Basic Concepts and

Computer Evolution

Lecturer: Mohammad kabir rahimi

Learning Objectives

Explain the general functions and structure of a
digital computer.

Present an overview of the evolution of computer
technology from early digital computers to the
latest microprocessors.

Present an overview of the evolution of the x86
architecture.
 Introduction

Computer architecture is the study of designing
computer systems.

It includes:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Instructions
 Computer memory and storage
 Input and Output devices (I/O)
 Network components.
 Cont….

Conceptual model of 
Conceptual model of

general computing systems. 
a secure computer system.
 Organization and Architecture
 Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible
to a programmer.
 Computer Architecture is concerned with the way hardware
components are connected together to form a computer system.
 Computer Architecture helps us to understand the functionalities of
a system.
 Computer Organization tells us how exactly all the units in the
system are arranged and interconnected.
 Structure and Function
 A computer is a complex system; contemporary computers contain
millions of elementary electronic components.
 The designer need only deal with a particular level of the system at
a time. At each level, the system consists of a set of components
and their interrelationships.
 At each level, the designer is concerned with structure and
function:

Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated.

Function: The operation of each individual component as part of
the structure.
 Function
 In general terms, there are only four basic functions that a
computer can perform:

Data processing

Data storage

Data movement

Control
 Structure
 Single ​­processor computer provides a hierarchical view of the internal
structure of a traditional single ​­processor computer.
 There are four main structural components:

Central processing unit (CPU)

Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions

Main memory: Stores data.

I/O

Moves data between the computer and its external environment.

System interconnection

Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O.
 Structure
 The most complex component is the CPU. Its major structural
components are as follows:
 Control unit

Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

Performs the computer’s data processing functions.
 Registers

Provides storage internal to the CPU.
 CPU interconnection

Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control
unit, ALU, and registers.
Cont….
 Multicore computer structure
 Contemporary computers generally have multiple processors.
 When these processors all reside on a single chip, the term multicore
computer is used, and each processing unit (consisting of a control unit,
ALU, registers, and perhaps cache) is called a core.
 To clarify the terminology

Central processing unit (CPU): That portion of a computer that fetches
and executes instructions.

Core: An individual processing unit on a processor chip.

Processor: A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores
 Multicore computer structure
 Another prominent feature of contemporary computers is the use of
multiple layers of memory, called cache memory, between the processor
and main memory.
 That a cache memory is smaller and faster than main memory and is used
to speed up memory access
 A printed circuit board (PCB) is a rigid, flat board that holds and
interconnects chips and other electronic components.
 A chip is a single piece of semiconducting material,typically silicon,
upon which electronic circuits and logic gates are fabricated.
 The resulting product is referred to as an integrated circuit.
principal components of multicore
computer
 Cont...

The motherboard contains a slot or socket for the processor chip,
which typically contains multiple individual cores, in what is
known as a multicore processor.

There are also slots for memory chips, I/O controller chips, and
other key computer components.

Expansion slots enable the inclusion of more components on
expansion boards.

A modern motherboard connects only a few individual chip
components, with each chip containing from a few thousand up to
hundreds of millions of transistors.
 Cont...

The functional elements of a core are:
Instruction logic: This includes the tasks involved in fetching
instructions, and decoding each instruction.
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the operation
specified by an instruction.
Load/store logic: Manages the transfer of data to and from main
memory via cache.
 A Brief History of Computers

The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for digital logic
elements and memory.

The most famous ­first-​­generation computer, known as the IAS
computer.

In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new ­
stored program computer, referred to as the IAS computer.

Batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper tape,
and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices.

The computers in this generation used machine code as the
programming language.
 Second Generation

The first major change in the electronic computer came with the
replacement of the vacuum tube by the transistor.

The transistor, which is smaller, cheaper, and generates less heat
than a vacuum tube, can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube
to construct computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming
languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used.
 Third Generation

The computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs)
in place of transistors.

A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along
with the associated circuitry.

This development made computers smaller in size, reliable, and
efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing,
multiprogramming operating system were used.

High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
 Fourth Generation

Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits.

VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it
possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.

More powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable.

In this generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating
system were used.

All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.
 Gates and Memory Cells

A gate is a device that implements a simple Boolean or
logical function.
 AND , OR . XOR Gates

The memory cell is a device that can store one bit of data.

By interconnecting large numbers of these fundamental
devices, we can construct a computer.
 Data storage: Provided by memory cells.
 Data processing: Provided by gates.
 Data movement:move data from memory to memory and from
memory through gates to memory.
 Control: carry control signals
Cont…..
 Transistors

The fundamental building block of digital circuits used to
construct processors, memories, and other digital logic devices
is the transistor.

A transistor has only one circuit element.

Transistors are to create microprocessors where millions of
transistors are embedded into a single IC.
 Microelectronic Chips

Microelectronics means, literally, “small
electronics.

A microchip also called a chip, a computer
chip, an integrated circuit or IC.

A set of electronic circuits on a small flat piece
of silicon
Recent Processors