The structural systems of tall buildings 41

Mega columns can also be used solely to provide large spaces at the building
entrance, as an aid to the main structural system for the levels above the entrance,
without running continuously throughout the height of the building. As the number
of mega columns at the entrance is much lower than the number of columns on the
upper storeys, the structural transition between them is achieved using deep transfer
beams. In such cases, the cross-sectional dimensions of the column at the entrance
are large enough for it to be classified as a “mega column”, but the structural system
cannot be classified as a “mega column system”.
Tall buildings where this approach has been used include the 63-storey, 283 m
high Cheung Kong Centre (Hong Kong, 1999) (Figure 3.24), which has an outriggered
frame system and 8 composite mega columns at the ground floor with 2.5 m diameter
circular cross-sections, and the 59-storey, 279 m high Citigroup Center (New York,
1977) (Figure 3.66), which has a trussed-tube system and 4 steel mega columns at the
ground floor with rectangular cross-sections of approximately 6.5×7 m.
Mega columns, in cases where they run continuously throughout the height of the
building, can be used with an outriggered frame system or a tube system. In such
cases, when they are used for a purpose such as reducing the number of columns,
the structural system cannot be classified as “mega column system”, since the mega
columns are not the only structural elements that resist the external loads. Tall
buildings with outriggered frame systems include:

• the 101-storey, 508 m high Taipei 101 (Taipei, 2004) (Figure 3.36), which has 8
composite mega columns at the ground floor with rectangular cross-sections of
2.4×3 m
• the 88-storey, 421 m high Jin Mao Building (Shanghai, 1999) (Figure 3.40), which
has 8 composite mega columns at the ground floor with rectangular cross-
sections of 1.5×4.9 m
• the 88-storey, 412 m high Two International Finance Centre (Hong Kong, 2003)
(Figure 3.41), which has 8 composite mega columns at the ground floor with
rectangular cross-sections of 2.5×3.5 m.

3.8 mega core systems

Mega core systems consist of reinforced concrete or composite core shear walls with
much larger cross-sections than normal, running continuously throughout the height
of the building (Figure 3.25). Since the mega core can resist all vertical and lateral
loads in this system, there is no need for columns or shear walls on the perimeter of
the building. In mega core systems, floor slabs are cantilevered from the core shear
wall (Figure 3.25a). Mega core systems can also be used with strengthened cantilever
slabs (Figure 3.25b). In this case, floor slabs are supported by the core shear walls and
discontinuous perimeter columns. Perimeter columns are supported by strengthened
cantilever slabs repeated on some storeys. Strengthened cantilever slabs protrude
from the core, and are strengthened in order to support the load coming from the
storeys above.
42 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

M ega core

C antilever M ega core

slab
D iscontinuous
perim eter column

S trengthened
cantilever
slab

(a) (b )

Figure 3.25 Slabs in the mega core system: (a) cantilever slab, (b) supported
cantilever slab

Mega core systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient stiffness to resist
wind and earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of more than 40 storeys. Some
examples of tall buildings using the mega core system with reinforced concrete struc-
tural material include:

• the 36-storey, 300 m high Aspire Tower (Doha, 2006) (Figure 3.26) which has a
reinforced concrete core shear wall having circular cross-section with an external
diameter varying between 18 to13 m (from bottom to top) and thickness varying
between 2 to 1 m (from bottom to top)
• the 52-storey, 235 m high 8 Shenton Way (Singapore, 1986) (Figure 3.27), which
has a reinforced concrete core shear wall having circular cross-section with
an external diameter of 25 m and thickness varying between 1.65 to 1 m (from
bottom to top)
• the 57-storey, 190 m high HSB Turning Torso (Malmö, 2005) (Figure 3.28) which
has a reinforced concrete core shear wall having circular cross-section with
an external diameter varying between 15.6 to 11.4 m (from bottom to top) and
thickness varying between 2.5 to 0.4 m (from bottom to top).
 The structural systems of tall buildings 43

R einforced concrete m ega core

(circular cross-section w ith
varying external dim ater and
w all thickness o f 18 to 13m and 2 to lm
respectively from bottom to top)

11.3m 13-18m 11.3m

'(up to) (up to)
3 5 .6 -4 0 .6m.

H ealth club & presidential suite floor

Figure 3.26 Aspire Tower, Doha, Qatar, 2006

(credit for Photo: CTBUH)

Reinforced concrete m ega core

(circular cross-section with
external diameter o f 25m and
varying wall thickness o f 1.65 to lm
from bottom to top) J
48.2m

,11.6m 25m ,11.6m

48.2m

Figure 3.27 8 Shenton Way, Singapore, Singapore, 1986

44 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Reinforced concrete mega core

(circular cross-section with
internal diameter o f 10.6m and
varying wall thickness o f 2m to 40cm
from bottom to top)

External
.ste el spine

~24.5m
a
r-
10.6m

5.9-7.5m 11.4-14.6m -13.6-15.2m

-34m

Figure 3.28 HSB Turning Torso, Malmö, Sweden, 2005

(photo courtesy of Santiago Calatrava/Samark Architecture & Design)

3.9 outriggered frame systems

Outriggered frame systems have been developed by adding outriggers to shear-frame
systems with core (core-frame systems) so as to couple the core with the perimeter
(exterior) columns. The outriggers are structural elements connecting the core to the
perimeter columns at one or more levels throughout the height of the building so as
to stiffen the structure (Figure 3.29). An outrigger consists of a horizontal shear truss
or shear wall (or deep beam). This structural element is a horizontal extension of the
core shear truss/wall to the perimeter columns in the form of a knee. To make them
sufficiently effective, outriggers are at least one storey deep, and have a high flexural
and shear rigidity (adequately stiff in flexure and shear). Because the outriggers affect
the interior space, they are generally located at the mechanical equipment floors in
order not to hinder the use of normal floors.
The outriggers, which are connected rigidly to the core and by hinges to the
perimeter columns, increase the effective flexural depth and so the flexural stiffness
of the system in the direction of bending under lateral loads by enabling the core to
receive support from the perimeter columns. The outrigger supports the core shear
truss/wall against bending, creating axial tension and compression on the perimeter
columns. In this way, the cantilever tube behaviour of the system is ensured, and the
stiffness of the shear-frame system is increased, while reducing the lateral drift of the
building to a significant degree.
At the levels of the outriggers, connecting the perimeter columns to each other
with belts, improves the efficiency of the system by equalising the axial column loads
along the perimeter. In this manner, the column, which is connected to the core by the
 The structural systems of tall buildings 45

C ore
O u trig ger

B elt

Figure 3.29 Outriggered frame system

outrigger, distributes the axial load effect of the outrigger to other columns by means
of the belt. A belt consists of a horizontal shear truss or shear wall (or deep beam)
adequately stiff in flexure and shear, and of equal depth to the outrigger (Figure 3.29).
In this way, all perimeter columns are connected together to participate in supporting
the outriggers. Belts are used not only in the abovementioned conventional outrigger
systems, but also used in the “virtual” outrigger systems. Virtual outrigger concept
takes advantage of floor diaphragms to eliminate direct connection of core and
perimeter columns by outriggers. A virtual outrigger consists of belt, and floor slabs
engaged by belt. In this manner, the problem associated with the space occupied by
the conventional outriggers is avoided. Efficiency of the virtual outriggers depends on
the rigidity of the belt and floor slabs at belt levels.
In cases where an outrigger is used at a single level throughout the height of the
building, the most effective, and for this reason the optimum location for the outrigger
is approximately 40–60 per cent of the building height (Smith and Coull, 1991;
Taranath, 1998) (Section 3.9.2).
There is a relation between the number of levels where outriggers are used
throughout the height of the building and their optimum locations. The optimum
location of “n” number of outriggers used at levels throughout the height of the
building can be given approximately by the formula 1/(n+1), 2/(n+1) … n/(n+1) (Smith
and Coull, 1991) (Section 3.9.2). The optimum locations for outriggers at one or two
levels throughout the height of the building using various assumptions are calculated
in Sections 3.9.1 and 3.9.2.
46 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Nose column
Perimeter Hammerhead
shear wall shear wall
(60cm
in thickness)
Corridor
Reinforced concrete shear wall Reinforced
core shear wall (60cm concrete
(varying in thickness in thickness) outrigger
130-50cm
from bottom toi top)

-17m
Outrigger application

>v£-

Floor 19

Figure 3.30 Burj Khalifa, Dubai, U.A.E, 2010

(photo courtesy of Adrian Peret, [email protected])
 The structural systems of tall buildings 47

Addition of each new outrigger level increases the stiffness of the building, but by
a smaller amount than the increase at the preceding level (Smith and Coull, 1991)
(Section 3.9.2).
Outriggered frame systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient stiffness
to resist wind and earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of more than 40
storeys. Some examples of tall buildings using the outriggered frame system with
reinforced concrete structural material include:

• the 163-storey, 828 m high Burj Khalifa (Dubai, 2010) (Figure 3.30)
• the 88-storey, 452 m high Petronas Twin Towers (Kuala Lumpur, 1998) (Figure 3.31)
• the 98-storey, 423 m high Trump International Hotel & Tower (Chicago, 2009)
(Figure 3.32)
• the 91-storey, 297 m high Eureka Tower (Melbourne, 2006) (Figure 3.33)
• the 66-storey, 288 m high Plaza 66 (Shanghai, 2001) (Figure 3.34)

and with composite structural material include:

• the 121-storey, 632 m high Shanghai Tower (Shanghai, under construction)

(Figure 3.35)
• the 101-storey, 508 m high Taipei 101 (Taipei, 2004) (Figure 3.36)
• the 101-storey, 492 m high Shanghai World Financial Center (Shanghai, 2008)
(Figure 3.37)
• the 108-storey, 484 m high International Commerce Centre (ICC) (Hong Kong,
2010) (Figure 3.38)
• the 66-storey, 450 m high Zifeng Tower (Nanjing, 2010) (Figure 3.39)
• the 88-storey, 421 m high Jin Mao Building (Shanghai, 1999) (Figure 3.40)
• the 88-storey, 412 m high Two International Finance Centre (Hong Kong, 2003)
(Figure 3.41)
• the 69-storey, 384 m high Shun Hing Square (Shenzhen, 1996) (Figure 3.42)
• the 52-storey, 319 m high New York Times Tower (New York, 2007) (Figure 3.43)
• the 63-storey, 283 m high Cheung Kong Centre (Hong Kong, 1999) (Figure 3.24)
• the 73-storey, 230 m high World Tower (Sydney, 2004) (Figure 3.44).
 48 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Reinforced concrete Reinforced

perimeter column concrete
outrigger
Reinforced concrete
core shear wall
46.3m

Core
(22.9x22.9m at the bottom,
18.9x22m at the top)

Outrigger application
46.3m

Figure 3.31 The Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1998
 The structural systems of tall buildings 49

Reinforced concrete
core shear wall S
Reinforced concrete
outrigger
Reinforced concrete
perim eter column

Reinforced concrete
core shear wall
(flange thickness: 1,2m, Reinforced concrete
web thickness:0.46m ) perim eter column

9.1m
~44.3m

E
ION
' nT

-41.2m

92.4m

Reinforced concrete outrigger

O utrigger application

Figure 3.32 Trump International Hotel & Tower, Chicago, USA, 2009
50 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Reinforced concrete
core shear wall

Reinforced concrete
t perimeter column Reinforced
concrete
outrigger
we'is-

47m Outrigger application

Floors 11-24

Figure 3.33 Eureka Tower, Melbourne, Australia, 2006

(photos courtesy of David Randerson)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 51

Reinforced concrete
core iO Reinforced concrete
shear wallrC* O l IJ outrigger

Reinforced concrete
perimeter column

Reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete

core shear wall perimeter column
Reinforced concrete outrigger

s 5
ro
6
<N
On
CO CH

Outrigger application
~40m.
58.5m.

Figure 3.34 Plaza 66, Shanghai, China, 2001

52 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Steel outrigger Com posite

C om posite (2-storey-deep) core shear w all „ ,, ,
m ega colum n S teel belt
(2-storey-deep,

Composite
core shear wall
(varying in thickness
120-50cm from bottom to top)
Composite mega column
(3.7x5.3m at the bottom,
1.9x2.4m at the top) /
Steel outrigger

£
o

~30m

76.4 - 46.5m Outrigger application

(from bottom to top)

Figure 3.35 Shanghai Tower, Shanghai, China, under construction

 The structural systems of tall buildings 53

Composite mega column

(2.4x3m. at the bottom, ABCD core
1,6x2m. at the top) shear truss

A B

51.5m.
S'
n
i
ir i c4
(N

D C
22.5m.

45.5m.
~51.5m.

Floor 42

Steel outrigger

Outrigger application

Figure 3.36 Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan, 2004

54 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Composite Com posite mega column

core shear wall (pentagonal cross-section
with the longest side 5.45m
Com posite
at the ground floor)
mega column

E E
fN
00 m
>/■> 1

~32m

58m

Floor 7

Com posite outrigger

(3-storey-deep)

O utrigger application

Figure 3.37 Shanghai World Financial Center, Shanghai, China, 2008

(photo courtesy of Niels Jakob Darger)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 55

Reinforced concrete
mega column Reinforced concrete
(-1 .5 x 2 .9m.) core shear wall

V
Steel outrigger

s'
o s
in
ON ON
On
V) co

29.73m.

59.90m. Outrigger application

+ - -+
Floor 75

Reinforced concrete
mega column Reinforced concrete
(-2 .6 x 2 .9m.) core shear wall Steel outrigger
embedded in
reinforced concrete
core shear wall

S'
s
in
(N oo
NO (N
co
NO

34.48m.

64.62m.
-+
Floor 15
56 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

OFFICE

Figure 3.38 International Commerce Centre (ICC), Hong Kong, China, 2010
(photo on left and drawing on right courtesy of Sun Hung Kai Properties)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 57

Composite
perim eter column
(varying in diam eter from
Composite
175 to 90cm. towards top)
core shear wall
-58m.

-34m.
Steel outrigger

'K
v 1

O utrigger application

Figure 3.39 Zifeng Tower, Nanjing, China, 2010

(top right and bottom left drawings courtesy of Ramazan Sari)
58 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Steel
cap truss

Composite
mega column

Reinforced
concrete
core shear wall

2-storey-deep
steel outrigger

R einforced concrete C om posite

core shear wall m ega colum n
(varying in size
from 1.5><5m
to 1x3.5m
tow ards top)
Steel outrigger

n
a
t-4
a CN
I

~27.5m

54m O utrigger application

Figure 3.40 Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China, 1999

(photo courtesy of Wilfried Blümler)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 59

Composite mega column

(2.5x3.5m at the ground floor) Reinforced concrete
core shear wall

Steel outrigger

S
57m
ON
<N

27m

Outrigger application
57m

Figure 3.41 Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong, China, 2003
(photo courtesy of Niels Jakob Darger)

Com posite Reinforced concrete

perim eter colum n core shear wall

E
•n

E
«n e
<N
V)
m

m6
c-;

12.5m 43.5m 12.5m

68.5m

Steel outrigger

O utrigger application

Figure 3.42 Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China, 1996

(photos courtesy of Derek Forbes)
60 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

,.6-lmx 9.14m x 9.14m x 9.14m x 9.14m x 9.14m r6 A m r

14.5m
„

E E
18m

00
On
„

27.4m
14.5m

Outrigger application

..7.5m 43m 7.5m

58m

Figure 3.43 New York Times Tower, New York, USA, 2007
(photo courtesy of Antony Wood/CTBUH and plan courtesy of Ilkay Guryay)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 61

8-storey-deep
reinforced
concrete
outrigger

5-storey-deep
steel
outrigger

R einforced concrete Reinforced concrete

core shear wall perim eter colum n

R einforced concrete outrigger

£
oo
(N

55m O utrigger application

Figure 3.44 World Tower, Sydney, Australia, 2004

(photo courtesy of Niels Jakob Darger)
62 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

3.9.1 The behaviour of outriggered frame systems

When outriggers cantilevered from the core are connected rigidly to the perimeter
(exterior) columns (Figure 3.45a), these columns are subject to additional bending
moments and axial forces transferred from the outriggers, and the system cannot
completely benefit from the moment carrying capacity of the shear core. On the
other hand, when outriggers are connected by hinges to the perimeter columns
(Figure 3.45b), by blocking the transfer of the bending moment from the outriggers to
the columns, the column axial load capacity is increased and the system completely
benefits from the moment carrying capacity of the shear core. For this reason, hinged
connections between outriggers and perimeter columns increase the efficiency of the
system by maximising the utilisation of not only the moment resisting capacity of the
shear core but also the axial capacity of the columns.
An analysis is given below within a framework of various assumptions for outrig-
gered frame systems under uniformly distributed lateral loads, where outriggers are
located at one or two levels throughout the height of the building.
In a simplified analytical model, the behaviour of an outriggered frame system
under lateral loads (Figure 3.46) can be separated into two as a vertical cantilever
core under lateral loads and as the same core with restoring moment created by the
outrigger’s levering effect (Figure 3.47).
The outrigger transfers the restoring moment to the core, acting as a fulcrum, with
the levering effect restrained by the perimeter columns and resists the rotation of the

Perimeter Perimeter
column Core shear wall / shear truss column
Rigid
connection
Outrigger Outrigger

(a)
Perimeter Perimeter
column Core shear wall / shear truss column
Hinge
connection
Outrigger Outrigger

(b)
Figure 3.45 Outrigger to perimeter column connections: (a) rigid connection, (b) hinged
connection
 The structural systems of tall buildings 63

Core shear wall/

shear truss

O utrigger

Columns

Figure 3.46 Outriggered frame system under lateral loads and analytical model

Figure 3.47 Superposition of analytical model

Figure 3.48 Diagram of the effect of the outrigger on the moment

64 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Columns
in tension

Columns
in compression

\p
6
d/2 d/2

Figure 3.49 Axial deformation of the perimeter columns on two facades perpendicular
to the bending direction

core under lateral loads. Thus, by reducing the rotation of the core, both the bending
moment of the core (Figure 3.48) and the lateral drift at the top of the building
are reduced. Columns on two facades perpendicular to the bending direction are
subjected to axial tension or compression, and so are elongated on one side and
contracted on the other (Figure 3.49).
The behaviour of outriggered frame systems is analysed below, taking the lateral
drift at the building top as a basis, in cases where the outriggers are located throughout
the height of the building at one or two levels. Assuming that the outriggers are so stiff
that rotation in the outriggers due to axial deformation of the columns and the rotation
of the core at the same level under lateral loads are equal, the restoring moment
created by the outrigger and the lateral drift of the outrigger are obtained with the help
of compatibility equations. Below, an approximate analysis is presented, assuming
uniform columns, uniform core and uniform outriggers, hoping to be helpful to create
a rough estimation in preliminary design stage.
The analysis has been made with the following assumptions:

• The core is a vertical cantilever rigidly fixed at the base and rigid against shear.
• Outriggers are rigidly fixed to the core, have hinged connections to the perimeter
columns to induce axial forces only, and are rigid against shear and flexure.
• The cross-sectional areas of the columns are constant from the top outrigger down
to foundation and the moment of inertia of the core is constant throughout the
building height.
• The lateral load on the building is constant throughout the building height.
• The structure is linearly elastic.

Outriggers can be represented by an equivalent spring of rotational stiffness K at the

core. The rotational stiffness of this spring (the moment per unit of rotation) for a
couple of columns (working on opposite sides perpendicular to the bending direction)
under an axial load pi:
 The structural systems of tall buildings 65

Ai Ed2
Ki = pi d = _____
2L
where n E is the modulus n of elasticity.
K = ∑ Ki = ____ E d 2 ∑ A = _____
AEd2
i=1 2L i = 1 i 2L
Considering Ai Eall
d2 the couple of columns (in elongation and contraction) on the two
K =AE _____
pi dd =perpendicular to the bending direction:
2
K i= _____
facades 2L
2L A Ed2
Ki = pni d =2 _____i
n
∑ AEKd= ____
K = _______ E2Ld 2 ∑ A = _____
AEd2
i = 1 – x) 2L i = 1
2(L i i 2L
n n
∑ E d ∑ Ai = 2Ld
AE
2 2
K = _____ K2i = ____ _____
AE d 2L
K = i = 1 wL4 Mix= 1
yx=0 =2L____ – ___ (L2 – x2)
K AEd8EI
= _____
2 2EI
The rotational
2L stiffness of outriggers at distance x from the top of the structure is:
M
= ___
y _______ x
d2 (L2 – x2)
= AE2EI
Krx=0
2(L – x)
The function M of the rotational stiffness of the spring, representing the effect of the
qcx – q____
w= L4 M / xKx 2
x___
youtrigger
= – (L – x2)
8EI 2EI core, shows that the rotational stiffness of the outrigger is directly
on the
rx
x=0
proportional to the distance of its location from the top of the structure.
w (L3 M
___ M M
– xx3) –2 ___x2 (L – x) = ___x
___
y6EI = ( L – x
EI ) Kx
rx=0
3.9.1.1 2EI
The optimum location of a single outrigger level
w/(6EI) wL2 (x2 + x + 1)
M = ___________ (L3 – x3) = _____
qcxx – q__
Lrx =– M
x / K
1
__x + __x 6EIC
EI EI Kx
X

w= (__ M M
___
C L13 + 3 2 ___
) – x (L – x) = ___x
– x_____
6EI EI AEd 2 EI Kx

w/(6EI) wL2 (x2 + x + 1)

Mx = ___________ w
________ (3L3 – 3x3) = _____
L
y =__ – _____ A x E d 2
1
__i 2+ __(L – x ) (L + x) 6EIC
Krx=0
= pi d EI12
= (EI)
EI2L C
i A Ed2Kx
Ki = pi d = _____ i
2L
n
1 + _____
__ 2d 2 n
C =∑
= E 2∑
AEd2
4 ____
K
yx=0 =EI w
n Ki =
____L AE–2Ld________w _____
n Ai = (L3 – x3) (L + x)
2L 2
K=∑ i = 1 8EI ____
Ki = E d12(EI ∑ Ai = AEd
i = 1 ) C_____
2 2

2L 2L
Figure
K AE
i=1 2
= _____ d3.50 Location i=1
of a single outrigger level at distance x from the top
yrx=0 AE 2Ld________
2 w
= 2wL (L –1.32 x 3) (L + x)
_____ 4 3
K
y= w
= ____ L12
4
________
2L –2(EI)
8EI 12(EI
C2
) C
For
K AEdlocation of a single outrigger level at distance x from the top of the structure
= _______
the
2(L
(Figure
K AE–d3.50),
= _______
2x)
the lateral drift at distance x from the top of the structure is:
yx=0 2(L w–L2x)
____
=_____
4
– ________w (L3 – x3) (L + x)
M = w____ w
L 4 1.66
8EIL M
12(EI ) 2
C
yx=0 =6EIC – ___ (L2 – x2) x

w8EIL4 – ___ Mx 2
2EI
yx=0 = ____ (L – x2)
8EI 2EI
and ____ the
wLM 4 restoring4 effect of the outrigger on the lateral drift at the top of the structure is:
wL
y = ____w L 4 ––x ________
___12 M 1.32
yx=0
rx=0 8EI
= ___
8EI (12(EI
L
2EI –[ x) 22)1C(L2 – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 22) ]
M
2EI
yrx=0 = ___x (L2 – x2)
2EI
w
=– _____ L 2 1.66
qM 1= MM
ycx
rx=0
=qrx___
6EIC
qcx – qrx2EI
[ x /1 (KL2x – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 22) ]
= Mx / Kx
w (w
___ Mx Mx
y ____ ) 1– ___
L3L 4– –x3___ M (L(L–2 x)
___
– x=2) + M (L2 – x 2)
 K=∑ n Ki =
i =2L
∑ n Ai =
2L
K=∑
1
i=1 K =
i ____ E2L
2Ld2 ∑ i=1 i
i = 1 A = _____
AE 2Ld2
K = _______ AE
i =AE1 dd
d2 2 2L i = 1
i 2 i 2L
K AE
_______
_____
K= 2(L
AE
= _____ 2L
d–2 x)
K = _____
2(L
AE 2Ld–2 x)
66 Tall 2L dBuildings:
AE 2 Mx Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form
K y = _______
= AE
_______ wdL244 – ___
____ M ( L 2
– x 2
)
K yx=0= 2(L =AE8EI w
____ L
––d2x) ___ x
x)– 2EI (L – x )
2 2
K = 2(L
x=0 _______
where 8EI 2EIflexural rigidity.
2(L EI – x) is the
wMLx44 2___
____ M
M
yyMx=0 = = ____w___
MLbe A(–Li E___
d–22xx x(2L) 22 – x22)
K
yrx=0 = p=
must d ___
8EI = A –
x _____ E d– x(2L) 2in– the
found
22EI
M x ) above equations. This is done using the rotation equations.
ix = 2EI (Li ___
rx=0
K
x=0
yThe w
i ____
d2EI
= p=rotation 8EI L 4
_____
= –2Lof xthe 2EI (L core – x2) at the level where the outrigger is located is:
i
x=0 i 8EI 2L 2EI
n M n
M
___
–∑ E(Ld2 22/–∑ AEd22
x
qKyyrx=0= =
n
=qrx___K = =xM ____
( L
2
– K nx2
xx2))Ai = _____
qKcx cx
=∑
rx=0
yrx=0
– q 2EI
Ki = (Lx2 –∑
M
2EI
i ==1 rx___
=
i M
x
E
____
2Ldx / K
i =x1x2)Ai = 2L
AEd
_____
i = 1 2EI 2L i=1 2L
w _____ M Mx
___ AE 3d2 3
(L d–2 x ) – Mx (L – x) = ___ ___ x
Mx
qqK
K w
6EI
___
w
___
=–_____
AE
=–(L2L q =
q3rxrx––=xxM
3 M /
3) x– /___
3 EI
___
M K
Kxxx (L – x) = Kxx ___
M
cx
6EI
cx (L 2L ) x– EI (L – x) = ___ Kx
6EI
qFrom – qthe = Mx / EI
rx d2 above
Kequation, MKx is found.
cx
K = _______ AE w/(6EI)
x
x
M AE
_______ d
___________ 2
M M wL2 2
_____
=x = – x)3 ___
2(L___________ x (L3 – x3) = xwL2 (x2 + x + 1)
3 3
K w
___ 3L w/(6EI) x M 1 M
___ 6EIC
_____
M wx =
___ (
2(L L __ –
3 w/(6EI) x
x)3__ ) – __
___x (L (L –
(L – x ) = x) = wL2 ((xx2 +
________ x + 1)
L––x EI x) –+
x
M 6EI (L___________ EI
M 1x (L3––x)x3=) = MK + x + 1)
wx =(L__
6EI
___ EI
3L – 3__
__ – x x
__) – + EI
___K
__
__1 x (L – x) = K
___x6EIC
x6EIC
x
EI wL–44 EI M
+ xKx 2
y6EI = EI ____
w
____ L – ___
EI MEI
___
K
x (xL2 – x2)
2 Kx
yx=0 = 8EI w/(6EI)
1___________ – 2 2EI ( L – x ) w
wLL2 ((xx22 +
2
M
M Cx=0==__
x =__ 1 +w/(6EI)
8EI
___________
_____
2 2EI ((LL33 –– xx33)) = =
_____
_____ + xxon+ 1)
+ the
1) lateral drift at the top of the structure,
In the
C x= __ EI __L
L+equation AE
w/(6EI)
1___________ x
_____
__
––_____ d
x2d+
2
__1 for the
1 (L3 – x3) = _____ outrigger 6EIC
wL2 effect
M C x==EI __ + AE __ +2 __ 6EIC (x 2
+ x + 1)
assuming EI M EI
that K
yrx=0 EI EIL___ xAE xLd2+– __
EI K1xxx2) 6EIC
2
=__ M – __
(
yrx=0 =EI___ 2EIx EI (L2 – Kxx2)
1
__ 2EI_____
________ w 2
yC =
= __ = +
1 ________
+ _____ w2d2 22C ((LL 3 –– xx 3)) (L
3 3
+ x)
yCrx=0 EI 12 (EI)
AE
rx=0
=1
EI
__ ________ AE w
_____ 2d 3 (L + x)
qyCcx =– =q 12 +=(EI) 2CK
(L – x ) (L + x)
2 3
rx=0 EIrx12 Md
(EI)
AE 2/
x C x
qthen,
cx
– q rx
= M x
/ K x

yx=0 = ____ wL 4 – ________ w (3L3 – x3) (L + x)

yy___ = ____w________ w
L 4 – 2________
4
w( L – x +x3xx)
8EI (3L)33(L–___
32
rx=0 = 3____
w w Lx(EI) M
12(EI ) C M ) (L + x)
x=0 (=
y___
w L
= 12
________
–
8EI 3w ________
)
– – CMxw
___
12(EI
___
x
( L(L
) 32 – x)
–C x ( L) =(L –M+x3x)
___ ) (L + x)
6EI
rx=0 (L 8EI
x=0 3
12– x(EI) 3 2
CEI (L
) –12(EI ) –C x) = Kxx
2
6EI EI Kx
The w lateral
L 4 – ________ drift
wLat 4 the top of the structure is:
y = ____ w 4w/(6EI) 42
L 4w/(6EI)
___________ wL)4 C 1.323 _____ wL22 (x2 + x + 1)
M y= w 8EI
=____ wL––4 __
LL____ 12(EI
________
wL__ (L331.32 – x3) = _____
x ____
= ___________
8EI ________
x ________
1 w 1.32 3wL
6EIC
M yx=0 =
x 8EI
= __ – __ 12(EI
– + __ ) 2
C ( L – ( x
L ) –= x ) (L +(xx)2 + x + 1)
L8EI + K1) x )C C
x 12(EI
12(EI 6EIC
2 2
__
EI – EI
EI EI Kx
M The= locationwL 2 1.66
_____ of the outrigger level that has the greatest effect on the lateral drift at
M C ==____ 1
__w4+
6EIC
_____ L 22_____ 2
1.66
M the
yC === EI w
top1w L
_____
__
6EIC L of
+ –AE the
2 w
________
_____
1.66 2 L 4 1.32is the location where the yx=0 function has the minimum, or
d 2 structure
yrx=0 8EI 6EIC
EIfunction AE 12(EI
d has ) 2 Cthe maximum value. Therefore, the optimum location of a single
outriggerwL 4 –level 1 is obtained by differentiating the yrx=0 function with respect to x, and
yx=0 ____ w L 4
w
___
1 [ M1 (L2 – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 22) ]
equating
yrx=0 w 8EI
____
=_____ ________
L________ to
4 2– 2EI M ___zero.
12 C[ M(L133((LL–22 x––33)xx(L221)) ++ M2 (L22 – x 22) ]
x)
____w L –(EI) w___
Myx=0 =
rx=0 8EI
x=0
8EI
=
6EIC
12
12(EI)
2EI
1.66
2EI 2
C
[ ( L
1 – x ) (L
1 ++ M2 (L – x 2) ]
x)
x = 0.455 L
___ 1 M (L2 – x 2) + M (L2 – x 2)
yrx=0 = w
2EI
___
____ 1L 4 [ ________ (L2w
2 ]
yInx=0
yrx=0
=
w =
= L w
rx=0 = 2EI [– 1 [
the ____ 41 4 –M
___
____
2EI
8EI L
equation
– [
___1
M
1 2
1 (Lfor
________
12(EI M w –2the
–
) ( x
LC
1
x2221) (+
)– +
L33 M
lateral
x M )
2
– x3(L)drift
2 2 3
+ ( L
M 2 –+xat
(L
2
– ( x
L 22) ]the
2
) 2 top of the structure, for x=0.455L, the lateral
x)
2– ] x 2) ]
8EI 2EI 1 2 1 (L 1– 2x ) (L2 + x)
x=0 8EI
drift at the top of the structure is:12(EI ) C

wL 44 – ________
y = ____ wL 44 1.32
w
=L___1– ________
= ____
yrx=0 8EI [ w1 (LL))222 –CCx1.32
12(EI
M
8EI2EI 12(EI
2
1
) + M2 (L2 – x 22) ]
and the restoring moment of the outrigger is:
wL 22 1.66
M = _____
wL 1.66
_____
M = 6EIC
6EIC

wL 44 – ___
yx=0 ____ 1 M (L2 – x 2) + M (L2 – x 2)
yx=0 w L – ___
____ 1 [ M1 (L2 – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 2) ]
8EI 2EI [ 1 2 ]
8EI 2EI 1 2

1 M (L2 – x 2) + M (L2 – x 2)
yrx=0 = ___
1 [ M1 (L2 – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 2) ]
yrx=0 = ___
2EI [ 1 2 ]
2EI 1 2
 Mx
w (L3 – x3) – ___
___ Mx
Mx (L – x) = ___
w (L3 – x3) – ___
___ Mx
6EI EI (L – x) = ___
Kx
6EI EI Kx
w/(6EI) wL22 (x2 + x + 1) The structural systems of tall buildings 67
Mx = ___________
w/(6EI)
___________ (L33 – x33) = _____
w L
_____
L x 1
Mx = __ – __ + __ (L – x ) = 6EIC (x + x + 1)
2
L – __
__
EI x + __
EI K1x 6EIC
3.9.1.2 The
EI EI Kxoptimum location of two outrigger levels
1 + _____
C = __ 2
1 + _____
C = __
EI AE2d 22
EI AEd X,

w
yrx=0 = ________
w 2 C ((LL 3 –– xx 3)) (L + x)
3 3
yrx=0 = ________
12(EI) (L + x)
12(EI) C
2

*2
wL 44 –
yx=0 = ____ w
________
w) 2 C ((LL3 –– xx3)) (L + x)
3 3
yx=0 = w L –
____
8EI ________
12(EI (L + x)
8EI 12(EI) C
2

wL 44 – ________
y = ____ wL 44 1.32
y= w L
____
8EI – wL) 2 C 1.32
________
12(EI
8EI 12(EI) 2 C
Figure 3.51 Location of two outrigger levels at distances x1 and x2 from the top
wL 22 1.66
M = _____
M wLlocation
_____
For=the
6EIC 1.66 of two outrigger levels at distances x1 and x2 from the top of the
6EIC
structure, the lateral drift at the top of the structure is (Figure 3.51):

wL 44 – ___
yx=0 ____ 1 M (L2 – x 2) + M (L2 – x 2)
yx=0 w L – ___
____ 1 [ M1 (L2 – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 2) ]
8EI 2EI [ 1 2 ]
8EI 2EI 1 2

and the restoring effect of the outriggers on the lateral drift at the top of the structure is:
1 M (L2 – x 2) + M (L2 – x 2)
yrx=0 = ___
1 [ M1 (L2 – x 21) + M2 (L2 – x 2) ]
yrx=0 = ___
2EI [ 1 2 ]
2EI 1 2

M1 and M2 must be found in the above equations. This is done using the rotation
equations.
58
58
The
58 rotations of the core at the levels where the outriggers are located are:

w (L3 – x 3) – ___ M1 M2
qx1 = ___ M (L – x1) – ___
M (L – x )
w (L3 – x 3) – ___
6EI
qx1 = ___
1
MEI1 (L – x ) – ___EI2 (L – x2)
M
w
___
qx1 = 6EI (L – x 1) – M
3 3
1 ___ 1
EI (L – x1) – M
1 ___2
EI (L – x22)
6EI
w
___ EI1
___ EI
___
qx2 = (L – x 2) – M (L – x2) – M2 (L – x2)
3 3
w
6EI
___ MEI
___ 1
(L – x ) – EI22 (L – x2)
M
___
w ((LL3 –– xx 23)) –– ___
qx2 = ___
qx2 = 6EI
3 3
EI1 (L – x22) – ___
EI (L – x2)
6EI 2 EI EI
On the
M
__
other hand, since
q=
M
K
q = __
M
q = __
K
K
M1 M2 2 M1 (L – x1) 2 M2 (L – x2)
qx1 = ________
M + ________M =2__________
M (L – x ) +2__________
MAE (L – x )
AE
Md11
qx1 = ________
_______
2
AE
+ ________Md22
_______
2
=2 MAE
1 (Ld– x1)
__________2
2 M22 (Ld–2 x22)
__________
1 + __________
qx1 = ________
AE–dx22 1) + ________
2(L
_______ AE–dx22 2) = __________
2(L
_______
1
AEd 22 + AEd 22
AEd
_______ AEd AEd AEd
2(L – x1) _______ 2(L – x )
2(LM– x1) 2(LM– x22) 2M (L – x ) 2M (L – x )
qx2 = ________
1 ________
Md1 2 + ________
2
Md2 2 = 2
__________
1
MAE
2
(L – x ) + 2
__________
2
MAE (L – x )
2
AE
M
qx2 = ________
_______ + AEM
_______ = 2 M 1 (Ld–2 x2)
__________ + 2 M 2 (Ld–2 x2)
__________
qx2 = ________
AE–dx22 2) + ________
2(L
1
_______ AE–dx22 2) = __________
2(L
_______
2 1
AEd 22
2
+ __________
2
AEd 22
2
AEd
_______ AEd
_______ AEd AEd
2(L – x2) 2(L – x2)
2(L – x2) 2(L – x2)
1 + _____
C = __ 2
1 + _____
EI
C = __ AE2d2
1 + _____
C = __
EI 2 2
EI AEd
AE
d2
x 32 – x 31) _____
w (_______ w (x 2 + x x + x 2)
M1 = _____ (x 3 – x 3) = 1 1 2 2
qx1==__ M________1
+ ________ 2
= __________
1 1
+ __________
2 2
AEd 2
K_______ AEd 2
_______ AEd 2 AEd 2
q58 2(LM–1 x1) + ________
= ________ 2(LM–2 x2) = 2 M1 (L – x1) 2
__________ M2 (L – x2)
+ __________
x1
AE d
_______
M
2
AE
_______
M d 2
M AEd– x ) 2MAE
2
d2
q
58
= 2(L M–11 x ) + ________
________
________ 2(L M–22 x ) = 2
________ 2 M11 (L
(L – x12) + 2
__________
__________ (L –– xx22))
M22 (L
__________
__________
qx1 =Tall AE 2 1 + Structural = +
AEd AE
AEd AE
AEd AE
AEd
68 Buildings:
_______ _______
2 2 Systems and 22Aerodynamic Form
2
x2
d2
_______ _______d2 d d2
2(L – x ) 2(L – x )
w M–(L1 3x12–) x+3)________
2(L
________
___ 2(LM M–21x22) = 2
___
M1 (LM–2 x2) 2
__________
___
M2 (L – x2)
__________
qx1x2 =
Assuming that: –AE 2 (L – x1) – 2 (L –+x2)
6EIAE d
_______
___
2
M
M d
EI
1 _______
w M(L1 3 – x 3)________ ___ 2M AE Md
EI
(L –2 (L
x2)– x 2 MAE (Ld– x2)
2
qqx1 = ________ – ) 1 ___
21 (L – x__________
– )
__________
2
= 6EI
2(L – x2 2) +1 2(LM – x2 2) = 1 M
EI EI +2
x2
qCx2==__ wAE_____
(dL32 – x 32)_______
_______
1___ –AE d1 (L – x ) –AE___
___ d22 (L – x ) AEd 2
6EI+
w –AE
2(L x2)2 3 2(L___ MEI
– x2) 2 M
EI 2
qx2 =EI___ (L3 d – x 2) – 1 (L – x2) – ___2 (L – x2)
16EI 2 EI EI
C = __ + _____
From MEI AE d 2
the above equations, M1 and M2 can be found.
qC == __ 1 + _____
__ 2
MK
EI
__
q= AEd2
K x 32 – x 31) _____
wM (_______
_____
M1 = ________ M=2 w (2 xM 2 (L – x )
+ x1 x2 1+ x 22)2 M2 (L – x2)
qx1 = 6EIC 1
(2(xx32 +
– ________
x 3) 6EIC =2 __________
1 1 __________
M – x 1) M 2 M (L – 2 x ) + 2M (L –2 x )
w
AEd1 _______
_____
_______ 2 _______
1 w x 2 AE
1 xd x 1+ x 2)__________
AE=d2 _____ (__________ AE
2 d
qMx11 == ________
6EIC + ________
) d6EIC
+
x2 2) = 1 AEd1 2 2 +2 AEd 2
2
2(LAE–dx2(1x)2 – x_______
_______ 1AE–
2(L
2(LwM– x(L1) – x 2(L
_____
M2 = ________
–x)
) (LM+2 x21 + x2 )M=1 (L w
_____
– x2()L2 +2 M – x–1xx22) – x 21)
Lx22 (L
qx2 = 6EIC 1
+ ________
1 = __________
2 6EIC + __________
wMd1 (L – x________
AE
_____
_______
2
AEMd2
_______
2 2MAE – x2) 2 2
(Ldw
) =1 _____
2 MAE (L –2 x )
Lx22 –dx1 x22 – x 21)
qMx22 == ________
6EIC + ) (L + x1 += x__________ (L+ +__________
2(LAE–dx2) _______ 2(LAE–dx2) AE6EIC
1 2
_______
2 2
d 2
AEd 2
The lateral drift
2(L – x ) 2(L – x ) at the top of the structure is:
2 2

1 ____
yCx=0= =__
4
–2 ________
w+L _____ w
)2 C [ 1
(x 2 + x1 x2 + x 22) (L2 – x 21) + (L2 + Lx2 – x1 x2 – x 21) (L2 – x 22) ]
EI
1
__ 8EI_____
AE2d12(EI
2
C= +
EI AEd2
The location 3of the outrigger levels that have the greatest effect on the lateral drift at
w xw –L4x 31) _____
(_______
w L 1.44w
4
the
M
y= top
= _____
____ of ________
the 2 structure
– (x 3 – 2x 3 = are (the
x 21 +locations
x1 x2 + x 22where
) the yrx=0 function has the maximum
1 8EI
values. 6EIC
w
_____ ( x
12(EI
_______
Therefore,
2 ) )
C 6EIC
1 the _____w
optimum locations 2 for two outrigger levels are obtained by
M1 = = (x 1 + x1 x2 + x 2)
2
6EIC (x2 the
differentiating – x1y) 6EIC function with respect to x1 and x2 and equating to zero.
rx=0

M21 = _____wwL2 (L 0.79 – xM ) (L xw1L+ x1.38

=+ _____
2
w (L2 + Lx – x x – x 2)
) = _____
x1 = 0.31 6EIC
w L 1 2 6EIC 2 _____ 6EIC 2 1 2 1
M2 = _____ (L – x1) (L + x1 + x2) = w (L2 + Lx2 – x1 x2 – x 21)
6EIC 6EIC
x2 = 0.69 L
w4 L–4 ________
wL____
= ____ wL4w 1.38
– ________
)C C [ 12
yx=0 = (x 2 + x1 x2 + x 22) (L2 – x 21) + (L2 + Lx2 – x1 x2 – x 21) (L2 – x 22) ]
8EI8EI
w L
____ 12(EI
4 12(EI )w
________
2 2

8EI 12(EI) 2 C [ 1
yx=0 =
The lateral –drift at the top(x of + xthe x + x 22) (L2 –is:x 21) + (L2 + Lx2 – x1 x2 – x 21) (L2 – x 22) ]
1 2structure

y=
M w_____
Lw4 L–2 ________
=____ wL4M =
0.33 wL2 1.58
_____
1.44
1 8EI6EIC 12(EI )42 C
2 6EIC
w L 4
w
y = ____ – ________ L 1.44
8EI 12(EI) 2 C
and the restoring moments of the outriggers are:
wL4 – ________
yy=0 = ____ wL 4
8EI
w L 0.7912(EI) 2 C _____
M2 = wL 1.38
2 2
M1 = _____
6EIC 6EIC

wL2
M = _____
3.9.1.3 Two outrigger levels, one at the top of the structure and the other at the
6EIC
optimum location
In the equation of the restoring effect of two outrigger levels on the lateral drift at the
top of the structure, when x1=0, the optimum location x2 is obtained by differentiating
the yrx=0 function with respect to x2 and equating to zero.

x2 = 0.5774 L
M1 = _____ _______
x – x ) = _____
w (_______ w ((xx 21 +
2
x x + x 2)
M1 = _____
6EIC (x22 – x11) = _____
6EIC + x11 x22 + x 22)
w6EIC (xw – x ) 6EIC 1
y = ____L4 – ________
2 L4 1

y= w L
8EI
____ 4
– w
12(EI L)42 C 1.44
________ 1.44
8EI w (L – x) )C(L + x + x ) = _____
12(EI 2
w (L2 + Lx – xThe
M2 = _____w (L – x1) (L + x1 + x2) = _____ w (L2 + Lx2 – x1 xx2structural
– x 221) systems of tall buildings 69
M2 = _____
6EIC 6EIC – x 1)
6EIC 1
wL2 0.79 M = _____ wL2 1.38 6EIC
1 2 2 1 2
M1 = _____
w L2 0.79 for w L2 1.38
In
M1the equation
6EIC
= _____ M2 the
2 lateral
6EIC
= _____ drift at the top of the structure for two outrigger levels,
when 6EIC
xw L
=0, and w
x 6EIC
=0.5774L, x x lateral
the + x 2) (L2drift
– x 2at) +the top
Lxof–thex xstructure
– x 2) (L2 is:
4
____ ________
yx=0 = ____
1 L4 – w2) 2 C [ ((xx 21 ++ x11 x22 + x 22) (L2 – x 211) + (L2 + Lx22 – x11 x22 – x 211) (L2 – x 22) ]]
(L2 + – x 2)
2
yx=0 = w 8EI – ________
12(EI [
wL8EI wL4 ) C
12(EI 2 1
4
y = ____
w L 4 –
________
wL)42 C 1.38
y= 8EI
____ – 12(EI
________ 1.38
w8EI
L
____ 4 12(EI
w L)42 C
________
y = ____ – ________ 1.44
y=w L restoringwL) 2 moments
4 4
and the
8EI – 12(EI C 1.44 of the outriggers are:
8EI 2 12(EI) C
2
wL 0.33 M = _____ wL2 1.58
M1 = _____
w L 0.33 M2 = wL 1.58
2 2
M1 = 6EIC
_____ 2 6EIC
_____
6EIC
wL2 0.79 M = _____
2 6EIC
wL22 1.38
M1 = _____
w L
_____ wL 1.38
_____
M1 = 6EIC 0.79 M2 = 6EIC 2
6EIC
w L
____ 4
w L
________ 4 6EIC
yy=0 = wLThe
3.9.1.4 – lateral
wL)42 drift
8EI4 – ________
yy=0 = ____ 12(EI C at the top of the structure when a single outrigger level is
located 4 at the
8EI
wL4 – ________ top
wL4 C
12(EI4 ) 2of the structure
y = ____
w wL) 2 C 1.38
L – ________
____
y = 8EI 12(EI 1.38
The equation
8EI for2 the lateral drift at the top of the structure for a single outrigger level
M = wL2 12(EI) C
_____
is used,wLand x is taken as zero (x=0) since the outrigger level is located at the top of
6EIC 2
M = _____
6EIC
the structure.
wL22 0.33 M = _____ wL22 1.58
M1 = _____
wL 0.33 M2 = _____ wL 1.58
M1 = _____
6EIC 6EIC
6EIC 2 6EIC
The lateral drift at the top of the structure is:
wL44 – ________
yy=0 = ____ wL 44
w L
____ wL) 2 C
________
yy=0 = 8EI – 12(EI
8EI 12(EI) 2 C
and the restoring moment of the outrigger is:
wL22
M = _____
wL
M = _____
6EIC
6EIC

3.9.2 Evaluation of outriggered frame systems

The optimum locations, lateral drift at the building top and restoring moments of
outriggered frame systems are summarised in Table 3.2.
According to Table 3.2:

1. Assessing the reduction of lateral drift at the top of the structure due to the
addition of outriggers to a shear-frame (shear trussed/braced or shear walled
frame) system,
a. for a single outrigger level at the top of the structure, the lateral drift at the top
of the structure is reduced by 67 per cent/(EIC)
b. for a single outrigger level at the optimum location, the lateral drift at the top
of the structure is reduced by 88 per cent/(EIC),
c. for two outrigger levels, one at the top of the structure and the other at the
optimum location, the lateral drift at the top of the structure is reduced by 92
per cent/(EIC),
d. for two outrigger levels at the optimum locations, the lateral drift at the top of
the structure is reduced by 96 per cent/(EIC),
70 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

yx=0frame
= ysystems wL 4
____ wwLL4
– ____ ________
4
________ wL 4 wL
M = _____
2
wL 2
_____
TaBle 3.2 Evaluation of outriggered 8EI4x=0 =12(EI)42–C 6EIC M
2 =
w
____L
yx=0 = y – = ____
2 8EI
w
________ L
wL 2– ________
4 12(EI
wL )4 C
M= w L
_____ 6EIC
wL 2
8EI4x=0 12(EI ) C12(EI)42 C 6EIC M = _____
wLy – =________ 8EI
wwLL – ________
44
wL Restoring
2 moment
wL M = _____6EIC
wL 2
yx=0 = ____ ____ M = _____
8EI4 12(EI
x=0 8EI ) C12(EI)4 C
2 2
6EIC 6EIC
ySingle
= wL 4 – ________
outrigger
____ wL 4 at
level y = w4M
wL____
____ Ly =________
– w
_____
= w
Lw4 LL – ________
24 44
wLL____
________ w4 L M = wLL M
w
_____
_____
2
2
= wL 2
_____
x=0 y = 8EI y– = w
____ 8EI – w
1.32
________L 1.32 M = 6EIC M 1.66
= wL 2 1.66
_____
6EIC
x=0 8EI 12(EI ) 2
C x=0
8EI x=0 12(EI
6EIC ) 2
C 12(EI ) 2
C 6EIC
12(EIwLL4)4 C________
2
the top of the structure w 8EI
L 4 – ________ wL 2 1.66 6EIC
wL)4 C 1.32
12(EI 2
y = ____ w
____
y =12(EI 2– 1.32 M = _____ wL 2 1.66
M = _____
8EI 8EI ) C 6EIC 6EIC
wL)4 C 1.32
12(EI 2
Single outrigger level at w
wL 4 y– =________wLL44 – ________ wL M2
wL 2 1.66
the optimum location
y =L____
x=0.455 ____ 1.32 M = _____ = _____
1.66
8EI 8EI
12(EI ) 2
C 12(EI ) 2
C 6EIC 6EIC
y = ____ wL 4 1.32
wL 4 – ________ y = ____
4
wwLLL424 –1.66
wL 4My– ==________
____
_____
w
44
wLL 44 1.32
________
1.32
w wwLLM
M ==_____
22
_____ wL 22 1.66
_____
1.66
=
8EI y = ____
8EI 1.38
2– ________ 1.38 M 6EIC M 0.33
= wL 0.33
_____
6EIC
8EI 12(EI) C 2
w L 4 6EIC
12(EI
8EI
w L 4 12(EI) C
4) C12(EI)42 C
2 2 1 6EIC 6EIC
Two outrigger levels, one x1=0 y = ____ ________
w L
– ____ 2– ________ w
1.38 L w L
_____
M1 = M 0.33
21
wL 2 0.33
8EI4 y =12(EI )4 C12(EI)42 C 1.38 6EIC = _____
at the top of the structure x2=0.5774____ L 8EI w L
_____2 1 6EIC
y = wL y– = wwLL – ________ wL wL 2 1.58
4
________
____ 1.38 1.38 M2 =
M wLM 1.58
= _____
2
= _____
0.33 0.33
8EI 8EI
12(EI4)42 C12(EI)4 C
2 2 1 6EIC
wL 2 1.58
6EIC
_____2 21 6EIC
w L 4
w L 4 w L
____ 4
ww LL
wL – 0.33
________
____ w
________L M = w LM = w
w L
_____
L
2
2
1.58
y = ____ – ________ 1.38 y= y– == _____ 1.38 1.38 M21 = _____
6EICM 2 = _____
2 10.33 0.33
8EI 12(EI) 2 C 8EIM1 12(EI 8EI
6EIC ) 2 C12(EI) 2 C wLM
6EIC
M2 = _____ =
6EIC
wL 2 1.58
6EIC
_____
1.58
wL 4 – ________ w 6EIC 2 6EIC
wLLL4 22– 1.58
4
Two outrigger levels at y =L____
x1=0.31 w
____
_____ wL 4 1.44
1.44
________ M = wLL 22 0.79
w
_____
_____ wL 2 1.58
_____
8EI M y =
=
4 2 12(EI)4 C
M 1 = 6EICM =
1.58 0.79
the optimum locations x2=0.69 wL – ________
y =L____ w8EI
wLL4 ________
6EIC 12(EI
w
1.44 L)4 C
2 2 6EIC
wL 0.79
_____ 2 2
1 6EIC
w L 2
____ M = _____
8EI y =12(EI 8EI ) 2–C12(EI)42 C 1.44 1 6EIC
w
M =
6EIC
0.79
wLLM
2 1
wL 4 y– =________
w wLL44 – ________ wL M = _____ 2
1.38 wL 2 1.38
y = ____ ____ 1.44 1.44 M 2 = _____
6EIC = _____
0.79 0.79
8EI4 12(EI 8EI4)422 C12(EI)42 C M
1
= wL 22 211.38
6EIC
_____ 6EIC
w L
_____ 2
w L 4
w L 4 w L w
y = ____My–1 =________ w LL
wL – 0.79 w L w LM = w L 2
1.38
y = ____ – ________ 1.44
8EI 12(EI = ____
_____
8EI
________
1.44 1.44 M21 = _____
6EICM 2 = _____
2 10.79 6EIC 0.79
8EI 12(EI) 2 C 6EIC ) 2 C12(EI) 2 C wLM
6EIC
M2 = _____ = wL 2 1.38
6EIC
_____
1.38
1 + _____ 2 __ 6EIC 2 6EIC
C = __ CAE = 1w
2 L
_____ + _____
2 2 wLM
M2 = _____
2
wL 2 1.38
= _____
1.38
EI
1 M =2d EI 1.38
AE d 2
where EI is the flexural rigidity, C = __ and+ _____
2
C= __6EIC
is
1 the_____ 2constant defined by the 6EIC 6EIC
following
2

equation: EI CAE dEI2 + AEd 2

C = __ 1 +C_____ =2 __1 + _____ 2
EI AEdEI2 AEd 2
C = __ 2
1 + _____ C = __ 1 +C_____ =2 __1 + _____ 2
EI AEd 2 EI AEdEI2 AEd 2

2. Assessing the contribution of outriggers to the reduction in lateral drift at the top
of the structure,
a. the contribution of a single outrigger level at its optimum location is
32 per cent higher than the contribution from a single outrigger level located
at the top of the structure.
b. the contribution of two outrigger levels at their optimum locations is
12 per cent higher than the contribution of a single outrigger level at its
optimum location.
c. two outrigger levels, one at the top of the building structure and the other
at the optimum location, contribute 6 per cent more than that of a single
outrigger level at its optimum location.

In this case, it is debatable whether the reduction of 6 per cent of the lateral drift
justifies the economic cost of adding a second outrigger level at the top of the
structure.

3. 64 per cent of the total restoring moment of two outrigger levels at the optimum
locations comes from the lower outrigger; 83 per cent of the total restoring
moment of two outrigger levels, where one is at the top of the structure and the
 The structural systems of tall buildings 71

other is at the optimum location, comes from the lower outrigger. The outrigger
that is closest to the base of the structure provides the most restoring moment, and
its share in the total restoring moment is reduced when the number of outriggers
is increased and it is placed in the optimum location.

3.10 Tube systems

The tube system was innovated in the early 1960s by the famous structural engineer
Fazlur Rahman Khan who is considered the “father of tubular design” (Weingardt,
2011). The tube system can be likened to a system in which a hollow box column
is cantilevering from the ground, and so the building exterior exhibits a tubular
behaviour against lateral loads. This system is evolved from the rigid frame system and
can be defined as a three-dimensional rigid frame having the capability of resisting
all lateral loads with the facade structure. The tube system was used for the first time
as the framed-tube system in the 43-storey, 120 m high The Plaza on Dewitt (formerly
Dewitt-Chestnut Apartments) (Chicago, 1966) (Figure 3.52) by Fazlur Rahman Khan.

Figure 3.52 The Plaza on Dewitt, Chicago, USA, 1966

(photo courtesy of Marshall Gerometta/CTBUH)
72 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

In tubular design, the rigidity of the structural system against lateral loads can be
increased with solutions such as:

• closer spacing of the perimeter columns

• increasing the depth of the spandrel beams connected to the perimeter columns
• adding shear trusses/braces or shear walls to the core
• adding an inner tube in place of the core (tube-in-tube)
• adding a truss (multi-storey braces) to the building exterior (trussed-tube)
• combining more than one tube (bundled-tube).

In tube systems, the tube formed around the building exterior is designed to resist all
lateral and vertical loads. If there is a structural core in the interior of the building, it
is assumed to support some part of the vertical loads. Adding a second tube instead
of a core can increase the stiffness of the structural system to support some part of the
vertical and lateral loads.
As well as its structural efficiency, in a tube system it increases the net usable area
of the building while reducing the dimensions of the structural elements in the core,
thanks to the tubular exterior frame supporting the entire lateral load. Tube systems
can be used in several geometrical forms like rectangular, square, triangular, circular
and even free-forms in the plan (Figure 3.53).
Tube systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient stiffness to resist wind
and earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of more than 40 storeys.
Tube systems can be divided into three types:

• framed-tube systems
• trussed-tube systems
• bundled-tube systems.

Figure 3.53 Some forms of tube systems

 The structural systems of tall buildings 73

3.10.1 Framed-tube systems

The framed-tube systems, which constitute the basis of tube systems, can be described
as having evolved from rigid frame systems and are alternative to shear frame systems.
The outstanding structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan innovated the framed-tube
system.
The most significant feature of the system, also known as the “vierendeel tube
system” or “perforated tube system”, is the closely spaced perimeter/exterior columns,
which are usually spaced at 1.5 to 4.5 m centres, connected by deep spandrel beams
at floor levels. If there is a need to increase the column spacing, in order to secure the
behaviour of the framed-tube system, it is necessary to increase the dimensions of the
perimeter columns and spandrel beams.
The dimensions and spacing of the columns and the flexural rigidity of the spandrel
beams directly affect the tubular behaviour of the framed-tube system. In the framed-
tube system, pure tubular cantilever behaviour cannot be fully achieved because of
the flexibility of the spandrel beams so that there can be slight bending deformation
while transferring the shear forces to the columns. The real behaviour of the system
is between the behaviour of a vertical cantilever and that of a frame. Limited flexural
and shear rigidity (flexibility) of the spandrel beams results in bending deformation, so
the axial stresses in the corner perimeter columns increase while they decrease in the
inner perimeter columns. In this way, the distribution of axial compressive and tensile
stresses formed in the perimeter columns in response to the lateral loads cannot
be linear (Figure 3.54). This phenomenon is known as “shear lag”, which depends

c
_o
" c /a
t/5
O
<—i
a-
Actual stress distribution E
o
in columns with shear lag U

Compression

Tension

t
Lateral load

Figure 3.54 The distribution of tension and shear lag in perimeter columns in a
framed-tube system
74 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

upon the stiffness of the spandrel beam. Making the spandrel beams deeper and
the perimeter columns more closely spaced mitigates the “shear lag” phenomenon.
Placing the long sides of the rectangular columns’ cross-sections along the building
facade also contributes positively to the stiffness of the spandrel beams.
The behaviour of the framed-tube is obtained by placing the perimeter columns
usually at 1.5 to 4.5 m centres. Closely spacing the perimeter columns and increasing
the depth of the spandrel beams may test the height limits of the framed-tube system.
For example, in the 110-storey, 415/417 m high World Trade Center Twin Towers (New
York, 1972) (Figure 3.55), the perimeter columns were spaced at 1.02 m centres with
0.66 m in clear span (Chapter 4).
Closely spaced perimeter columns can obstruct the panoramic exterior view from
inside the building and, at the ground floor, inhibit the creation of inviting public
spaces with wide entrances such as lobbies and shopping centres. As a solution, with
the aim of preventing the difficulties of access experienced when passing through
these spaces at the building entrance, deep transfer arches or beams can be used,
as in the 20-storey, 84 m high IBM Building (Seattle, 1964) (Figure 3.56a); and the
42-storey, 183 m high U.S. Bank Center (formerly First Wisconsin Center) (Milwaukee,
1973) (Figure 3.56b); or branching columns can be used, as in the 110-storey,
415/417 m high World Trade Center Twin Towers (New York, 1972) (Figure 3.56c).
Below the transfer levels formed by transfer beams and branching columns, closely
spaced columns are replaced with widely spaced columns.

Steel perimeter column

Steel core column

a
B in
m NO
SO <N
I

~42m

63m

Figure 3.55 World Trade Center Twin Towers, New York, USA, 1972
 The structural systems of tall buildings 75

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.56 Configurations of the ground floor in the framed-tube system

The innovator of the idea of the framed-tube, the creative structural engineer
Fazlur Rahman Khan, used it for the first time in the 43-storey, 120 m high The Plaza
on Dewitt (Chicago, 1966) (Figure 3.52), which has a reinforced concrete structural
system.
Some examples of tall buildings using the framed-tube system with steel structural
material include:

• the 110-storey, 415/417 m high World Trade Center Twin Towers (New York,
1972) (Figure 3.55)

and with reinforced concrete structural material include:

• the 33-storey, 144 m high Torre Agbar (Barcelona, 2004) (Figure 3.57)
• the 63-storey, 223 m high Olympia Centre (Chicago, 1986) (Figure 3.58)
• the 41-storey, 167 m high First Canadian Centre (Calgary, 1982) (Figure 3.59).

R einforced concrete exterior tube R einforced concrete

(varying in thickness 50 to 30cm core shear w all
from bottom to top) (varying in thickness
40 to 25cm
from bottom to top)

£ £
ON
V)
vi
m

16.3m

39.4m

F lo o r 25

Figure 3.57 Torre Agbar, Barcelona, Spain, 2004

(photo on left courtesy of Niels Jakob Darger and on right courtesy of PERI Gmbh)
76 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

e
in
oo

-52.5m

Figure 3.58 Olympia Centre, Chicago, USA, 1986

(photo courtesy of Marshall Gerometta/CTBUH)

a
•n
co
I

~54m

Figure 3.59 First Canadian Centre, Calgary, Canada, 1982

(photo courtesy of Fiona Spalding-Smith)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 77

The diagrid-framed-tube system can be formed by using closely spaced diagonal

braces instead of vertical columns (Figure 3.60). This system is more effective against
lateral loads than the conventional framed-tube system. Placing the elements in a
closely spaced diagrid pattern provides sufficient resistance against vertical and lateral
loads. While the shear forces caused by lateral loads are met by the bending strength
of the columns and beams in the framed-tube system, in the diagrid-framed-tube
system they are met by the axial compressive and tensile strength of the diagonal
braces. In tall buildings where lateral loads are critical, shear forces are met by axial
deformation of the diagonal braces instead of bending deformation of the beams and
columns, which significantly increases the efficiency of the structural system.
Some examples of tall buildings using the diagrid-framed-tube system with steel
structural material include:

• the 41-storey, 180 m high 30 St Mary Axe (London, 2004) (Figure 3.61)

with reinforced concrete structural material include:

• the 40-storey, 118 m high COR Building (Miami, project pending) (Figure 3.62)
• the 22-storey, 106 m high O-14 (Dubai, 2010) (Figure 3.63)

and with composite structural material include:

• the 103-storey, 439 m high Guangzhou International Finance Center (Guangzhou,

2010) (Figure 3.64) (Ali and Moon, 2007)
• the 46-storey, 182 m Hearst Magazine Tower (New York, 2006) (Figure 3.65).

Figure 3.60 Diagrid-framed-tube system

78 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form
 The structural systems of tall buildings 79

Figure 3.61 30 St Mary Axe, London, UK, 2004

(photos courtesy of Nigel Young/Foster + Partners; drawings on previous page courtesy of
Abbas Riazibeidokhti; and drawings on this page courtesy of Foster + Partners)
80 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

Figure 3.62 COR Building, Miami, USA, project pending

(credit for Images: DBox Inc.)

R ein fo rc e d c o n crete
p e rfo ra te d tube

R ein fo rc e d c o n c re te
sla b

Figure 3.63 O-14, Dubai, U.A.E, 2010

(credit for photos: Reiser +Umemoto, RUR Architecture, PC)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 81

Figure 3.64 Guangzhou International Finance Center, Guangzhou, China, 2010

neigh bourin g
- 3 6 .5 m

building

-4 9 m

Figure 3.65 Hearst Magazine Tower, New York, USA, 2006

(photo on right courtesy of Antony Wood/CTBUH and drawing on left courtesy of Ozgur
Ozturk)
82 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

3.10.2 Trussed-tube systems

In the framed-tube system, closely spaced perimeter columns can obstruct the
panoramic exterior view from inside the building. In order to increase the spacing
between the columns without inhibiting the tubular behaviour, connecting the
perimeter columns with exterior multi-storey braces led to the development of the
trussed-tube (braced-tube) system (Figure 3.68). Trussed-tube system can be described
as the improvement of the framed-tube system, and it was likewise innovated by
Fazlur Rahman Khan.
Adding braces to the exterior of the framed-tube system makes it approach very
closely pure tubular cantilever behaviour by increasing the structural stiffness, effec-
tiveness, and reduces the negative effect of the “shear lag” caused by the flexibility of
the spandrel beams. Compared with the framed-tube system, the trussed-tube system
gives scope for increasing the height of the structure with wider spacing between
columns. As in the case of the 59-storey, 279 m high Citigroup Center (New York,
1977) (Figure 3.66) and the 100-storey, 344 m high John Hancock Center (Chicago,
1969) (Figure 3.67), maximum column spacing is 11.5 m and 13.3 m centres
respectively.
Fazlur Rahman Khan emphasised that the exterior braces, which made it possible
to have wide spaces between the columns, would behave like inclined columns, and
moreover they transferred load to or from the columns by allowing redistribution of
the stresses resulting with almost evenly load distribution in the columns. According
to Khan, this system would increase the structural system’s efficiency and that this
would allow the construction of supertall buildings.
In buildings with steel or composite trussed-tube systems, multi-storey braces
(diagonal or X-braces) are used on the facade of the building (Figure 3.68a). In the
case of buildings with reinforced concrete trussed-tube systems, spaces between the
columns are filled with reinforced concrete shear walls to form multi-storey diagonal
or X-brace pattern on the exterior of the building (Figure 3.68b).
Fazlur Rahman Khan used the trussed-tube system for the first time in the
100-storey, 344 m high John Hancock Center (Chicago, 1969), with a steel structural
system (Figure 3.67). The 50-storey, 174 m high 780 Third Avenue Building (New York,
1983) (Figure 3.69) was the first reinforced concrete building in which a trussed-tube
system was used.
Some examples of tall buildings using the trussed-tube system with reinforced
concrete structural material include:

• the 58-storey, 174 m high Onterie Center (Chicago, 1986) (Figure 3.70)

and with composite structural material include:

• the 72-storey, 367 m high Bank of China Tower (Hong Kong, 1990) (Figure 3.71)
(Colaco, 2005; Kijewski-Correa, 2002)
• the 59-storey, 279 m high Citigroup Center (New York, 1977) (Figure 3.66)
• the 49-storey, 234 m high CCTV Headquarters (Beijing, 2011) (Figure 3.72).
 The structural systems of tall buildings 83

& .J
46.3m

Exterior
diagonal
brace

Spandrel
beam \

Transfer beam
Reinforced concrete core
(throughout the building height)

Steel mega column

(-6.5 x7m
from ground floor to
transfer beam)

Figure 3.66 Citigroup Center, New York, USA, 1977

84 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

to top)
~50-30m
(from bottom
~80-49m
(from bottom to top)

Figure 3.67 John Hancock Center, Chicago, USA, 1969

(photo courtesy of Marshall Gerometta / CTBUH)

(a) (b)
Figure 3.68 Trussed-tube system: (a) Steel or composite, (b) Reinforced concrete
 The structural systems of tall buildings 85

s
<N

38m

Figure 3.69 780 Third Avenue Building, New York, USA, 1985
(photo courtesy of Marshall Gerometta/CTBUH)

Figure 3.70 Onterie Center, Chicago, USA, 1986

(photo courtesy of Marshall Gerometta/CTBUH)
86 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

£
NO
<N
7

~52m

~52m

£
<N
- in
7

Com posite m ega column

(hexagonal cross-section
w ith the longest side ~3.50m
at the ground floor)

Figure 3.71 Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong, China, 1990

Figure 3.72 CCTV Headquarters, Beijing, China, 2011

(courtesy of M.Bunyamin Bilir)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 87

Ali and Armstrong (1995), and Ali and Moon (2007) define the system used in
one of these examples, the Bank of China Tower, as a “space truss system, being a
development of the trussed-tube system”. According to the authors, because of its
four mega columns at the corners and the mega braces which connect them, it is
possible to classify the Bank of China Tower’s structural system not only as a trussed-
tube system, but also as a mega column, a mega frame, or a space truss system. In
appearance although it resembles a structure with distinct tubes terminating at several
layers, the Bank of China’s structural system is not a bundled-tube system.

3.10.3 Bundled-tube systems

Bundled-tube systems are a combination of more than one tube (framed-tube and/or
trussed-tube) acting together as a single tube (Figure 3.73). Like the framed-tube and
trussed-tube systems, the bundled-tube system was also innovated by the structural
engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan. Among the advantages of the bundled-tube system are:
the securing of architectural freedom thanks to the ability to create tubes of different
heights in the system; the attainment of higher building heights and wider column
spaces than in framed-tube systems; and the ability to control the aspect ratio.
In the bundled-tube system, setbacks with floor plans of different shapes and
dimensions are obtained by ending tubes at the desired levels. Single tubes in the
system can be arranged together in different shapes such as rectangles and triangles,
and thus different forms can be created.
As the heights of buildings increase, in general their aspect ratios also increase. The
increase in the aspect ratio increases the slenderness and flexibility of the building,
and thus its lateral drift. In order to keep control of the aspect ratio, it is necessary to
increase the cross-sectional dimensions of the base, which affects the denominator in
this ratio. In bundled-tube systems consisting of two or more tubes, the tubes can rise
to different levels of the building height (Figure 3.73). Thus, in bundled-tube systems,
the increase in the cross-sectional dimensions at the ground floor in order to control
the slenderness of the building makes it possible to reduce the cross-sectional dimen-
sions by different amounts throughout the height of the building.
In bundled-tube systems formed from framed-tubes and/or trussed-tubes, greater
building heights and wider column spaces are obtained than in framed-tube systems.
For example, in the Willis Tower (Chicago, 1974) (Figure 3.73), which has 9 framed-
tubes, the spaces between the columns are much greater than the column spaces in
a framed-tube building of the same height. While the 110-storey, 415/417 m high
World Trade Center Twin Towers had perimeter columns spaced at 1.02 m centres, the
108-storey, 442 m high Willis Tower has perimeter columns spaced at 4.6 m centres.
Some examples of tall buildings using the bundled-tube system with steel structural
material include:

• the 108-storey, 442 m high Willis Tower (Chicago, 1974) (Figure 3.73)
88 Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form

and with reinforced concrete structural material include:

• the 57-storey, 205 m high One Magnificent Mile (Chicago, 1983) (Figure 3.74)

and with composite structural material include:

• the 55-storey, 233 m high Wachovia Financial Center (Miami, 1983).

Floor 110

Floor 90

Floor 66

Floor 50
B
O)
<N
(N

22.9m
Single module
e
oo
so

68.7m

Figure 3.73 Willis Tower, Chicago, USA, 1974

(photo courtesy of Antony Wood/CTBUH)
 The structural systems of tall buildings 89

Figure 3.74 One Magnificent Mile, Chicago, USA, 1983 (Kim and Elnimeiri, 2004)
(photo courtesy of Marshall Gerometta/CTBUH)