SCIENCE

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Reproductive System • Divided into 250 lobules/compartments.

Coiled within the lobule are seminiferous tubes
where the sperm are formed.
• The testes secrete testosterone, which is
necessary for proper physical development in
boys.
• In adulthood, testosterone maintains libido,
muscle strength, and bone density.

Functions of the Reproductive System

Production of reproductive hormones
Production of Gametes
Fertilization
Development and nourishment of a new
individual

The Male Reproductive System Scrotum

• The bag of skin that holds and helps to
Functions
protect the testicles and major blood vessels as
Produce and secret male sex hormones.
well as tubes that release sperm from the
Produce, maintain and transport sperm
testicles into the penis for ejaculation.
cells and productive fluid (semen).
• Has slight lower temperature than the rest of
Discharge sperm cells into the female
the body.
reproductive tract during copulation.

Epididymis/Epididymides
Male Gonads Is situated posterior and somewhat lateral
Testicles/ Testis to the testis.
Tube 13-20 feet in length, coiled
• The egg-shaped glands inside the scrotum Sperm are stored.
that produce sperm and male hormones. Connects the testicle to the vas deferens.
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Vas Deferens
also called a ductus deferens or a sperm
duct.
A coiled tube that carries the sperm out of
the testes.
Long muscular tube that runs from the
epididymis into the pelvic cavity behind
your bladder and connects to your urethra
through a structure. called the ejaculatory
Prostate Gland
Secret fluid that nourishes and transports
duct.
sperm.
Vas deferens is surrounded by spermatic
Prostate muscles help push semen through
cord and transports mature sperm to the
the urethra.
urethra before ejaculation.
It tends to grow larger as you get older.

Bulbourethral /Cowper's Gland

Ejaculatory Duct Produce and release an alkaline fluid that
neutralizes the traces of acidic urine in the
Is formed by the union of the vas deferens urethra.
with the duct of the seminal vesicle.
Function to mix the sperm with fluids Penis
secreted by the seminal vesicles and to Acts as a conduit for sperm in the form of
transport these substances to the prostate. semen to leave the male's body.
Glans (head) of the penis:
In uncircumcised men, the glans is covered
with pink, moist tissue called mucosa.
Covering the glans is the foreskin (prepuce).
In circumcised men, the foreskin is

Exocrine Glands surgically removed and the mucosa on the

glans transforms into dry skin.
Seminal Vesicle The Female Reproductive System
Is formed by the union of the vas deferens Functions
with the duct of the seminal vesicle. Functions
Produce and secret female sex hormones.
Function to mix the sperm with fluids Produce
Produce and secret
mature ovum. female sex hormones.
secreted by the seminal vesicles and to SiteProduce mature ovum.
of fertilization.
transport these substances to the prostate. Site of fertilization.
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Gestating a fetus if fertilization occurs,
Giving birth to a baby,
and breastfeeding a baby after birth.

The Fallopian Tubes

Ovaries
The two ovaries are attached to each side
of the uterus by a ligament.
They are oval-shaped, about the size of a
large olive, and lie close to the fimbria at
the end of the fallopian tubes.
Each ovary is filled, already at birth, with
egg-containing sacs called follicles. Each
egg is called an ovum.
The fallopian tube is 4-6 inches long.
The egg, released from the ovary, is
captured by the fimbria and brought into
the fallopian tube.
The egg is moved along inside the tube by
muscular contractions and the waving
action of cilia, It takes an egg about 3-4

The Ovaries and Ova days to travel the length of the tube.
Fertilization occurs here.
Once every 21 days, one follicle in one
ovary ripens. Uterus
This mature follicle le a graafian (GRAW The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-
fee un) follicle. The follicle ruptures in shaped organ about the size of a woman's
response to hormones from the pituitary clenched fist.
gland, releasing the ovum/egg. The The top is tipped forward in a normal
process is called ovulation. 'anteflexion' position.
After the follicle ruptures, it becomes sass of It can be divided into the body or corpus,
yellow cells called the corpus luteum. This is and the bottom cervix.
a temporary, progesterone-producing The rounded top portion, above the
structure. fallopian tubes, is called the fundus.
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Functions
1. The endometrium sheds the lining of the
uterus every 21 to 40 days by menstruation.
2. It provides a place for the protection and
nourishment of the fetus during pregnancy.
3. It contracts during labor to expel the fetus.

The Cervix
The neck of the uterus
Allows the passage of fluid to pass between
the uterus and vagina.
Uterus Helps to protect the reproductive organs
from infectious bacteria and viruses.
The uterus is supported and held in position
by several ligaments. Trauma, disease, or
multiple pregnancies weaken these
ligaments and result in abnormal
positioning.

3 Layers of the Uterus Wall

The outside layer called the perimetrium,
The muscular inside layer called the
myometrium, and
The mucous membrane lining of the uterus
The Vagina
called the endometrium. The vagina extends from the cervix to the
outside of the body.
It is a 3 1/2 inch long muscular tube that
expands in length and width during sexual
arousal.
The vagina is t the female
organ for copulation
(sexual intercourse),
receiving the seminal fluid
from the male penis. It is
also a passageway for
menstruation or the birth
of a fetus.
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The Vulva
The vulva is 5 organs making up the external
genitalia of the female:

1. Mons pubis: triangular-shaped pad of

fatty tissue over the pubis bone, covered
with pubic hair that serve cushion during
copulation.
The dark-colored circle at the tip of the
2. Labia majora: 2 large folds of adipose
breast is called the areola (ah REE ah lah).
tissue the sides of the vaginal opening.
It contains sebaceous glands to keep the
3. Labia minora: 2 smaller folds of adipose
skin conditioned.
tissue on the inside of the labia majora.
In the center is the nipple, where ducts from
4. Vestibule: area between labia with
the lobules open. The secretion from the
openings for the vagina, urethra, and two
breast is not a true milk, but a thin
excretory ducts for Bartholin's glands
yellowish substance called colostrum.
(provide lubricant)
Colostrum contains nutrients and the
5. Clitoris: sensitive fold of tissue partially
mother's immunities that can protect baby.
covered by hood

The Vulva
The perineum is the area located between the
vaginal opening and the anus. It is muscular
sheet that can be torn during childbirth.

Some doctors avoid uncontrolled tearing of the

perineum by making a surgical incision called
an episiotomy.

The Breast The Menstrual Cycle

The breasts are the mammary glands,
varying in size according to age, heredity,
Oocytes
and the amount of fatty tissue present. Are young egg cells inside the follicles.
Each breast has 15-20 glandular lobes Females are estimated to have around 1-2
separated by connective tissue. millions oocytes at birth.
After childbirth, the pituitary gland 250,000-300,000 remain until puberty.
stimulates these lobules with the hormone 450 eggs will be ovulated from puberty
prolactin, and they produce milk. until menopause.
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What is the Menstrual Cycle?

The process in which females ripen and
release one mature egg.
The average menstrual cycle will repeat
itself about every 28 days, but normal
menstrual cycles can range from 21 to 40
days.

OVULATION PHASE
Occur during day 12th-14th.
The pituitary gland releases luteinizing
hormones (LH) which causes the release of
the mature ovum from the follicle
The mature ovum will then travel down to
the uterus to wait fertilization by sperm.

What is the Menstrual Cycle?

MENSTRUAL PHASE
Last for average of 3-7 days.
The unfertilized egg cell from the previous
menstrual cycle and the uterine lining that
was not
Period blood is usually a combination of
blood, mucus, the unfertilized egg, the
uterine lining and tissue.
FOLLICULAR PHASE
Starts from the 1 day of the period until
ovuation. LUTEAL PHASE
Last for 14-16 days Last an average of 14 days.
The pituitary gland produces FSH to Follicle releases the ture ovum, the follicle
stimulate the maturation of follicles and then changes to corpus luteum.
development egg cells. The corpus luteum releases progesterone.
Out of all the 5-20 follicles, only the There is an increase in estrogen and
healthiest oocyte will remain and mature. progesterone in order to keep the uterine
This will signal the estrogen in the ovaries lining thick in case of the egg being
to thicken the uterine lining in the fertilized and pregnancy occur.
preparation for the egg being fertilized.
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Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Portions of DNA called genes
DNA is tightly wound into chromosomes
and located in the nucleus of cells.
DNA cannot leave the nucleus.
DNA is DOUBLE STRANDED (2 sides)

Pregnancy
The body will produce the hormone hCG or
Human Chorionic gonadotropin.
hCG-helps maintain the corpus luteum and
uterine lining.
DNA Structure
hCG is the hormone being detected by the The building blacks of DNA are called
pregnancy test. Nucleotides.
One nucleutide is made of 3 important
DNA and RNA things:
1.5-Carbon Sugar Deoxyribose
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen base
there are 4 Nitrogen bases in DINA:
Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine
that pair together) A-T C-G

Francis Crick and James Watson

Awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1962 together with Maurice Wilkins
for their discovery of the molecular structure of
Hydrogen bonds between bases hold the
DNA, which helped solve one of the most
strands together: A and T. C and G
important o of all biological riddles
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Ribonucleic Acid 3 Types of RNA

RNA is SINGLE STRANDED and does not Messenger RNA (mRNA)
have to stay in the nucleus! Carries copies of instructions for the
RNA is not found in chromosomes because assembly of amino acids into proteins from
it does not carry the genetic code, however DNA to the rest of the cell (serve as
it can read the DNA code and take the "messenger")
information out of the nucleus.
RNA's main job is to build proteins!

Transfer RNA (RNA)

Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during

RNA Structure protein synthesis.

The building blocks of RNA are Nucleotides,

just like DNA.
A Nucleontide in RNA important things:
1. 16-Carbon Sugar-Ribose instead of
Deoxyribose)
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen base Ribosomal RNA (RNA)
There are 4 nitrogen bases in RNA, Makes up the major part of ribosomes,
Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil which is where proteins are made.
that pair together) A-U C-G
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Two new DNA molecules, each with a
parent strand and each with strand are
formed.
The DNA replication is known as semi-
conservative replication, because one of
the old strands is conserved in each new
molecule
The resulting double-stranded DNA
DNA replication occurs before a cell molecules are identical; proofreading
divides, ensuring that the cells in a and error-checking mechanisms exist
multicellular organism all carry the same
genetic information.
It is also the mechanism for producing the
DNA copies that offspring inherit from
parents during reproduction.

DNA Replication
First an enzyme DNA topoisomerase
When transcription needs to take place,
untangles the coils
DNA must provide the code in order to
Next: Enzymes called "Helicase" "unzip" the
create an mRNA strand.
DNA molecule exposing both strands
mRNA will be able to leave the nucleus and
nitrogenous bases.
now it has the code transcribed inside it's
The DNA is separated into two strands.
base pairs!
Primase briefly attaches to each strand and Practice:
assembles a foundation at which DNA strand: TTA ACG GGT CTA
replication can begin. This foundation is a Matching DNA strand: AAT TGC CCA GAT
short stretch of nucleotides called a primer. mRNA: UUA ACG GGU CUA
After the primer is in place on a single,
unwound polynucleotide strand. DNA Translation
polymerase wraps itself around that RNA is used to produce proteins
strand, and it attaches new nucleotides to
the exposed nitrogenous bases. In this way,
the polymerase assembles a new DNA
strand on top of the existing one.
The bases attached to each strand then pur
up with the free nucleotides found in the
cytoplasm.
The complementary nucleotides are added
to each strand by DNA polymerase to form
new strands
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Type of Gene Mutations

Include:
➤ Point Mutations
Substitutions
Insertions
Deletions
Inversion
➤ Frameshift

Mutation Point Mutation

Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA Change of a single nucleotide
or changes in chromosomal structure. Includes the deletion, insertion, or
May occur in somatic cells and sex cells. substitution of ONE nucleotide in a gene
Almost all mutations are neutral and are
repaired by enzymes. a. Point mutation
occurs at a single point in DNA sequence.
Generally change in one of the amino acids
making up the protein
Ex. Sickle Cell Anemia - caused by a point
mutation

Frameshift Mutation
Inserting or deleting one or more
nucleotides.
Changes the "reading frame" like changing
a sentence
Proteins built incorrectly

Translation
Change in the nucleotide sequence of a
gene.
May only involve a single nucleotide.
May be due to copying errors, chemicals,
viruses, etc.
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set eyes, a small head and jaw, are moderately
to severely mentally retarded, and very short.

Inversion
Chromosome segment breaks off
Segment flips around backwards
Segment reattaches

Chromosome Mutations
May Involve:
HEMOPHILIA A
Changing the structure of a
Hemophilia A is a hereditary bleeding
chromosome
disorder caused by a lack of blood clotting
The loss or gain of part of a
factor VIII. Without enough factor VIII, the
chromosome
blood cannot clot properly to control
bleeding.
Five types exist:
Deletion
Inversion
Duplication
Translocation
Nondisjunction
Duplication
Deletion Occurs when a gene sequence is repeated
Due to breakage
A piece of a chromosome is lost

PALLISTER KILLIAN SYNDROME

CRI DU CHAT Pallister-Kilian mosaic syndrome is a
Caused by the deletion of part of the short multi-system disorder that is characterized
arm of chromosome 5. by extremely weak muscle tone (hypotonia)
"Cri du chat" is French words and the in infancy and early childhood. intellectual
condition is so named because affected disability distinctive facial features, sparse
babies make high-pitched cries that sound hair, areas of unusual skin coloring
like a cat. Affected individuals have wide- (pigmentation), and other birth defects.
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Translocation EDWARDS SYNDROME

Trisomy of chromosome 18 Symptoms
Involves two chromosomes that aren't
include mental and motor retardation and
homologous
numerou congenital anomalies causing
Part of one chromosome is transferred to
serious health problems
another chromosomes
About 99% die in infancy. However those
who live past their first birthday, usually
are quite healthy thereafter. They have a
characteristic hand appearance with
clenched hands and overlapping fingers

Nondisjunction
Failure of chromosomes to separate during
meiosis
Causes gamete to have too many or too
few chromosomes

JACOBSEN SYNDROME
Deletion of several genes on chromosome
11.
Signs and symptoms vary among affected
people but often include Paris Trousseau
DOWN'S SYNDROME syndrome (a bleeding disorder);
Down's syndrome is usually caused by an Distinctive facial features: delayed
extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). development of motor skills and speech;
Characteristics include decreased muscle and cognitive impairment
tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull,
slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental
retardation.

KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME
(XXY), Men with this condition are usually
sterile and tend to have longer arms and
legs and to be taller than their peers.
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They are often shy and quiet and have a
higher incidence of speech delay
Value of Species
Direct Economic Value
Refers to the measurable financial
contribution that a resource or asset
provides through its direct use or
consumption.

Indirect Economic Value

Is the value generated as a result of the
TURNER'S SYNDROME
existence or use of a resource or asset,
Turner's syndrome (X instead of XX or XY).
which may not be directly measurable in
Female sexual characteristics are present
financial terms but still contributes to
but underdeveloped.
economic activities.
They often have a short stature, low
hairline, abnormal eye features and bone
Aesthetic Value
development and a "caved-in"
Relates to the beauty, visual appeal, or
appearance to the chest.
artistic importance of a resource or asset,
which may influence people's preferences,
satisfaction, or other non-monetary
benefits.
POPULATION
Group of organisms of the same kind of
species living in the same place at the

Biodiversity same time.

Fundamental Factors of
➤ Is all the different kinds of life you'll find in
one area. Population Growth
➤ The variety of animals, plants, fungi, and NATALITY
even microorganisms like bacteria that make The ratio of the number of births to the size
up our natural world. of the population; birth rate.
GENERALIZATION
Organisms struggle for existence in order
to survive; they compete for food and
space.
An organism that is adapted and has body
MORTALITY
structure fitted to survive in a given
Refers to the state of being mortal
environment would likely to reproduce.
(destined to die). In medicine, a term also
Diversity among individuals in the
used for deach rate, or the number of
population would likely bring greater
deachs in a certain group of people in a
chance of survival.
certain period of time.
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Migration Logistic Growth

When organisms move away from their A population's per capita growth rate gets
habitat, whether within a country or across smaller and smaller as population size
an international. border, temporarily or approaches a maximum imposed by
permanently, and for a variety of reasons. limited resources in the environment,
A pattern of behavior in which animals known as the carrying capacity.
travel from one habitat to another in
search of food, better conditions, or
Carrying Capacity
reproductive needs. Maximum population size of the species
that the environment can sustain
Immigration
IMMIGRATION indefinitely.
A pattern of behavior in which animals Each organisms has different carrying
travel from one habitat to another in capacity, depending on the available
search of food, better conditions, or resources in the area.
reproductive needs. In this type of type of
migration, animals establish habitat in a
Population Density
place where the resources can support their The measurement of population per unit
needs. area. Population density is the
Permanently concentration of individuals within a
species in a specific geographic locale.
Emigration
EMIGRATION
When an animal leaves its home because
the habitat is no longer ideal for them and
they need to find a more suitable
environment.
Palipat-lipat

Types of Population Growth

Exponential Growth
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
In exponential growth, a population's per
capita (per individual) growth rate stays
the same regardless of population size,
making the population grow faster and
faster as it gets larger.
In nature, populations may grow
exponentially for some period, but they will
ultimately be limited by resource
availability and carrying capacity.
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QUARTER NOTES
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Boyles Law
Boyle's Law states that
the pressure of a gas is inversely related to
its volume when T and n are constant.
if volume decreases, the pressure increases.

PV Constant in Boyle's Law

In Boyle's Law, the product P x V is constant as
long as T and n do not change.

P1 V1 = 8.0 atm x 2.0L = 16 atm L

P2 V2 = 4.0 atm x 4.0 L = 16 atm L
P3 V3 = 2.0 atm x 8.0L 16 atm L

Boyle's Law can be stated as PV PV (T and

n constant)

Boyle's Law and Breathing

During an Inhalation
the lungs expand.
the pressure in the lungs decreases
air flows towards the lower pressure in the
lungs.
During an Enhalation
Temperature vs Volume Graph
lung volume decreases.
pressure within the lungs increases.
air flows from the higher pressure in the
lungs to the outside.

When the temperature of a gas at a constant

pressure increased, its volume increases
At constant pressure, when the temperature
of a gas is increased, what happens to its

How Volume varies with Temperature volume?

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When the temperature of a gas at a constant
pressure is decreased, its volume decreases
Biomolecules
Levels of Organization
At constant pressure, when the temperature
Atoms - Molecules - Macromolecules
of a gas is decreased, what happens to its
volume?
What are the 4 Biomolecules?
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
Charles Law • Nucleic Acids
• Proteins
The volume of a given mass of gas varies
directly with the absolute temperature of
the gas when pressure is kept constant.
#1 Carbohydrates
get 4 kilocalories per gram of carb that we eat!
Volume is directly proportional with
temperature if the pressure is constant.
As temperature increases, the volume of
the gas also increases.

What are Carbohydrates?

Most common organic molecule
Function: Primary energy source our body
needs
Elements present: C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio)
Monomer (building block): Monosacch-
arides (Glucose is most common)
Polymer: Polysaccharides
(starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin)

Sugars that Make Up Carbs

Single sugar: monosaccharide
Ex: glucose, fructose (in fruits)
2 monosaccharide: disaccharide
As temperature increases, the volume of the Ex: maltese, sucrose
gas also increases. 3+ monosaccharide: polysaccharide
Ex: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, and Chitin
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Types of Polysaccharides
Starch:
"Used for energy storage in plants
Potatoes, pasta and rice are starches
They provide a quick form of energy for
the body

#2 Lipids
We get 9 kcals per gram of fat
Glycogen: thatmwe consume.
Used for energy storage in animals
Cellulose:
Provides structural support in plants
(found in the cell wall)

What are Lipids?

Chitin:
Function: Store energy, Insulates your body.
Found in exoskeletons of arthropods
and make up the cell membrane!
(insects, spiders)
Elements: C-H-O
Found in cell wall of some fungi
Monomer (Building blocks): glycerol & 3
fatty acids
Polymer: Phospholipids, Triglycerides
Example: Steroids, cholesterol, fats, Oils,
Nuts, Waxes, and make up part of the cell
membrane!

Structure of Carbohydrates Lipids are Hydrophobic (water fearing) and

do not dissolve in water!
Remember: Elements are C, H, and O
Lipids can be:
Primarily in a Ring shape (but not always)
Saturated = The bonds between all the
carbons are single bonds.
Solid at room temperature
Mainly animal fats (bacon grease,
lard)
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Examples of proteins: hemoglobin in red
Unsaturated = There is at least one
blood cells, albumin in eggs, enzymes chat
double or triple bond between carbons
control reactions in the body, and
present.
antibodies
Liquid at room temperature
Found in: fish, eggs, meat
Mainly plant based fats ( olive oil,
peanut oil) as well as oily fish (
tuna, sardines)
Protein Structure
Remember: Elements are C, HO. and N
"R" groups represent one of the 20 Amino
Acids! (so, each amino acid has something
different in that spot)

Why are Amino Acids Important?

#3 Proteins When groups of amino acids are joined
together a protein is formed
We get 4 kcals per gram of protein There are 20 kinds of amino acids
that we consume. They consist of a carboxyl group (COOH)
and an amino group NH2
Peptide bands form between amino acids
(polypeptide many peptide bonds protem)

Functions of Proteins?
Transport molecules in and out of the
cell
Control the speed of chemical reactions
Used for growth and repair

What are Proteins?

Elements: C-H-O-N
Monomer (Building Block): amino acids
(20 different ones!)
Polymer: proteins (tons)
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#4 Nucleic Acids Atoms/molecules
Chemical
broken down or
These biomolecules are not
combined to form new substances
necessarily from food
Properties of new substances are different
than properties of the substances that
make them up

Reactants and Products

Reactants: present at the beginning of the
reaction
Products: are the substances formed by the
chemical reaction
Example: burning natural gas
CH, 20, CO₂ +2H,O

Functions of Nucleic Acids Reactants > Products

Function:
Classification of Chemical Reactions
Provide our genetic information Synthesis: a new compound is formed by
Holds the instructions to make proteins the combination of simpler reactants
Elements: C-H-O-N-P Smog formed when nitrogen and oxygen
Monomer: nucleotides combine
A nucleotide is made up of N₂ +202 > 2 NO₂
Sugar
Phosphate
Nitrogen Base: A, T, G, C, or U
Polymer: DNA, RNA and ATP

Chemical Reaction
Chemical Reactions form new substances
by breaking and making chemical bonds
Classification of Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions change the way the Decomposition: A reactant breaks down
atoms are arranged into simpler products (reverse of synthesis)

Difference between Physical and Water can be decomposed into hydrogen

and oxygen
Chemical Changes 2 H₂O > 2H₂ +0%

Physical
A change in the state
Solid to liquid
Liquid to gas
Gas to liquid
Atoms/molecules of the substances do not
change
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Classification of Chemical Reactions
Combustion: One reactant is always
Oxygen, and another reactant often
contains carbon and hydrogen
Burning of methane
CH+ 202 > CO₂ +2H20

The masses of reactants and products

are equal

Combustion Reactions
Combustion reactions when a hydrocarbon
reacts with oxygen gas
This is also called BURNING!
To burn something, you need the 3 things
Law of Conservation of Mass
in the "fire triangle": States that in chemical reaction atoms are
neither created nor destroyed. ed. (Antoine
1) Fuel (hydrocarbon) Lavoisier) destroyed.
2) Oxygen All atoms present in the reactants are are
3) Something to ignite the reaction (spark) also present in the products

The Law of Conservation of Mass dates from

Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 discovery that mass is
neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions. according to the law the mass of the
reactants must be equal to the mass of the
products, no mass will be created nor
destroyed during a chemical reaction. this
simply means that mass is conserved.