The

lnterrelat1on between

Theory and Criticism

in Architecture
Theoretical and analytical study

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... CH"\ Architectural theory and cnt1c1sm are pivotal domains in
r architecture. As the progress of the discipline of architecture
depends on both of them, this paper focuses on the relation
between the two fields, seeking to answer some questions about
the limits of that relation.
The objective of the paper is to define the integration and
interpenetration between theory and criticism in architecture, as
well as to criticize architectural theories and fiends out its main
Raghad Mofeed Mohamed
features.
The methodology of the paper depends on both theoretical and
Raghad Mofeed Mohamed graduated with a B.Sc. in 1993. a M.Sc. in 1996, and analytical studies through three major fields, the first studies
a Ph.D. in 2000, all from Cairo University faculty of engineering, Egypt. She is concepts and interrelation between theory and criticism, the
currently a lecturer at Department ofArchitecture. Cairo University. second presents a theoretical study of the aspects of criticizing
architectural theories, and the third presents an analytical study of
architectural theories from 1965 to 1995.
Finally the paper concludes the features of integration and
interpenetration between architectural theory and criticism,
outlines three main aspects in criticizing architectural theories, and
shows the main features as well as problems of architectural
theories at the end ofthe twentieth century.

179
The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism
The lnterrelntion Between Theory And Criticism
I-Concepts and interrelation between theory and criticism cr~t~cism differ to suit the nature of that level. For example, the
critical process at the level of concept is concerned with visions,
I-I-Architectural theory paradigms, theories and principles, and the target of criticism is to
check the appropriateness of that conceptual base implicit in the
The word 'theory' comes from the Latin theoria which means work to both the traditional and contemporary vision of the
spectator. And its base theasthai means to look upon a~d community, so in that level the critic should be aware of all
contemplate, while the modem use of the word means a systematic traditions, values, culture as well as the new visions and features of
1
statement of rules or principles to be followed. the era with its new discoveries, so as to be both traditional and
contemporary in hisjudgment.
A comprehensive definition of theory states that it's an organized
system of statements which include concepts, definitions, and The majority of critical works focus on the level of end product or
interrelated assumptions, these statements explain, predict, and buildings, this is because it is more tangible and it concludes all ex-
define the relation between studied phenomena through levels, at the opposite, there is lake of critical works in the
generalizations and laws.: conceptual level, and this is because it requires a highly qualified
critic.
The previous definition is about theory in general, while the
definition of architectural theory states that "architectural theory is 1-3- The relation between theory and criticism
the attempt to decide architectural right and wrong on purely
1
intellectual base", this concise definition points out that the There is a strong relation between architecture and criticism; this
objective of architectural theory is to guide practice, which means relation can be described as integrated and interpenetrated
that it should be objective and depending upon a powerful relation, and there is many elements linking the two fields, the
knowledge base. most obvious one is the building product which is always affected
by both theory and criticism.'
Architectural theory differs from scientific one; this is because of That interrelation between theory and criticism in architecture is
the differences between the natures of the two disciplines. As not a one way relation it is a cyclic relation, where each field affects
architecture includes nonphysical dimensions; humanistic, and is effected by the other through what Schulz 9 called a
cultural, aesthetic, social, and historical, architectural theories Successive approximation, this cyclic relation will be discussed as
can't be at the same degree of universality and objectivity of followed.
scientific theories.
1-3-1-0bjectivecriticism uses theory
Like any theory, architectural theory needs to be tested, but
because of its special nature it requires special tools, which are Objective criticism as opposite to subjective one - always uses
analytical and critical to judge its validity and applicability. no~ative tools for analysis. At the other hand, theory is
considered a normative and powerful base, this is because of its
1-2-Architectural criticism and its levels objectivity, testability, and universality characteristics, so theory
can be used as nonnative base needed for criticism.
The concept of criticism is an old expression it drives ~om the Schulz illustrated how theory is important to criticism in its
Greek kritikos (Latin criticus), where krites means 'judge', and the analytical dimension, he said: "We have shown that any analysis is
word "critic" entered the English language in the middle of the impossible without theoretically determined dimensions of
sixteenth century. This early use of criticism as synonymous to comparison. .. [these] dimensions should have the character of
judgment shows that judgment and evaluation are essential to empirical generalizations. This means that the analysis uses the
criticism. theory .. ." 0
So theory is the main analytical tool that objective critic uses, as it
A succinct definition of criticism states that it's "the art ofjudging represents an intellectual and powerful tested bases, in other words
the qualities and values of an aesthetic object": although it's a the01y is the toolfor objective criticism
concise definition, it points out many things; first that criticism is a A~di~ional to that, theory gives the critic the criteria of goodness,
matter of art, Second that judgment is the core of criticism, and cntena of architectural quality as well as the terminology and
finally that aesthetics are the domain of practicing criticism. concepts, which he uses to judge and evaluate the value of the
The intimate concern of architectural criticism is with work, also these terminologies and concepts help the critic to
interpretation and judgment,' though the critical process includes understand the latest trends and movements in architecture as well
many tasks like exposition, analysis, comparison, justification, as the development in the discipline ofarchitecture, in other words,
evaluation, and guidance. This wide scope of critical tasks makes it theory helps critic to be conceptually updated.
a pivotal domain in architecture.
1-3-2-Theory develops through critical analysis
As architectural criticism is a comprehensive domain, it can be
applied to cover one or more of these three levels' concept, process Here is the feed back that criticism offers to theory, it happens
and end product, in each level the target, process, and method of
so I
The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism
The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism
through the critical process which includes analysing the
architectural work, in a specific place and time, pointing out the
theoretical base which formulate that product, and finally THEORY
refereeing that product to both the traditional and contemporary CRITICISM
values, so at the end, the critic can present his judgment supported
by previous analysis and values. ••• •
•• •••
Through that critical process the critic reviews the theoretical base ••• •••
of the work, and test the validity of it to both place and time, the •
critic also examine many things in the theory such as; degree of •• •••
objectivity, degree of universality, and truthfulness of the theo~, ••
finally he states his judgment about the theory and its
appropriateness, this judgment includes the defects ofthe theory as
~
Theory supplie!'I criticism \\'Uh:
Criticism ~uppli~ theory with:
v•
• Cntena of archllectuml quality
well as the guiding lines to improve and develop that theory. • Tcn11molo,1?Jcs • Studres &. analysis l1ftbe budt
The comprehensive critical process should go through two main • Analyttcal methods product
steps, first; the critic analyse the building so as to examine the • Bcha\'Jor annlvsJS
• Culturnl & s~aal sl11d1es
ability of the building to express the theoretical base intended by
Figure I: Cyclic relation between architectural theory and criticism
the architect and the acceptance of that building by people, Where
the second step is concerned with analysing the theory to examine
the appropriateness of that theoretical base to both place, time, and
Appr~priateness of that work to the local conditions.' At the 2

opposite_, comes the theory with its generalizations and abstraction

subject. These two steps are essential to get an objective judgment, to be or tt should be universal or general statement.I!
because in many cases the failure of theory leads to the refusal of
the building product, this is as in modern thoughts and its THE OR\'
CRITICISM
applications, where buildings were expression of inappropriate
and invalid theories.
Through that analytical process, the critic can fiend out the
lJ_{-) Local &
~ prfrutc
applicability and validity oftheory which in tern help in improving
and developing theories in architecture.

1-3-3- Successive approximation:

As we discussed before there is a two way relation between theory

-ftJ-
Composition
._.{] t O+
0~ D
Decomposition
and criticism in architecture, that cyclic relation guarantees the
improvement and development of both fields thro~gh what Sc~ulz LBcforce£)
Thcor~
'• • • • •
called 'Successive approximation' between analysis or (analytical practice
criticism) and theory:
" ... the analysis uses the theory, while the theory, in turn, is
developed through analytical insight [criticism]. Theory and Figure 2: The inte&,rracion between architectural theory and criticism
analysis therefore, reciprocally correct each other, applying
the method of 'Successive approximation '. The type of Analytical vs. compositional attitude
analysis which contributes to the theoretical formation is
mainly the study of existing works of architecture
11 The .attitude of criticism is analytical seeking to decompose the
[criticism]."
arch1tectu~l '"'.ork t~ .its primary elements,• so as to get better
4

understandmg m addition to the comprehensive view of the work

Because of the differences and integration between the two fields,
the reciprocally correction can be achieved, so each field can offer A~ th~ opposite th~ architectural theory seeks to compose facts~
pnnciples, assumptions, and axioms to formulate a new statement."
guiding tools helping in the development ofthe other field, fig (I}.
The differences between theory and criticism are in the nature of The relation with practice
each field and are due to the differences in the objectives of both.
Those differences will be discussed through opposite pairs
featuring the integration between theory and criticism as followed: As cri~icism i.s concerned with exposition, interpretation,
evaluation and Judgment .of !!1e architectural work, so criticism
fig(2}.
alwa~s com~s after pra.ctice, as opposite theory comes before
pr~ctice to give the architect a set of principles, rules, criteria, and
Locality vs. Universality gmdance he needs for creativity."
Locality is the nature of criticism as it is concerned with analysing
From these wide differences between theory and criticism, comes

/ a3
The Jnterrcl11tion Between Theory And Criticism The lnterrcl11tion Between Theory And Criticism
the integration between the two fields, so criticism can't .stand ~rc~itectural theory, he mention that all architectural theories are
without theoretical insight as well as theory can't develop without hm1ted and narrow in dealing with architectural issues.:1
critical analysis, also no architecture can come true without both Ano~her aspect was presented by Alexander, who criticized
theory and criticism. archtte~tural theories in the 20'" century, he focuses on the break or
sepa~t1on betwee~ theory and people, referring that to the lack of
2- Theoretical study of the aspects of criticizing architectural architectural theones that study the effect of the built environment
theories on people, as well as the neglecting of studying human feelings,
finally, Alexa?der c?ncluded that there is always a conflict
Here in this part, theory comes as matter of criticism through a between the pomt ofview of each theorist and people.: ~
critical study of theory in architecture. To achieve this s~dy, we
depend on group of critical writings concerned with architectural 2-3- Criticizing the relation between theory and practice
theory, like: Johnson (1994), Nesbitt (1996), Scruton (1979),
Alexander( 1991 ), Kroft( 1994), Lang ( 1987). In this level criticism i~ concerned with studying the relation
From those references the paper fiends out three main levels or betw~en theory a?~ practice, to clarify the guiding role of theory to
dimensions to criticize architectural theory: the first is the form pract!ce. Most cnt1cs focus on the separation between theory and
and structure of theory, while the second is the content of theory, practice, for example, Lang stats that architectural theories are
and the third dimension discusses the relation between theory and concerned mainly with ideologies held by architects or schools of
practice. architectural thought instead of the physical and practical issues of
application and practice~
2-1-Criticizing Form and structure of theory: Alexander also focuses on the failure of theory to deal with and
solv~ many problems, such as: the moral dimension of practice,
In this level criticism is concerned with testing the structure and housmg problems .of poor peo_Ple, architecture and the ecological
form of the theory which means finding out ifit is a real theory or it b?lance~ the con~tct of defining architectural quality, and other
is just opinions and hypothesis, so the ~ritic ~hould .exa!11.ine the pivotal issues which architectural theory failed to fiend a definite
characteristics of the theory such as umversahty, obJect1v1ty, and solution to it:•
corroboration, because these characteristics are the prerequisites I~ spite of that. ha~sh criticism to architectural theory, it stands as a
for a statement to be a theory. P!V~tal. domam m the discipline of architecture, because no
In the practical life there is a strong criticism to ar~~i~ectural d1sc1plme can progress without theoretical insight. But we should
theories in that level; Johnson presents such cnt1c1sm to un.der~tand that the nature of architectural theory differs from
architectural theory stating that architectural theory is rhetoric or sctenttfic one because of the artistic, contextual, and functional
just talk, because most of what is called theory in architecture is nature of architecture. So when applying the criteria of scientific
either hypothesis incapable of being tested, or is a model of such theory on architectural one, we discover that the later is not a
simplicity that it lack~ e~planatory po~er, ••J~hnson a~so ~riti~izes theory, it is rhetoric or talk as Johnson said.
architectural theory m its lack of umversahty considenng tt as :ro avoid this ~o?flict, we need to fiend out appropriate criteria to
local and regional statements'." . Judge. ~e vahd1ty of architectural theory, wide the scope of
As a defensible view, Lang refers this problem of architectural theonzmg, and seek for comprehensive theories in architecture as
theory to the lack of positive theories in arc~itecture, w.hi:h are well as accepting the locality of architectural theory especiall; in
more universal, objective, and testable, while the maJonty of the cultural dimension.
theories in architecture are normative statements, which are value
laden, so it is not universal enough or objective.~ 3-Analytical study of architectural theories from 1965 to 1995
Lang also points out that architectural theory suffers from low
In ~is third pa~, the paper presents a critical analysis to
21
external validity of concepts , which means that theory can not
stand corroborated for a long time, as it is built upon subjective architectural theones at the end of the twentieth century; this study
experience ofthe theorist not objective based knowledge. comes to support the previous theoretical study and to give
example for the use ofcriticism in analysing theory.
2-2-Criticizing content of the theory The purpose of this critical study is to point out the main features
trends, and problems of architectural theories at the end of th~
In this level criticism is concerned with clarifying the issues, twentie!h cen~ry. This p~rio~ w~s selected because ofthe plurality
themes and subjects that theory studies, as well as testing the and vanety of its theoretical ms1ghts and architectural schools as
degree ~f comprehensiveness of the theory, in addition, criticis~ is well as the scientific revolution which affects architecture in' its
concerned with testing the relation between theory and realtty, both materialistic and intellectual dimensions.
society, context, and user. .
Johnson presents his criticism to architectural t~eory statmg.~at, 3-1-Limitations of the study
architecture has never had a single, comprehensive, and totahzmg
theoretical prescription about design.:i • .The study includes theories, manifestos, avant-gardes, and
Scruton bas the same point of view in his wide critical study to theoretical works in architecture.
 The lntcrrcla1ion Between Theory And Criticism
The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism

• The resources of the theoretical work are: (Tafuri, 1976)~

n:lation -~

(Frampton, l 980):· (Kruft, 1994),'" (Nesbitt, 1996) ,.,

between
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(Jencks, 1997): and (Hays, 1998)?:
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From the resources mentioned before, we selected the most :Manfre!:k! l'afi!!t Jow:ud a Cnh~
powerful theoretical insights, and. ~ach th~ory was .analysed 0 c0 (N)
of Arclutcctural Idcol~·
E The role of architecture ai11111
through two main processes; exposttton and mterpretat1on, table - !! di:l l:! ideology 1' ll, deal with mclrl.'lpohtan
(I). i~ =
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Theme of
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Intellectual
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• The exposition process includes; a brief about the theory,

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the intellectual base of the theory, theme of the theory, and finally ~ Place l~o Phenometiolog:y 18' o
the type oftheory. . . .
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Scnuolog)'
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following: -a. ...c.u ..,.~ e, E::. "O
- Totality: degree of comprehensi~eness ofthe~ry . . .
- Flexibility: degree of universality and appbcab1hty m ~ < ~ .5 IZ:: ~
l~ 8 New-Science 1::?0 o
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different contexts.
- The relation with practice: intellectual is not related
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with practice, analytical comes after practice, and Table Ill: Concluding result table
guiding comes before practice.
-Semiology was the most effective paradigm on theoretical
3-3- Sample of analysis wo~k, and this is compatible with the post modem thoughts,
which asse~s on meaning and code in architecture, fig (3 ).
Here is a sample of the tables used in analysing theories, table (II).
-The ecol.og1cal paradigm was integrated in the eighties.
-The mam ~emes of. ~eories were; historicism, meaning,
3-4-Main Results place, urban issues, pohttcal and ethical issues, fig (4 ).
-The majority of theories (about 75%) were normative
Along the thirty years chosen for the critical study (from 1965 to
statemen.ts, .while positive statements were minority, fig (5).
1995), we analyse one hundred and sixty five theoretical works,
-The maJonty of theories were limited and focussing on one
and the main results are concluded in table (III) aspect ofarchitecture.
-Half of theories were guiding (before practice), while third of
The intellectual bases or paradigms of theories were;
them were pure intellectual, philosophical & separated from
rationalism, Marxism, phenomenology, feminism, semiology,
practice, fig ( 6).
ecology, and new sciences.
 The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism
The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism
Intellectual basis of theories
30

3U

Figure 5: TYPes of architectural theories

Pos11l\'c statements from 1965 to 1995

o/. Relation behveen theory and practice

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architectural theories from 1965 to 1995 l

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Annll~ tlt lll (after rrlll.llCC) • <iuidin11- (!\!for.: (lr.ltllCCl Pure ph1lo1Dpl11cal
lm•t n:liuc:J tu 1iracllcc1 practice from 1965 to 1995

Conclusion

Fr~~. our previ~us study, we can conclude that both theory and
~nt1cism are pivotal domains in architecture, and they are
s mterrelated together through a cyclic relation or successive
approximation. So criticism can be applied to theory, and this
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Both theoretical ~d analytical study presented in this paper, show
theories from 1965 to 1995 some problems m architectural theories, which are, first; the
weakness of architectural theory compared to scientific one,
From the previous findings of the critical study, the paper
s: cond;. the lack of. comprehensive insights covering the multi
concludes some problems of architectural theories at the end of the dimensions of architecture, and finally the separation between
twentieth century: theory and practice as many theories are pure philosophical.
1-The lack of positive statements, which leads to shortage in
objectivity and universality in these theories. .
2-The limited scope of theories, and the lack of comprehensive
insights. .
3-The separation between theory and practice, as many
theories are pure philosophical away from reality.
The lntcrrel11tion Between Theory And Criticism
The Interrelation Between Theory And Criticism
NOTES :J Lang, op. Cit. p. 12.

The Shorter Oxford English Diction11ry on Historical Principles, (SOED), in Johnson, :.. Alexander, op. Cit. p. I 08.
P. TheTheoJY ofArchjtecture: Concems. Themes 11nd Practices, VNR Press, New York,
(1994), P. 31. Tafuri, Manfredo, Theories And History Of A h·
='
New York, ( 1976). · re •tecfµre, Harper And Row Publisher.
: Log11n, F. & Olmstead, D. Behavior Theory And Social Science, in Bu Shamp, Gorge,
Curriculum Theory, translated by, Soliman, Mamdouh, and Others, El Oar El Aradia, :• Frampton, Kenneth, Modem Architectµre: A Critical History Th' d Ed' . Tb
& Hudson, London, ( 1980). • ir 1t1on, ames
Press, Cairo, ( 1987), P. 26.
.Kroft, H. A History Of Architectural Theory Fro v· ·
i Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture Of Humanism: A Study In The History Of Taste. Prmceton. New York. (1994 ). m nmvms To The Present,
Architectural Press, Second Edition, London, ( t 924), Pp. 259-260.
• Johnson, P. op. Cit. P. 39. io Nesbitt, Kate, Theorizing A New Agenda For A h.
Architectural Theory 1965-l 2 Ed . p . . re llecture: An Anthology Of
- --•22 .• nnccton Archuectural Press, New York, (1996).
~ Powell, Robert, Criticism in Archjtecrnre, Proceedings of the regional seminar in the
series Exploring Architecture in Islamic Cultures, sponsored by the Aga Khan Award for i Jencks, Charles. & Karl Kr f. Th · ·
Architecture, Concept Media Pte Ltd, Singapore, (1989), P. 9. Architecture, Academy Edition: Lo::o~. ( 1~f~.•es and Mam fcstos of Contemporai:x
• Stolnitz, Jerome, Aesthetics and Phj!osonhy of An Criticism, Houghton Mifflin
Company, Boston, ( 1960), P. 441.
s: Hays, K. Michael, Architectural Theory Since I 968, MIT Press Cambridge, ( 1998).

1 Any creative work like architecture - goes through these levels of creation, it first
begins as a co11cep1 or vision, then through some process of thinking and inspiration it
transfonns to be an endproduct or physical object

1Geddo, Yanai; El Mathaheb El Fekriaa El Haditba Wa El Em11raa, Dar El T11liaa, Byrute,

(1993),p.10.

• Norberg-Schulz, Christian, Intentions jn Archjtccture, MIT press, Cambridge, ( 1965),

Pp.214-215.

141 Ibid, p. 209.

II Ibid, P. 209.

1: Huxtable, Ada Louis, Architecture. Anyone? University of California Press, Berkeley,

( 1986), Pp. Xvi-xvii.

11 Popper K. The Logic ofScientific pjscoveiy. Hutchinson & Co, London, (1972), P. 59.

H Geddo, Yanm; op. Cit. Pp. 20-21 .

u Bu Shamp, Gorge, ( 1987), p. 27.

... Powell, Robert, ( 1989), op. Cit. P. 9.

n Gutman, Robert, ( 1972), The Questions Architects Asks, in Lang, Jon, Creating
Archjtectvral Theory: The Role OfTbe Behavjoral Science In Enyjronmental Qesjgn.
VNR, New York, ( 1987), P. 16.

rt Johnson, P. op. Cit. p. 17.

.. Jbid,P.(1994),p.13.

!tLang, Jon, op. Cit. p.16.

:1 Ibid, p. 12.

:J Johnson, P. op. Cit. p. 12.

:• Scruton, Roger, The Aesthetics Of Architecture, Methuen & Co. LTD, London,
(1979),p. 70.

:• Alexander, Christopher, Perspectives: Manifesto 1991, Progressive Architecture 7/91,

(1991 ), p. 108