Receive: Preparation- This is done before mounting and under takes two procedures. Tinning- The resistors ,capacitors and other components are tinned with the help of tinned lead solution .The wire coming out from the components is of copper and it is tinned nicely by applying flux on it so that it does not tarnished and soldering becomes easy. Bending- Preparation is done by getting the entire documents , part list drawing and bringing all the components before doing the work.

31

Mounting- It means soldering the components of the PCB plate with the help of soldering tools. The soldering irons are generally of 25 W and are of variable temperature, one of the wires of the component is soldered so that they dont move from their respective places on the PCB plate. On the other hand of the component is also adjusted so that the PCB does not burn. Wave Soldering- This is done in a machine and solder stick on the entire path, which are tinned. Touch Up- This is done by hand after the finishing is done. Cleaning: Inspection- This comes under quality work. Heat Ageing- This is done in environmental lab at temperature of 40 degree C for 4 hrs and three cycles. Testing: Lacquering- This is only done on components which are not variable. Storing- After this variable components are sleeved with Teflon. Before Lacquering mounted plate is cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The product is then sent to store.

32

33

RADAR
(RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING) INTRODUCTION
Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as aircrafts, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, peoples and the natural environment. It operates by radiating energy into space and detecting the reflected echo signal from an object, or target. The reflected energy to the radar not only indicates the presence of a target, but by comparing the received echo signal with the signal that was transmitted, its location can be determined along with other target related information. Radar can perform its function at long or short distances and under conditions impervious to optical and infrared sensors. It can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain and snow. Its ability to measure the distance with high accuracy and in all weather is one of its most important attributes. Although most of the radar units use microwave frequencies, the principle of radar is not confine to any particular frequency range. There are some radar units that operate on frequencies well below 100 MHz and others that operate in the infra-red range and above.

RADAR DEVELOPMENT
Although the development of radar as a full-fledged technology did not occur until World War-II, the basic principle of radar detection is almost as old as the subject of electromagnetism itself. Heinrich Hertz, in 1886, experimentally tested the theories of Maxwell and demonstrated the similarity between radio and light waves. Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected by metallic and dielectric bodies. It is interesting to know that although Hertzs experiments were performed with relatively short wavelength radiation (66 cm), later work in radio engineering was almost entirely at longer wavelengths. The shorter wavelengths were not actively used to any extent until the late thirties. One of the biggest advocators of radar technology was Robert Watson-Watt, a British scientist.

34

Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development of radar. The use of radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects via radio waves" was first implemented in 1904 by Christian Hlsmeyer, who demonstrated the feasibility of detecting the presence of ships in dense fog and received a patent for radar as Reichspatent Nr. 165546. Another of the first working models was produced by Hungarian Zoltn Bay in 1936 at the Tungsram laboratory. While radar development was pushed because of wartime concerns, the idea first came about as an anti-collision system. After the Titanic ran into an iceberg and sank in 1912, people were interested in ways to make such happenings avoidable. The term RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. The name reflects the importance placed by the workers in this field on the need for a device to detect the presence of a target and to measure its range. This acronym of American origin replaced the previously used British abbreviation RDF (Radio Direction Finding). Although modern radar can extract more information from a targets echo signal than its range, the measurement of range is still one of its most important functions. There are no competitive techniques that can accurately measure long ranges in both clear and adverse weather as well as can radar.

BASIC PRINCIPLE
An elementary form of radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting electromagnetic radiation generated by an oscillator of some sort, a receiving antenna, and an energy-detecting device, or receiver. A transmitter generates an electromagnetic signal (such as a short pulse of sine wave) that is radiated into space by an antenna. A portion of the transmitted energy is intercepted by the target and reradiated in many directions. The reradiation directed back towards the radar is collected by the radar antenna, which delivers it to a receiver. There it is processed to detect the presence of the target and determine its location. A single antenna is usually used on a time-shared basis for both transmitting and receiving when the

35

radar waveform is a repetitive series of pulses. The range, or distance, to a target is found by measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to travel to the target and return back to the radar. (Radar engineers use the term range to mean distance) The targets location in angle can be found from the direction the narrow -beamwidth radar antenna points when the received echo signal is of maximum amplitude. If the target is in motion, there is a shift in the frequency of the echo signal due to the Doppler effect. This frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of the target relative to the radar (also called the radial velocity). The Doppler frequency shift is widely used in radar as the basis for separating desired moving targets from fixed (unwanted) clutter echoes reflected from the natural environment such as land, sea, or rain. Radar can also provide information about the nature of the target being observed.

ECHO AND DOPPLER SHIFT

Echo is something you experience all the time. If you shout into a well or a canyon, the echo comes back a moment later. The echo occurs because some of the sound waves in your shout reflect off of a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well or the canyon wall on the far side) and travel back to your ears. The length of time between the moments you shout and the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo determines the moment that you hear the echo. Doppler shift is also common. You probably experience it daily (often without realizing it). Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving object. Doppler shift in the extreme creates sonic booms (see below). Here's how to understand Doppler shift (you may also want to try this experiment in an empty parking lot). Let's say there is a car coming toward you at 60 miles per hour (mph) and its horn is blaring. You will hear the horn playing one "note" as the car approaches, but when the car passes you the sound of the horn will suddenly shift to a lower note. It's the same horn making the same sound the whole time. The change you hear is caused by Doppler shift.

36

TYPES OF RADAR
Based on function radar can be divided into two types: PRIMARY OR SIMPLE RADAR SECONDARY RADAR Primary radar or the simple radar locates a target by procedure described in section. But in cases as controlling of air traffic, the controller must be able to identify the aircraft and find whether it is a friend or foe. It is also desired to know the height of aircraft. To give controller this information second radar called the SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR, (SSR) is used. This works differently and need the help of the target aircraft it sance out a sequence of pulses to an electronic BLACK BOX called the TRANSPONDER, fitted on the aircraft. The transponder is connected to the aircrafts altimeter (the device which measures the planes altitude) to transmit back the coded message to the radar about its status and altitude. Military aircrafts uses a similar kind of radar system with secrete code to make sure that it is friend or foe, a hostile aircraft does not know what code to transmit back to the ground station for the corresponding receiver code.

IFF UNIT
IFF is basically a radar bacon system employed for the purpose of general identification of military targets .The bacon system when used for the control of civil air traffic is called as SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR). Primary radar locates an object by transmitting signal and detecting the reflected echo. A secondary radar system is basically very similar to primary radar system except that the returned signal is radiated from the transmitter on

37

board the target rather then by reflection, i.e. it operates with a cooperative active target while the primary radar operates with passive target. Secondary radar system consists of an interrogative and a transponder. The interrogator transmitter in the ground station interrogates transponder equipped aircraft, providing two way data communication on different transmitter and receiver frequency. The transponder on board the aircraft on receipt of a chain of pulses from ground interrogator, automatically transmit the reply, coded for the purpose of identification, is received back to the ground interrogator where it is decoded and displayed on a radar type presentation.

ADVANTAGES OF SSR OVER PRIMARY RADAR

Separate transmitting and receiving frequencies eliminate ground and whiter return problems. Reply pulses are stronger then echo signal of primary radar. Reply signal is independent of the target cross section. Interrogation and reply path coding provide discrete target identification and altitude. The interrogate and reply mode works on the L band at 1030 MHz and the airborne transponder works at 1090 MHz. The SSR operates on the same frequency channel for both military and civil air traffic control by using compatible airborne aircraft

38

Basic Radar System

A basic radar system is spilt up into a transmitter, switch, antenna, receiver, data recorder, processor and some sort of output display. Everything starts with the transmitter as it transmits a high power pulse to a switch, which then directs the pulse to be transmitted out an antenna. Just after the antenna is finished transmitting the pulse, the switch switches control to the receiver, which allows the antenna to receive echoed signals. Once the signals are received the switch then transfers control back to the transmitter to transmit another signal. The switch may toggle control between the transmitter and the receiver as much as 1000 times per second. Any received signals from the receiver are then sent to a data recorder for storage on a disk or tape. Later the data must be processed to be interpreted into something useful, which would go on a Pulse Width and Bandwidth: Some radar transmitters do not transmit constant, uninterrupted electromagnetic waves. Instead, they transmit rhythmic pulses of EM waves with a set amount of time in between each pulse. The pulse itself would consist of an EM wave of several wavelengths with some dead time after it in which there are no transmissions. The time between each pulse is called the pulse repetition time (PRT) and the number of pulses transmitted in one second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). The

39

time taken for each pulse to be transmitted is called the pulse width (PW) or pulse duration. Typically they can be around 0.1 microseconds long for penetrating radars or 10-50 microseconds long for imaging radars (a display. microsecond is a millionth of a second). Mathematically, PRT = 1 / PRF or PRF = 1 / PRT

WORKING OF A SIMPLE RADAR

A radar system, as found on many merchants ships, has three main parts: The antenna unit or the scanner The transmitter receiver or transceiver and The visual display unit The antenna is two or three meter wide and focuses pulses off very high frequency radio energy into a narrow vertical beam. The frequency of the radio waves is basically about 10,000 MHz. The antenna is rotated at the rate of 10 to 25 rpm so that radar beam swaps through 300degree Celsius all around the ship out to a range of about 90 kms. In all radar it is vital that the transmitting and the receiving in a transceiver are in close harmony. Every thing depends on accurate measurement of the time that passes between the transmission of pulse and the return of the echo. About 1000, pulses per second are transmitted. Though it is varied to suit the requirements. Short pulses are best for short-range work, longer pulses are best for longer-range work.

40

An important part of transceiver circuit is modular circuit. This keys the transmitter so that it oscillates, or pulses for the right length of time. The pulses so designed are video pulses. These pulses are short range pulses hence cant serve out the purpose of long range work .In order to modify these pulses to long range pulses or the RF pulses, we need to generate the power. The transmitted power is generated in a device called the magnetron which can handle all these short pulses and very high oscillations. Between these pulses, the transmitter is switched off and isolated. The weak echoes from the target are picked up by the antenna and fed into the receiver. To avoid overlapping of these echoes with the next transmitted pulse, another device called duplexer is used. Thus by means of the duplexer, undisturbed two-way communication is established. The RF echoes emerging from the duplexer are now fed to the mixer where they are mixed with the RF energy. These pulses are generated by the means of a local oscillator. Once two are mixed, a signal is produced in the output which is of intermediate frequency range or IF range .The IF signal is received by the receiver by the receiver where it is demodulated to video frequency signal range, amplified, and then passed to the display system. The display system usually carried out the control necessary for the operation of whole radar .It has a cathode ray gun, which consists of a electron gun in its neck. The gun shouts electron to the phosphorescent screen at the far end. Phosphorescent screen glows when hit by an electron and the resulting spot can be seen through the glass face. The screen is circular in shape and I calibrated in the edges .The electron beam travels from the center of the edge. This radio motion of the electron is known as trace is matched with the rotation of the antenna. So when the calibration is at zero degree on the tube calibration, the antenna is pointing to the dead ahead. The beginning of each trace corresponds exactly which the moment at which the suppression radar energy is transmitted. The basic idea behind radar is very simple: a signal is transmitted, it bounces off an object and some type of receiver later receives it. They use certain kinds of

41

electromagnetic waves called radio waves and microwaves. This is where the name RADAR comes from (Radio Detection And Ranging). Sound is used as a signal to detect objects in devices called SONAR (Sound Navigation Ranging). Another type of signal used that is relatively new is laser light that is used in devices called LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging). Once the radar receives the returned signal, it calculates useful information from it such as the time taken for it to be received, the strength of the returned signal, or the change in frequency of the signal.

RADAR EQUATION
The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

where

Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt2 Rr2 can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:

42

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be considered.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, on the sea and in space. Ground based radar has been applied chiefly to the detection, location, and tracking of the aircraft or space target. Shipboard radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shorelines and other ships as well as for observing aircraft. Airborne radar may be used to detect other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles or it may be used for mapping of land, storm avoidance, terrain avoidance and navigation. In space, radar has assist in the guidance of spacecraft and for remote sensing of the land and sea. The major use of radar, and contributor of the cost of almost all of its development, has been the military; although there has been increasingly important civil application, chiefly for marine and air navigation. The major areas of radar application are briefly described below:

Air Traffic Control (ATC): Radar is employed throughout the world

for the purpose of safely controlling air traffic route and in the vicinity of Airport. Aircraft and ground vehicular traffic at large airport are monitored by means of high - resolution radar. Radar has been used with GCA (ground control approach) system to guide aircraft to a safe landing in bad weather.

Ship Safety:

Radar is used for enhancing the safety of ship travel by

warning of ship potential collision with other ships, and for detecting

43

navigation buoys, especially in poor visibility. Automatic detection and tracking equipment are commercially available for use with radar for the purpose of collision avoidance. Shore based radar of moderately high resolution is also used for the surveillance of harbors as an aid to navigation.

Space: Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking and for
landing on the moon. Some of the largest ground based radar is for the detection and tracking of satellite.

Remote Sensing: All radar is a remote sensor. Radar has been used as a
remote sensor of the weather. It is also used to probe the moon and planets. The ionospheric sounder, an important adjunct for HF (short wave) communications, is radar. Remote sensing with radar is also concerned with earth resources, which include the measurement and mapping of sea condition, water resources, ice cover, agriculture, forestry condition, geological information and environmental pollution.

Law Enforcement: In addition to the wide use of radar to measure the

speed of automobile traffic by highway police, radar has also been employed as a means for the detection of intruders.

Military: Many of the civilian application of the radar are also employed
by the military. The traditional role of radar for military application has been for surveillance, navigation and for the control and guidance of weapon.

44

SURVEILLANCE RADAR EQUIPMENT (SRE)

RADAR ELECTRONIC CABINET (REC)
The REC cabinet contains at the right side in suitable comportment the first board with all strips of the RF exciter assembly, a second board, contains instead the IF assembly strips; and the IF SLB Assembly. A control panel is mounted on top of the cabinet containing breakers commands and controls. A multi-voltage power supply is situated in the cabinet. A view of the REC is given in figure 4.2.3; it contains the following subassemblies: - Power Control Panel; - Power Supplies; - RF Exciter Assembly; - IF Assembly; - Blowers and Fans Control Bite modules, - Digital Receiver Unit, - Two RSP assemblies, - Two RDP assemblies.

Power Supplies
The REC power supply section receives 220V/380V a.c. 50 Hz three phase main supply and produces all the a.c. and d.c. voltages necessary to the REC unit, FER units and the REC cooling blowers. D.c. voltages are produced by switching regulators and are protected against transients and surge currents. Overload, overvoltages and overtemperature protections are also implemented; in case of overtemperature the Power Supply section interrupts the output voltages.

45

RF Exciter
The aim of the RF exciter is to generate the RF signal to drive the Transmitter and the TTG. With this objective, it accepts one of the signals generated by either Stalo Synthesizer (10 frequencies each) that is, therefore, amplified by the STALO MEDIUM POWER AMPLIFIER and finally it is divided, in power, by four with one hybrid Power Divider. Three of the outputs of the Power Divider are sent to the FER units, the fourth to the STALO Mixer inside the RF Driver Amplifier and the others are terminated with a 50 OHM load. . The Medium Power RF amplifiers and the High Power RF amplifiers amplify the signal and send it to the TRANSMITTER. An output with coupler is sent to the DIGITAL ATTENUATOR from the MEDIUM POWER RF AMPLIFIER to generate the TTG signal (Test Target).

IF Receiver Assembly
The IF Assembly contains many strips that carries out various tasks. All circuits dedicated to frequency generation are inside this assembly, the PRE-IF amplification, phase detection, the signal processors selection and the interface with the BITE circuits. The redundant frequency generation section is comprised of: -two Stalo Synthesizers; -one COHO; -one DIGITAL Expander; -one Generator; -one Distributor. The Stalo Synthesizers (ODD and EVEN) produce 20 frequencies that are used by the Stalo MPA (A and B) and constitutes the STALO signal distributed to the Hybrid and to two Power Dividers contained in the Exciter Assembly.

SLB Function
The SLB function is comprised of four strips. The S-BAND omni antenna furnishes the radar with a reception beam dedicated to the SLB channel that is then sent , by means of the SLB/FER Assembly, to the IF SLB channel. The IF SLB channel is the same as the Air Target-IF Receiver (MAIN and AUX).

46

FRONT END RECEIVERS

The three front End Receivers are located externally to the REC cabinet and accept in input the RF signals coming from the antenna and generate three PRE-IF signals; the first and the second (main and auxiliary) are used for target detection (split into air and surface) and the third for the IF SLB Receiver. The units that make up the group are: - One Waveguide Switch; - Three Front End Receivers (FER);

Waveguide Switch
This switch is used to route the signal received through the MAIN Antenna Beam towards the Aux Front End Receiver in case of a malfunction along the Main line. In the normal position, the MAIN beam is sent to the Main FER while the beam coming from the auxiliary antenna is sent to the AUX FER.

Front End Receiver

The Front End Receiver carries out the following tasks: - it protects the receiver during the transmission of high power leakage signals; - it attenuates the signals received (STC); - it filters the signals in input that are outside of the useful band; - it amplifies the signal received with a L.N.A.; - it converts (down) the signals received to IF signals (mixer); - it checks malfunctions of the TR tube by means of the BITE. Every Front End Receiver contains the following assemblies: - Receiver Protector Spec. - Band Pass Filters - Low Noise Amplifier - RF Isolator - Mixer - Low Pass Filter - Band-Pass Filter

47

Radar Signal Processor

General Description The Radar Signal Processor (RSP) conducts some basic functions of the radar such as target detection, disturbance filtering AGC of receivers, STC control. It is comprised of three ATCR-33S INDIA Receiver Unit Functional Technical Description - Air Target Signal Processor (ATSP), dedicated to the detection of aircraft; - Surface Target Signal Processor (STSP), dedicated to the detection of targets on the sea surface; - Side Lobe Blanking Signal Processor (SLBSP), dedicated to the blanking of detections generated by signals entering the sidelobes of the antenna, and the detection of jamming on the main lobe (Jammer Strobe). The three signal processing sections above listed provide to the Radar Data Processor (RDP) the plots of the detected Air Targets, the detected Surface Targets and the jamming messages that can affect the post processing of both the air and the surface targets. The plots are supplied together with information about the detection conditions (strength and number of thresholds passing). The ATSP and the SLBSP perform a coherent signal processing, working on I & Q signals coming from the phase detectors of the corresponding receiver channels. The STSP processes incoherently the input signal, which has been envelope detected with a logarithmic characteristics in the Surface Target Reception Channel.

Operative Modes
There are two main modes of operation of the signal processors: - Coherent Processing (mode 1); - Incoherent Processing (mode 2). The mode 1 is the normal mode, and it is related to the use of constant radio frequency during a coherent processing interval (CPI) cycle (6 pulses). When this is the active mode, all

48

the signal processors work normally, i.e. ATSP performs the AMTD function, the SLBSP is inserted, and the STSP is active. The mode 2 corresponds to the use of variable radio frequency, changing from pulse to pulse (frequency agility). This condition inhibits the possibility to coherently process the radar signals and then: - The STSP works normally. - The ATSP works with non coherent integration - The SLBSP is excluded. In other words, when in mode 2, the radar has not the capability of: - Conveniently filter the clutter; - Improve the SNR by the coherent integration; - Estimate the target radial velocity and suffers blind speeds. - Contrasting the jamming through the sidelobes

Signal Processors Display

The Signal Processors provide several signals that can be displayed on the Maintenance Monitor; these signals are divided into two categories: - VIDEO signals; - MAP signals. 1) VIDEO Signals Air and surface target videos can be individually displayed or combined. Two types of video signals can be displayed for the resulting combinations, namely: Normal Video and Composite Video. - Normal Video (multi level, 7 bit) is obtained from the output of the FIR (Finite Impulse Response) filters of the ATSP and preset thresholds and shall be used to indicate the location and intensity of clutter such as storm, mountains,

49

coastlines and towers; the signal sent to the display is obtained taking the output of the filter providing the maximum amplitude, for each range bin, among the selected filter. Using the Local Control Panel it is possible to limit the selection among a reduced subset of filters, up to a single filter. - Composite Video is the operational binary video that indicates all the detections (targets and/or false alarms), eventually filter by filter. 2) MAPS Signals Different types of maps or functional signals, can be displayed (filled area or contours only): - Jam Strobe Map (JS) - Strong Target Adaptive Cancellation (STAC CPI) - Fine Doppler Maps (one selected among N-2) (12 bit) (FDM) - Weight Selection Map (2 bit) (WSM) - False Alarm Normalizer Map (one selected among N) (FANM) -Clutter Sensor Map (4 bit) (CLSM) The following maps (stored in EEPROM) can be displayed: - Censoring Level Map (CLM) - Autogate Overriding Map (2 bit) Criteria (ACOM) - Detection Overriding Map (3 bit) Criteria (DCOM) - Detection Blanking Map (2 bit) (DBM) - Second Time Echoes Map (STEM) (1 bit= logic AND function in a CPI pair, or not) - Main BSTC assigned attenuation (STC1) (indicates the regions where the STC attenuation is greater than an assigned value, for the main beam) (8bit) - Jammer Sector (1 bit = enable Jam Strobe) (JAMM).

50

AIR Target Signal Processor (ATSP) Characteristics

The ATSP main functions are - I & Q analog to digital conversion (12 bits) - Long Pulse/short pulse alignment - I & Q correction - MTD filtering - Magnitude of filter outputs - Thresholds control system with: - Doppler filters outputs scan by scan averaging thresholds (FDM); - fixed thresholds; - adaptive CFAR thresholds (autogate); - censoring thresholds. - STC - Interference and Sun strobe detection - Automatic Gain Control (AGC) - Strong Target Adaptive Control (STAC) - Incoherent processing, for pulse to pulse agility - Signals for performance display - Second time-around echo suppression. The above functions are supported by a number of parameters that are programmable and adjustable by means of the Local Control Panel. The ATSP processes the received signal and sends out the Target Primitive Reports with the following contents: - magnitude (10 bits) - status flags (3 bits). The above data are transferred to the RDP. The ATSP generates its internal timing starting from fundamental synchronisms received from the RDP (System Timing function). These synchronisms are: - North Reference Pulse - CPI trigger

51

AMTD Filtering
The objective of the AMTD is essentially that of detecting targets that are selected on the basis of their doppler frequency. It conducts coherent integration and filtering of clutter with a bank of N FIR digital filters tuned on a portion of the doppler spectrum. Selectivity in doppler is realized, in fact, by these transverse filters in time sharing, allowing incoherent integration in groups of n or m sweeps

Adaptive and Environmental Functions

Some adaptive functions are contained within the ATSP to filter all unwanted signals and to maintain dynamic range and CFAR of the processing system. These functions include the real time sensors relative to the environment and they memorize in a map (one for each function) the appropriate value to be applied (for example, threshold level, STC value, etc.). These maps are also updated continuously. The circuits being examined are represented in the general block diagram of the Signal Processor in figure 4.2.9. The functions mentioned above are divided into two groups: 1) Functions that support detection criteria such as: - estimation of the threshold, scan by scan, for the N filters with N-1 (6 at most) Fine Doppler Map (FDM); - Definition of vehicular traffic areas and fixed strong echoes with the Censoring Level Map (CLM, contained in circuit FA); - Angel activity detection in output from each doppler filter. For the filters where angels are detected, the selected detection threshold is increased by a preselectable quantity. This function is carried out with N False Alarm Normalizer Maps (FAN, contained in the MO circuit); - Adaptive threshold characteristics and spatial selection (CA-CFAR) with the

52

Autogate Criterium Overriding Map (ACOM, contained in the FA circuit); - Detection criterium selection with the relative map (DCOM : Detection Criterium Overriding Map, contained in the FA circuit); - Automatic definition of rainy areas with the clutter map (CLSMAP); - Blanking of the Primitive Reports of a filter or of a group of filters in particular areas with the Detection Blanking Map (DBM, contained in the FA circuit). 2) Environmental and adaptive functions that have the aim of increasing the signal with respect to clutter, permitting a high probability of detection over the entire volume covered; These functions are: - FIR filters weight selection with the Weight Selection Map; - STC control function that updates the attenuation of the signals received.

SLB Reception Channel

The Side Lobe Blanking (SLB) Reception Channel functional area receives the echo signal from the Antenna Group in the "S-Band", down converts it into an appropriate IF for processing, performs pulse compression and phase decoding This functional area is made up by the same type of modules used for the Main Reception Channel, however few functional differences exist. This functional area is composed of the following parts: a) SLB FER (Front End Receiver) including: - Receiver Protector - Band Pass Filter - Low Noise Amplifier - RF Isolator - Mixer - Stalo Band Pass Filter -Low Pass Filter b) IF Preamplifier and Mixer Module c) SAW Compressor Module d) Phase Detector Module

53

Signal Processor BITE

The BITE system that controls the Signal Processors can be divided into the two following criteria: BITE ON LINE: 1) BITE-ON-LINE of the processing cards conducted by the "BITE 1" card (BA); 2) BITE-ON-LINE of the Timing cards conducted by the "BITE TIMING" card (BE); 3) BITE-ON-LINE of the cards containing maps. BITE OFF LINE The BITE ON LINE is active during operation of the apparatus. The BITE OFF LINE is activated once the apparatus has been turned off.

54

CONCLUSION
The industrial training at Bharat Electronics Limited, Ghaziabad has given us an exposure to the activities at a large public sectorundertaking unit. This being a large organization deals with wide spectrum of technologies. The exposure on RECEIVER OF SRE RADAR has given us great confidence and knowledge.

55