Homeostasis

Homeostasis and negative feedback

Homeostasis is the biological process by which an organism maintains a

stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
It involves a set of physiological mechanisms that work together to regulate
and balance various internal variables such as body temperature, blood
sugar levels, pH balance, and water balance.

Homeostasis is essential for the survival of all living organisms as it ensures

that the cells of the body can function properly within a narrow range of
optimal conditions

The video mentions negative feedback. Negative feedback is a biological

mechanism in which a change in a physiological variable triggers a
response that counteracts or reverses the initial change, restoring the
variable to its original set point or target value. In other words, negative
feedback serves to maintain stability or homeostasis in a system.

Negative feedback can be broken down into the following steps:

1. A change occurs (stimulus) and this causes a change or imbalance in

the body.
2. The change is detected by a receptor.
3. The receptor sends a signal to an effector regarding the change.
4. The effector responds in such a way as to reverse the change.
5. The imbalance is corrected and homeostasis is restored.

Negative feedback is used to maintain homeostasis for many systems in

the body. We will focus on the following in upcoming lessons:

6. Thyroid hormones
7. Glucose control
8. Osmoregulation
9. Salt and CO2 levels
 10. Thermoregulation

Negative feedback of TSH and thyroxin

Negative feedback of TSH and thyroxin
The levels of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) and thyroxin are tightly
regulated in the body through negative feedback mechanisms.

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is produced by the pituitary gland and

plays a critical role in regulating the production of thyroxin by the thyroid
gland.

When there is an excess of thyroxin in the bloodstream, it signals the

pituitary gland to reduce the production of TSH. This is known as
negative feedback inhibition. As TSH production decreases, the thyroid
gland receives less stimulation and produces less thyroxin which helps
to restore balance.

Similarly, when there is a deficiency of thyroxin in the bloodstream, the

pituitary gland increases the production of TSH, which stimulates the
thyroid gland to produce more of this hormone.

Overall, the negative feedback loop between TSH and thyroid hormones plays
a critical role in maintaining normal thyroid function and ensuring that the
levels of thyroid hormones in the body remain within a healthy range. If the
thyroid gland constantly secretes too little thyroxin, the individual will be
diagnosed with hypothyroidism, while if the thyroid continually secretes too
much thyroxin, they will be diagnosed with hyperthyroidism.
Glucose control
Glucose control
Glucose control refers to the processes by which the body maintains a stable
level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Glucose is the primary source of energy
for the body's cells, and it is essential that its concentration in the blood is
tightly regulated to avoid harmful effects on the body.

There are two main hormones involved in glucose control: insulin and
glucagon. Insulin is produced by the pancreas and promotes the uptake of
glucose. Glucagon, also produced by the pancreas, has the opposite effect of
promoting the release of glucose and increasing blood glucose levels.

Glucose control is an example of negative feedback because it involves a

process that counteracts changes in the body's glucose levels, thus
maintaining them within a narrow, optimal range.

In negative feedback, a change in a variable triggers a response that

opposes the change, bringing the variable back towards its set point.

In the case of glucose control, changes in blood glucose levels trigger a

response from the pancreas to release either insulin or glucagon, depending
on whether blood glucose levels are too high or too low, respectively.

As blood glucose levels rise after a meal, the pancreas detects the change and
secretes insulin. This promotes the uptake of glucose which is then stored
as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells. This causes the blood glucose
concentration to drop, returning levels back towards the set point.

Conversely, if blood glucose levels drop due to fasting or exercise, the change
is detected by the pancreas which now secretes glucagon. Glucagon
promotes the breakdown of glycogen which releases glucose into the blood.
This raises blood glucose levels back towards the set point.
The response to changes in blood glucose levels opposes the initial change,
bringing the blood glucose levels back towards the set point. This ensures
that the body's cells have a constant supply of glucose for energy while
avoiding the harmful effects of high or low blood glucose levels.

If blood glucose levels drop too low or rise too high, a diabetic coma and
death can result. This is why the control of blood glucose levels is vital for
survival.

Work through the activity below to check your understanding of how

negative feedback regulates blood glucose levels.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a condition that affects the way the body uses glucose for energy.
Glucose is an important source of energy for the body's cells, and it comes
from the food we eat. In people with diabetes, the body either doesn't
produce enough insulin, the hormone that regulates glucose in the
bloodstream, or the body's cells don't respond properly to insulin.

There are two main types of diabetes: type 1 and type 2.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune

system attacks and destroys the beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas that produce insulin. This results in a lack of insulin in the body,
causing the blood glucose concentration to rise instead of the glucose being
used by cells for energy. Type 1 diabetes typically develops in childhood or
adolescence, but it can also develop in adults. Type 1 diabetes cannot be
cured and can only be managed with daily insulin injections.

Type 2 diabetes is a condition in which the body becomes resistant to

insulin, or doesn't produce enough insulin to properly regulate glucose in
the bloodstream. Type 2 diabetes is often related to lifestyle factors, such as
being overweight, having a sedentary lifestyle, or having a diet high in
sugar and processed foods. Type 2 diabetes is more common than type 1 and
typically develops in adulthood, but it is increasingly affecting younger
people.

Symptoms of diabetes can include frequent urination, excessive thirst,

hunger, fatigue, blurred vision, and slow-healing wounds. Left untreated,
diabetes can lead to serious complications such as cardiovascular disease,
nerve damage, kidney damage, and blindness.

Treatment for diabetes typically involves lifestyle changes such as

maintaining a healthy diet, exercising regularly, and maintaining a healthy
weight, as well as medication such as insulin injections, oral medications, or
other medications that help the body respond to insulin. It's important for
people with diabetes to monitor their blood glucose levels regularly and
work closely with their healthcare team to manage their condition effectively
and prevent complications.
Water, salt and carbon dioxide regulation
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a waste product produced during cellular respiration.
When the CO2 concentration in the blood is within the normal range, it
ensures that the pH of the blood is normal (7.4).

If the concentration of CO2 in the blood increases, the pH of the blood will
decrease. This change will be detected by special receptors
(chemoreceptors).

The medulla oblongata then sends out signals that increase the breathing
rate. This ensures that more carbon dioxide is excreted from the body,
bringing the concentration back to within normal range. This will cause the
blood pH to rise back to normal as well.

If the concentration of CO2 drops too low, the pH of the blood will
increase. This will again be detected by chemoreceptors and the medulla
oblongata will increase the breathing rate to restore the balance.

2.2 Salt
Sodium ions (Na+) are necessary for the correct functioning of the human
body. They are necessary for nerve impulses and muscle contractions.
Sodium ions also play a role in water balance.

The amount of sodium in the body is controlled by the hormone aldosterone.

If levels of Na+ drop too low, the adrenal glands will be stimulated to secrete
aldosterone. This will then be transported through the blood to the kidneys.
The aldosterone will cause the nephron to actively absorb Na+ ions,
returning the sodium to the blood, therefore increasing the sodium levels.

If Na+ levels are too high, no aldosterone will be secreted and the Na+ will be
excreted from the body in the urine.

2.3 Water
Water levels in the body are closely related to the levels of sodium.
Osmoregulation is the process whereby the kidneys regulate the amount of
water and solutes in the blood. This ensures that the correct osmotic
pressure is maintained. Note: You learnt about this in Grade 11.

Let's recap how the body maintains the correct osmotic pressure.

Osmotic pressure increases when there is too little water in the blood. This
could occur by doing strenuous exercise, being in a very hot environment,
sweating profusely or drinking too little water.

The high osmotic pressure is detected and the pituitary gland secretes ADH
(anti-diuretic hormone). The ADH travels through the blood to the kidneys.
It causes the walls of the collecting duct to become more permeable. This
means that more water is reabsorbed by the body instead of being excreted
as urine. The reabsorbed water will return to the blood and the osmotic
pressure will drop to normal.

Osmotic pressure drops when there is too much water in the blood. This
could be caused by drinking excessively. This is detected and the pituitary
gland stops secreting ADH. The lack of ADH causes the collecting ducts of
the kidneys to become less permeable. This means that less water is
reabsorbed by the body and is instead excreted as urine. This causes the
amount of water in the blood to decrease, increasing the osmotic pressure
to normal levels