WEEK 4

DATE:
TOPIC: ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: by the end of this lesson, I should be able to:
i. define ecological succession and state the causes of ecological succession
ii. state the characteristics of ecological succession
iii. state the types of ecological succession

COLD TASK: what is ecological succession?

Ecological Succession
This is the gradual and progressive growth/changes of a species (plants or animals) in any given area
over a period of time until a climax/ stable community is formed.

A climax community is a group of organisms that have reached a stable state in an area over time.

Causes of Ecological Succession

Some important causes may be defined as below:

 Climatic Causes: these can be rainfall, temperature variations, humidity, gas composition, etc.

 Biotic Causes: the organisms in a community compete to thrive for existence. Some of them are
lost in the process while some new ones are incorporated.

 External Causes: soil conditions are affected by the process of migration, invasion, and
competition amongst various species.
Characteristics of Ecological Succession
Ecological succession has subsequent characteristics:

 It occurs in a newly formed habitat or an abandoned habitat.

 It results from the changes in a habitat.

 It is a systematic procedure of community development.

 It involves variations and changes in species structure and it increases the diversity of species.

 Nutrient variation regulates the settlement of new communities. It also leads to competition
among organisms.

 Succession is orderly and progressive and it operates in a stabilized ecosystem.

Types of Ecological Succession

Primary Succession
Primary succession is the succession that begins in lifeless areas such as the regions devoid of soil or
barren lands where the soil is unable to sustain life. When the planet was first formed there was no soil
on earth. The earth was only made up of rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and
eroded to form soil. This is a process called erosion. The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life.
These plants help in the persistence of different animals and progress from primary succession to the
climax community. When the primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.
 SECONDARY SUCCESSION
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets wiped out. For e.g., a climax community
gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the devastation. This is known as secondary ecological
succession. Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall trees block the sunlight and
change the structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally, the climax community comes into
action.
Secondary succession is a succession that occurs when an area has not been totally stripped of soil and
vegetation. It occurs more rapidly than primary succession because soil has already been formed. It also
occurs when a farmer abandon old field. Secondary succession begins from an existing community
which has been interfered with by man and other factors. Fire, drought and floods can cause secondary
succession.
 MAJOR COMMUNITIES IN A PLANT SUCCESSION
In-plant succession, terms like pioneer and seral communities are commonly used. Pioneer refers to the
first biotic community that invades the barren area, whereas the latter is called the plant communities'
translational development series. Further, the final stage of succession is called the climax community.

PRIMARY SUCCESSION IN AN AQUATIC HABITAT

Primary succession can happen when mud is colonised by plants. Over a period of years the pond may
steadily lose the open water as vegetation takes over. Eventually the pond will disappear altogether.

PROCESS OF SUCCESSION IN AQUATIC HABITAT

Succession in aquatic environments involves the gradual infilling of sediments and organic matter in the
shallow lake or pond. It begins with pioneer species, phytoplanktons, followed by the growth of aquatic
plants. Once the water becomes shallower, amphibious plants start to flourish.

It is composed of 5 stages: (1) phytoplankton stage (2) rooted submerged stage (3) floating stage (4)
temporary pond stage (5) climax stage.

An illustration of succession is that of a pond. Rain carries sediment from surrounding land into the
pond, filling it and making it shallower. Algae that live in the pond die and eventually fall to the bottom,
adding organic materials to the sediment.

Some plants such as pond weeds grow at the bottom. These plants make up the pioneer community.
The pioneer plants are the first to inhabit the changing environment. The roots of these underwater
plants hold much silt, quickly building up the bottom cover of the pond. As they die, their organic matter
accumulates at the bottom. The water along the edges becomes so shallow that water lilies and other
floating plants replace the pioneer plants.
The final stage of succession in a particular area is called climax community. The species that constitute
the climax community differs from biome to biome. A climax community is also a stable community
because its appearance and species composition are stable. To become climax, the community would
have gone through a sequence of species.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUCCESSION

 PRIMARY SUCCESSION SECONDARY SUCCESSION

1 Starts on a bare surface Starts on already colonized surface

It is slower or takes longer time to reach a It is faster or takes a shorter time to reach a
2
climax community climax community

3 Starts with lower organisms Starts with fairly complex organisms

PROCESS OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION ON A BARE PIECE OF LAND- TERRESTRIAL HABITAT

i. The first living organism on a bare plot of land are the pioneers which are algae and mosses.
ii. As the pioneers live and die, they add nutrients to the soil.
 iii. This creates conditions that are more favourable to other plants like ferns, herbs, lower animals
like insects, worms which could not live there before.
iv. As they live and die, their remains further improve the soil conditions.
v. Thus perennial herbs, grasses and other animals such as lizards, snakes, toads, and rats are able
to live there.
vi. Subsequently, a point is reached at which the soil can support the growth of taller species such
as shrubs, trees and higher animals.
vii. Higher animals, birds, various mammals may be found in the habitat at this stage.
viii. Thus a climax community is established which is in equilibrium with the environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A STABLE/CLIMAX COMMUNITY

The features of a stable community are as follows:
(i) Communities should have greater biodiversity for greater stability.
(ii) It should be able to prevent invasion by alien species.
(iii) It should be able to restore itself in a short period of time.
(iv) Variations should be minimal in the community.

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN SPECIES COMPOSITION, VARIETY AND INCREASE IN NUMBER

In any given habitat, available communities of plants through their activities modify the environment.
This leads to an unstable state to the existing community of plants and animals. Structural modifications
in a new group of plants and animals make the habitat suitable for their newcomers. After sometimes,
the activities of these more suitable organisms again modify the environment. With this modification,
groups are again incapable of surviving as new colonizers appear that are more suited to the
environment. This results in competition among the organisms such that the stronger ones survive and
the weak ones die off with their decay forming food as well as adding nutrients to the habitat.
The changes occur in species structure, composition, different varieties of plants and animals with
increase in numbers.

Ecological succession can be studied in abandoned farmland, pond, lawn, and building sites.
The initial organisms are usually less hardy species of plants and animals and the starting point of
succession is the formation of soil or land.
In aquatic habitat, the environment is often a newly formed pond that has shallow water with
microscopic plants and animals like bacteria, algae and protozoa. These are sample in structure, exhibit
simple live processes and easy to make complex populations

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION.

For ecological succession to take place, the following must be present:
i. Colonizing materials
ii. Colonizers
iii. Soil formation-terrestrial habitat
iv. Pond or seashore-Aquatic habitat
 Followed by rooted and flowing aquatic plants
 Followed by marsh with partially submerged plants like sedges and reeds.
 Followed by dry soil with shrubby growth
  Shrubby growth is finally succeeded by forest which is the stable or climax
community.

Initial succession once started occurs at a fast rate which gradually slows down. The colonizers have
short life cycle and low nutrient requirements. Their remains decay and add mineral salts and other
organic materials that improve the quality of the soil.
At the beginning of succession, the rate of changes occurs at a very fast rate and gradually slows down
to a climax community when no more natural changes are taking place.
Initial biotic colonizers such as Lichens, Mosses, Algae and Liverworts have short life cycles and low
nutrient requirements. Their remains decay and add mineral salts and other organic materials to enrich
the soil quality.

OUTCOME OF SUCCESSION

 Changes in the physical environment due to structural changes of the species and the activities in the
community.
 Simple organisms which start the succession are usually replaced by more complex ones in an
evolutionary trend
 Equilibrium point is attained through colonization of abandoned farmland by a wide variety of organisms
 The final outcome of succession is the climax or stable community.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUCCESSION AND COMPETITION

 Succession refers to the series of changes that takes place in animals and plants that inhabit an
environment at different times until a stable community emerge.
 Competition is the interaction that occurs between members of the same population, two or more
population in a community in the process of obtaining needed resources such as food, light, water,
space and mates that are in short supply in a given habitat at a given time.
 The pioneer colonizers are usually species with simple life processes and simple structures and are
not species adapted to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Yet, their activities improve the
conditions of the environment making it possible for new species to grow. Activities of the new
species further usher in improved conditions. As a result of the improved conditions, the pioneer
colonizers and some of the new ones, no longer fit into the changed environment.
 Both old and new inhabitants now compete for limited resources. New species eventually succeed in
becoming dominant. The pioneers are subsequently pushed out from the habitat in the sense that
they gradually die out as the environmental changes become too complex for them to survive.
 The dominant species again further improves the environment making it to be less suitable for them
to survive in while new species are again enabled to survive and compete more successfully with
them.
 Note that successive species have improved structural features. In general, through competition,
communities keep changing their competitions to cope with improved environmental conditions
until a stable community is attained.

OVERCROWDING
Overcrowding occurs when the number of organisms in a habitat are more than the available resources
such as food, nutrients in case of plants, light, space available to the organisms etc. The phenomenon
implies that the population has increased beyond the carrying capacity of the habitat.
 POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY.
Population is the total number of organisms of the same species living in a particular area at a particular
time e.g. population of students in a school, population of snakes in a farm land.

Population density is the average number of organisms of a species per unit area of a habitat.
For example,
 The population of a state is the total number of individuals in the state.
 Population density of the state is Total number of people
Area of the state
Population density can be determined mathematically using the following formulae
Population density = Population size
Area of Habitat
For example:
(a) If the area of a classroom is 40m2 and the number of students in the class is 80. What is the
population density?
Population density = Population size = 80
40m2 = 2 students per square meter

(b) If 80 students are in a class room whose area is 40m2. What is the space available to each student?
Space per organism can be determined by using the formula:
Space = Area of the classroom = 40 = ½m2
No of students 80

Population size is determined by multiplying density with total area of the habitat.
Population size = Population density X Area of the habitat
Increase in population density reduces available resources per organism. This automatically results in
competition and struggle between the organism for the available space and resources. In this struggle,
organisms that compete better will survive while the weak ones will die off.
 Lizards in the Winter
Reptiles cannot produce their own body heat. During the cold winter months, some reptiles enter a
state of torpor, which resembles the hibernation of mammals. This dormant, sleep-like state can last
several months. These sand lizards survive the winter in this fashion, huddled together to share each
others’ body heat. When spring arrives, they emerge from their underground burrows and bask in the
warmth of the sun.

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

The following are the factors that could make the population of a given place to increase or decrease:
i. Natality: This factor brings about increase in population as a result of production of young ones.
ii. Mortality: This brings about decrease in population as a result of death.
iii. Immigration: Increase in population as a result of individual moving into an area from another
area.
iv. Emigration: decrease in population as a result of individuals moving away from an area.
v. Abiotic factors such as temperature, water, light, oxygen, food, soil and availability of space
affects population either positively or negatively.
vi. Biotic factors such as predation, competition, parasitism, diseases, natality, mortality, terrestrial
behaviour and dispersal of seeds also affects population.

IMPORTANCE OF FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION.

A number of factors affect the population of a habitat. These factors are known as environmental
resistance. They include biotic and abiotic factors.
Examples of abiotic factors are: water, light, heat, space, soil and its content, temperature, rainfall, food
(animals) and essential nutrients for plants and plant growth.
Excess or scarcity of the above factors usually affects the population. In animal population, abundance
of food will result in the animal feeding well, increased rapid and healthy growth and increased
reproduction which will in turn increase the population
Likewise scarcity/ shortage of food supply will result in animals struggling and competing for the
available food, thus poor feeding and starvation will set in, these in turn will result in poor growth, poor
and delay in reproduction which will end up in reduction in population.

Birth Rate: This is the rate at which mammals produce young ones. Increase in birth rate will increase
the population while decrease in birth rate will decrease the population.

Death Rate: This is the rate at which animals die. Increase in the numbers of individuals that die reduces
the population while decrease in the number of individuals that die increases the population.

Abiotic factors like water and light when insufficient for plants will affect plant growth and yield.
Shortage of water could result in wilting or even the plant drying up, poor yield and food shortage. Food
shortage will trigger off several ecological behaviours among communities
FACTORS THAT CAUSE OVER-CROWDING

Factors that can result in overcrowding are:

i. Increased natality- increase in birth rate
ii. Reduced mortality- reduction in death due to favourable factors.
iii. Reduced death rate- abundant food, favourable conditions.
iv. Absence of predators- few or no predators to prey on organisms.
v. Inadequate space- available space is small thus there will be congestion
vi. Social habits in social insects such as bees, wasps and ants.
vii. Absence of dispersal- when seeds and fruits fall directly under parent plant and germinate.
viii. Immigration- more individuals coming into a place.
ix. Favourable food supply- increase in food supply to a particular habitat will attract more
individuals to increase the population which eventually will lead to overcrowding.

MEASURES USED BY NATURE TO AVOID OVERCROWDING

Naturally, different organisms have developed different means of overcoming overcrowding. Some of
these methods are as follows:
i. Dispersal of seeds and fruits: animals such as birds, insects, and man help in spreading seeds
and fruits from parent plants to distant places where they germinate and grow thereby avoiding
overcrowding. Explosive mechanism is also used by plants to dispose seeds and fruits far away
from the parent plant. Otherwise, matured seed and fruits would fall directly under the parent
plant and germinate and cause serious overcrowding.
ii. Migration of organisms: with adverse conditions, organisms tend to move from the congested
area to another. Usually, the movement is to areas where the conditions are more favourable.
 The organisms move from the overcrowded area to areas where there are fewer organisms. This
is called emigration as the organisms move outside the habitat to reduce overcrowding.
iii. Territorial behaviours: to overcome overcrowding, some organisms claim some areas to
themselves, guard it and ensure no other organisms of the same specie do not come in. Lizards,
some birds Tilapia fish are examples of organisms that exhibit territorial behaviour.
iv. Irruption: This refers to the large scale emigration of animals at irregular intervals to reduce
overcrowding e.g. Locust.

FOOD SHORTAGE AND ITS EFFECT

One of the very essential resources in a habitat for which organisms compete is food.
Food is essential for growth, repairs and reproduction. As earlier said, abundance of food in a habitat
can lead to increased population which may result in overcrowding.
However, scarcity of food in any habitat or among any population of organisms has adverse effect such
as reducing growth and reproduction.

CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGE

Some causes of food shortage are:
1. Overpopulation: Overpopulation occurs when increase in population is not matched with
corresponding increase in food production.
2. Drought: Severe drought which is the absence of rainfall for a prolonged period of time will
adversely affect agricultural activities that will lead to poor harvest eventually food shortage.
3. Natural disasters such as war, floods and earthquakes can destroy farmlands, result in poor or
no harvest and automatically food shortage.
4. Poor storage facilities: In developing countries like ours, a lot of harvests of agricultural
products are wasted due to inadequate processing and storage of farm products which results
in food shortage.
5. Diseases of plants and animals: Certain diseases such as mealy bug diseases of cassava,
mosaic virus of tomato, pepper, and avian flu in birds cause sicknesses in these organisms
giving rise to poor production.
 Kosovo Refugees
Serb-led attacks on ethnic Albanians in Kosovo in 1998 left thousands homeless. In March
1998 ethnic Albanian villagers from Drenica hide in the hills from Serbian police and
military units.

EFFECTS OF FOOD SHORTAGE

Food shortages have adverse effects on organisms in any population. Some effects of food shortage are
as follows:
i. Competition for available food occurs. This result in aggression, cannibalism, predation and
survival of the ‘‘fittest’’ results. There are two types of competition:
a. Intraspecific competition
b. Interspecific competition
ii. Food shortage results in poor feeding which can result in poor growth, delayed maturity and
reduction in the rate of reproduction. Increase mortality and increase maternity rates are
possible consequences.
iii. It can result in under functioning of body organs and systems, lower resistance to diseases
with resultant death from sicknesses and diseases.
iv. Food shortage results in emigration that is movement of individuals i.e., organisms out of the
habitat to other habitat or community in search of food thereby reducing the population.
 Returning Refugees
In November 1996 some 800,000 Rwandan Hutu refugees streamed home from camps in
eastern Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Most of the Hutu who returned
had been held in the camps against their will by armed Hutu militias seeking protection.
Following a series of clashes between the militias and Zairian rebels the militias fled and the
refugees were free to leave.

TASKS
GUIDED PRACTICE
Note summary

INDEPENDENT PRACTICE
Hidden facts in Biology pages 520-524 (exercise 23.19 and 23.20)

HOT TASK
Hidden facts in Biology pages 526-532 (exercise 23.21, exercise 23.22 and exercise 23.23)

JOURNAL
Draw a diagram that shows the following:
i. Primary succession
ii. Secondary succession
iii. Succession in an aquatic habitat