Introduction to Research Methods in

Psychology, 4th ed 4th Edition Dennis

Howitt
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-research-methods-in-psychology-4th-e
d-4th-edition-dennis-howitt/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Introduction to Clinical Psychology. An evidence-based

approach, 4th Ed 4th Edition John Hunsley

https://textbookfull.com/product/introduction-to-clinical-
psychology-an-evidence-based-approach-4th-ed-4th-edition-john-
hunsley/

Interactive Approach to Writing Essays and Research

Reports in Psychology 4th ed 4th Edition Lorelle J.
Burton

https://textbookfull.com/product/interactive-approach-to-writing-
essays-and-research-reports-in-psychology-4th-ed-4th-edition-
lorelle-j-burton/

Test Bank Psychology 4th Ed by Daniel Schater 4th

Edition Daniel Schater

https://textbookfull.com/product/test-bank-psychology-4th-ed-by-
daniel-schater-4th-edition-daniel-schater/

The Brain and Behavior 4th ed An Introduction to

Behavioral Neuroanatomy 4th Edition David L. Clark

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-brain-and-behavior-4th-ed-
an-introduction-to-behavioral-neuroanatomy-4th-edition-david-l-
clark/
An introduction to numerical methods: a MATLAB approach
4th Edition Guenther

https://textbookfull.com/product/an-introduction-to-numerical-
methods-a-matlab-approach-4th-edition-guenther/

Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology 7th Ed

7th Edition Hugh Coolican

https://textbookfull.com/product/research-methods-and-statistics-
in-psychology-7th-ed-7th-edition-hugh-coolican/

Culinary Math, 4th ed 4th Edition Linda Blocker

https://textbookfull.com/product/culinary-math-4th-ed-4th-
edition-linda-blocker/

Clinical Reasoning in the Health Professions, 4th ed

4th Edition Joy Higgs

https://textbookfull.com/product/clinical-reasoning-in-the-
health-professions-4th-ed-4th-edition-joy-higgs/

Genograms Assesment treatment 4th Ed 4th Edition Monica

Mcgoldrick

https://textbookfull.com/product/genograms-assesment-
treatment-4th-ed-4th-edition-monica-mcgoldrick/
 Fourth edition

Research Methods Introduction to

Research Methods in Psychology

in Psychology Research Methods
Dennis Howitt Duncan Cramer

in Psychology
Dennis Howitt & Duncan Cramer
Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology
Introduction to
Research Methods
in Psychology
Fourth Edition

Dennis Howitt Loughborough University

Duncan Cramer Loughborough University
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow CM20 2JE
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623
Web: www.pearson.com/uk

First published 2005 (print)

Second edition published 2008 (print)
Third edition published 2011 (print)
Fourth edition published 2014 (print and electronic)

© Pearson Education Limited 2005, 2011 (print)

© Pearson Education Limited 2014 (print and electronic)

The rights of Dennis Howitt and Duncan Cramer to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

The print publication is protected by copyright. Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system,
distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission
should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United
Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London
EC1N 8TS.

The ePublication is protected by copyright and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased,
licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as
allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased, or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright
law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the authors’ and the publisher’s
rights and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not
vest in the authors or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such
trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

The screenshots in this book are reprinted by permission of Microsoft Corporation.

Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party Internet sites.

ISBN: 978-0-273-77505-8 (print)

978-1-292-01575-0 (PDF)
978-0-273-77506-5 (eText)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for the print edition is available from the Library of Congress

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
18 17 16 15 14

Print edition typeset in 9.5/12pt Sabon LT Std by 35

Print edition printed and bound in Malaysia

NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION
 Brief contents

Contents vii
Guided tour xvi
Introduction xviii
Acknowledgements xx

Part 1 The basics of research 1

1 The role of research in psychology 3

2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27
3 Variables, concepts and measures 45
4 The problems of generalisation and decision-making in research:
Chance findings and sample size 63
5 Research reports: The total picture 86
6 Examples of how to write research reports 115
7 The literature search 136
8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Part 2 Quantitative research methods 185

9 The basic laboratory experiment 187

10 Advanced experimental design 214
11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 235
12 Longitudinal studies 251
13 Sampling and population surveys 266

Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 283

14 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 285

15 Reliability and validity: Evaluating the value of tests and measures 305
16 Coding data 322

Part 4 Qualitative research methods 335

17 Why qualitative research? 337

18 Qualitative data collection 350
19 Transcribing language data: The Jefferson system 363
vi BRIEF CONTENTS

20 Thematic analysis 372

21 Grounded theory 387
22 Discourse analysis 404
23 Conversation analysis 417
24 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 429
25 Evaluating and writing up qualitative research 447

Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 461

26 Developing ideas for research 463

Glossary 483
References 490
Index 498
 Contents

Guided tour xvi

Introduction xviii
Acknowledgements xx

Part 1 The basics of research 1

1 The role of research in psychology 3

Overview 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Reading 5
1.3 Evaluating the evidence 7
1.4 Inferring causality 8
1.5 Types of research and the assessment of causality 11
1.6 Practice 22
1.7 Conclusion 25
Key points 25
Activities 26

2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27

Overview 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Types of study 29
2.3 Aims of research 31
2.4 Research hypotheses 32
2.5 Four types of hypothesis 34
2.6 Difficulties in formulating aims and hypotheses 38
2.7 Conclusion 43
Key points 43
Activities 44
viii CONTENTS

3 Variables, concepts and measures 45

Overview 45
3.1 Introduction 46
3.2 The history of the variable in psychology 47
3.3 Types of variable 48
3.4 Independent and dependent variables 50
3.5 Measurement characteristics of variables 50
3.6 Stevens’ theory of scales of measurement 53
3.7 Operationalising concepts and variables 58
3.8 Conclusion 61
Key points 62
Activities 62

4 The problems of generalisation and decision-making in research:

Chance findings and sample size 63
Overview 63
4.1 Introduction 64
4.2 Universalism 66
4.3 Sampling and generalisation 66
4.4 Statistics and generalisation 71
4.5 Directional and non-directional hypotheses again 73
4.6 More on the similarity between measures of effect (difference) and association 75
4.7 Sample size and size of association 78
4.8 Conclusion 84
Key points 85
Activities 85

5 Research reports: The total picture 86

Overview 86
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Overall strategy of report writing 89
5.3 The sections of the research report in detail 94
5.4 Conclusion 111
Key points 114
Activities 114

6 Examples of how to write research reports 115

Overview 115
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 A poorly written practical report 117
6.3 Analysis of the report 121
 CONTENTS ix

6.4 An improved version of the report 129

6.5 Conclusion 134
Key points 135
Activity 135

7 The literature search 136

Overview 136
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Library classification systems 143
7.3 Electronic databases 146
7.4 Obtaining articles not in your library 154
7.5 Personal bibliographic database software 157
7.6 Conclusion 160
Key points 161
Activities 161

8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Overview 162
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Ethics: general principles 165
8.3 Research ethics 167
8.4 Ethics and publication 174
8.5 Obtaining the participant’s consent 175
8.6 Data management 177
8.7 Conclusion 181
Key points 182
Activities 183

Part 2 Quantitative research methods 185

9 The basic laboratory experiment 187

Overview 187
9.1 Introduction 188
9.2 Characteristics of the true or randomised experiment 191
9.3 More advanced research designs 198
9.4 Conclusion 212
Key points 213
Activity 213
x CONTENTS

10 Advanced experimental design 214

Overview 214
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Multiple levels of the independent variable 216
10.3 Multiple dependent variables 221
10.4 Factorial designs 221
10.5 The psychology and social psychology of the laboratory experiment 226
10.6 Conclusion 233
Key points 233
Activities 234

11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 235

Overview 235
11.1 Introduction 236
11.2 Cross-sectional designs 238
11.3 The case for non-manipulation studies 239
11.4 Key concepts in the analysis of cross-sectional studies 241
11.5 Conclusion 249
Key points 250
Activities 250

12 Longitudinal studies 251

Overview 251
12.1 Introduction 252
12.2 Panel designs 254
12.3 Different types of third variable 256
12.4 Analysis of non-experimental designs 259
12.5 Conclusion 265
Key points 265
Activities 265

13 Sampling and population surveys 266

Overview 266
13.1 Introduction 267
13.2 Types of probability sampling 267
13.3 Non-probability sampling 271
13.4 National surveys 271
13.5 Socio-demographic characteristics of samples 274
13.6 Sample size and population surveys 276
13.7 Conclusion 281
Key points 282
Activities 282
 CONTENTS xi

Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 283

14 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 285

Overview 285
14.1 Introduction 286
14.2 The concept of a scale 287
14.3 Scale construction 289
14.4 Item analysis or factor analysis? 299
14.5 Other considerations in test construction 300
14.6 Conclusion 303
Key points 303
Activities 304

15 Reliability and validity: Evaluating the value of tests and measures 305
Overview 305
15.1 Introduction 306
15.2 Reliability of measures 308
15.3 Validity 311
15.4 Types of validity 312
15.5 Conclusion 320
Key points 321
Activity 321

16 Coding data 322

Overview 322
16.1 Introduction 323
16.2 Types of coding 324
16.3 Reliability and validity 329
16.4 Qualitative coding 330
16.5 Conclusion 333
Key points 334
Activities 334

Part 4 Qualitative research methods 335

17 Why qualitative research? 337

Overview 337
17.1 Introduction 338
xii CONTENTS

17.2 What is qualitative research? 339

17.3 History of the qualitative/quantitative divide in psychology 342
17.4 The quantification–qualitative methods continuum 345
17.5 Evaluation of qualitative versus quantitative methods 347
17.6 Conclusion 349
Key points 349
Activity 349

18 Qualitative data collection 350

Overview 350
18.1 Introduction 351
18.2 Major qualitative data collection approaches 352
18.3 Conclusion 361
Key points 362
Activities 362

19 Transcribing language data: The Jefferson system 363

Overview 363
19.1 Introduction 364
19.2 Jefferson transcription 365
19.3 Advice for transcribers 370
19.4 Conclusion 371
Key points 371
Activities 371

20 Thematic analysis 372

Overview 372
20.1 Introduction 373
20.2 What is thematic analysis? 375
20.3 A basic approach to thematic analysis 376
20.4 A more sophisticated version of thematic analysis 379
20.5 Conclusion 386
Key points 386
Activity 386

21 Grounded theory 387

Overview 387
21.1 Introduction 388
21.2 Development of grounded theory 390
21.3 Data in grounded theory 391
 CONTENTS xiii

21.4 How to do grounded theory analysis 392

21.5 Computer grounded theory analysis 396
21.6 Evaluation of grounded theory 400
21.7 Conclusion 402
Key points 403
Activity 403

22 Discourse analysis 404

Overview 404
22.1 Introduction 405
22.2 Important characteristics of discourse 407
22.3 The agenda of discourse analysis 409
22.4 Doing discourse analysis 411
22.5 Conclusion 415
Key points 415
Activities 416

23 Conversation analysis 417

Overview 417
23.1 Introduction 418
23.2 Precepts of conversation analysis 421
23.3 Stages in conversation analysis 422
23.4 Conclusion 427
Key points 427
Activities 428

24 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 429

Overview 429
24.1 Introduction 430
24.2 Philosophical foundations of interpretative phenomenological analysis 431
24.3 Stages in interpretative phenomenological analysis 438
24.4 Conclusion 445
Key points 445
Activities 446

25 Evaluating and writing up qualitative research 447

Overview 447
25.1 Introduction 448
25.2 Evaluating qualitative research 450
25.3 Validity 452
xiv CONTENTS

25.4 Criteria for novices 457

25.5 Conclusion 458
Key points 459
Activities 459

Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 461

26 Developing ideas for research 463

Overview 463
26.1 Introduction 464
26.2 Why not a replication study? 466
26.3 Choosing a research topic 471
26.4 Sources of research ideas 472
26.5 Conclusion 480
Key points 481
Activity 482

Glossary 483
References 490
Index 498
Companion Website ON THE
WEBSITE
For open-access student resources specifically written
to complement this textbook and support your learning,
please visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/howitt
 Guided tour
138 PART 1 THE BASICS OF RESEARCH

mind then its title and author will quickly help you discover where it is located in the

ChapTer 1 library. However, if you are simply searching with a general keyword such as ‘memory’
or ‘intelligence’ then you are likely to find more entries or hits – perhaps too many.
Sometimes it may be quicker to go to the section of the library where items with par-
ticular keywords are likely to be held, though this is less systematic and others on the

The role of research in

course or module may have beaten you there. The general principles of the library clas-
sification systems need to be understood in general if one is to use this sort of method.
Box 7.1 discusses an advanced form of literature review known as the systematic
review.

psychology Box 7.1 Key Ideas

The systematic review

It will probably be obvious, when you attempt to review review the research evidence on the effectiveness of cog-
the literature for your first research study or perhaps essay, nitive behavioural therapy) and forensic psychology (such
that you have received very little help in doing so. Even as when asked to review the evidence of the effects of
having read this chapter, you may feel somewhat lacking Internet pornography on the criminal sexual behaviours
in guidance about just how to go about the literature of teenagers). Usually the requirements for a student lit-
Overview review. You may have the basics about how to search a erature review are more modest than this – for example,
database, but there is clearly more to it than that. You students may be required to compare two different the-
● research is central to all the activities of psychologists as it is to modern life in general. a might consider the conventional literature review to be ories in a particular area. This probably would not benefit
key assumption of psychology is that the considered and careful collection of research data somewhat haphazard, as conducting one is far from being from a systematic review, since it is far more likely to be
is an essential part of the development of the discipline. a predetermined, systematic process. If that is your view, for pedagogic purposes rather than designed to influence
then there is a great deal in modern practice which sup- policy in a particular field.
● Most psychology involves the integration of theoretical notions with the outcomes of ports your viewpoint in medical and social scientific Three different types of literature review may be distin-
research. psychology characteristically emphasises causal explanations. Many psycholo- notions about the literature review. Increasingly, this point guished at the broad level:
gists adhere to the belief that a prime purpose of research is to test causal propositions, of view is showing up in psychology in the guise of the
though this is far from universal. ● Narrative review This is the traditional type of litera-
systematic review. The origins of the systematic review go
ture review which a researcher includes in their reports.
● a first-rate psychologist – researcher or practitioner – needs to be familiar with the way in back 40 or more years and there is actually an extensive
It is governed by few if any rules and it is entirely up to
which good research is carried out. This enables them to determine the adequacy and value literature on how to conduct systematic reviews.
the researcher just what literature is reviewed and how
of the findings claimed from a particular study as well as to carry out their own research Just what is a systematic review? Basically, it is a highly
it is reviewed. Although the name ‘narrative review’ is
effectively. structured and exacting set of procedures aimed at
a misnomer, because all reviews include a narrative, it
addressing questions of practical importance concerning
● all psychologists need the skills and resources to enable them to understand research is the term used. Such reviews are subject to the vagar-
just what may be concluded from the research literature
reports in detail, especially research studies reported in journals of psychological research. ies of the researchers writing. Narrative reviews are the
on the subject in question. The systematic review is
This requires an appreciation of the purposes, advantages and disadvantages of the differ- usual reviews carried out by students.
strongly associated with the needs of policy makers in
ent research methods used to investigate even the same issues. government and elsewhere, where the need is for a thor- ● Meta-analytic review or synthesis These are statistical
● Very often research reports are concisely written and so assume a degree of knowledge of ough and convincing statement of just what research has approaches to combining research findings from a vari-
the topic and research methods. The study of research methods will help prepare students to say to inform an area of practical action such as that ety of studies. They can provide a statistical summary
for this. research reports become much clearer and easier to understand once the basics involved in policy making. It allows policy makers to be of the overall trends over all of the studies as well as,
of psychological research methods are known. fully aware of the conclusions to be drawn from research for example, demonstrate that certain sorts of study
to inform research – in a phrase, the issue of research- (e.g. laboratory experiments) show stronger relation-
● psychologists have traditionally distinguished between true experiments and non- based practice. As a student you will probably never be ships than other sorts of study. Howitt and Cramer
experiments. True experiments are typical of laboratory studies in psychology, whereas asked to write a systematic review, but as a professional (2014a) contains an easy introduction to meta-analysis.
non-experiments are more typical of more naturalistic studies in the field (community or researcher you may be required to carry out such a review Meta-analytic reviews are constrained by more require-
other real-life settings). in order to obtain funding for your research activities. ments than the narrative review and are similar to
Areas where psychologists are likely to be involved in such systematic reviews in terms of the exacting nature of
➔ reviews include clinical psychology (such as when asked to the literature search and so forth.

Clear Overview Key Ideas

Introduces the chapter to give students a feel for the Outlines the important concepts in more depth to
topics covered give you a fuller understanding

Practical Advice
290 PART 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

individual (since an elderly person may have fewer friends simply as a consequence of
bereavements), and so forth. In short, there are problems in turning a concept into a
Gives you handy hints and tips on how to carry out
measure of that variable. This does not mean that the question is useless as a measure

●
of the concept, merely that it is not a particularly accurate measure.
Variables do not exist in some sort of rarefied form in the real world. They are notions
research in practice
which psychologists and other researchers find extremely useful in trying to understand
people. So sometimes it will appear appropriate to a researcher to measure a range of
things which seem closely related. For example, loneliness might be considered to
involve a range of aspects – few friendships, feelings of isolation, no social support,
geographical isolation and so forth.
Once a pool of items for potential inclusion has been developed, the next stage is to
administer the first draft of the test to a suitable sample of individuals that is as substantial
as possible. Advice on how to formulate questions is to be found in Box 14.1. Let us

Box 14.1 Practical Advice

Writing items for questionnaires

Writing questions or items for a psychological measure Nevertheless, here are a few tips:
requires one to focus on one key matter – trying to concoct
● Use short and simple sentence structures.
items that are as unambiguous and clear as possible. The
other main criterion has to be that they seem to measure a ● Short, everyday words are better than long ones.
range of aspects of the topic. Of course, these are not simple ● Avoid complex or problematic grammar, such as the
matters to achieve, and it is easy to rush the job and create use of double negatives, for example ‘You ain’t seen
an unsatisfactory measure. One needs to understand the nothing yet.’
topic at as many levels as possible. For example, what do
● Leading questions which suggest the expected answer
you think the important things are likely to be? Then what
should be avoided, largely because of the limiting effect
do people you know regard as important aspects of the
this will have on the variability of the answers. An
topic? Then what does a focus group or some other group
example would be ‘Most people think it essential to
of research participants talk about when they are asked to
vote in elections. Do you agree?’
discuss the topic? How have previous researchers attempted
to measure a similar topic? What does the empirical evidence ● Choose appropriate language for the likely participants –
indicate about the major dimensions of the topic? What what would be appropriate to ask a group of high court
does theory say about the topic? judges may be inappropriate to a group of nursery children.
Once again the important lesson is to research and
● Tap as many resources for items and questions as feasible.
explore the topic in a variety of ways. Only in this way can
you acquire the depth of knowledge to create a good ● Accept that you cannot rely on yourself alone as a
measure. To be frank, anyone can throw together a list of satisfactory source of questions and ideas for questions.
questions, but it requires commitment and work to write ● People similar to the likely participants in your research
a good questionnaire. If possible, put together elements are a good starting point for ideas.
from all of the resources that you have. Finally, do not
● Relax – expertise in question and item writing is a rare
forget that once you have the questionnaire, there are a
commodity. Most researchers mix trial and error with
number of processes that you will need to go through to
rigorous item analysis as a substitute.
assess its adequacy. These include item analysis, reliability
assessment and perhaps validity assessment. These processes You may wish to consult the chapter on coding data
contribute to the adequacy of the measure and may help (Chapter 16) in order to appreciate the variety of ways in
you eliminate inadequate items or excess items. which the researcher can structure the answers further.
6 PART 1 THE BASICS OF RESEARCH

name of the author is given first, followed by the year in which the reference was pub-
lished. After this comes the title of the work. Like most research in psychology, Byrne’s
study was published in a journal. The title of the journal is given next, together with the
number of the volume in which the article appeared and the numbers of the first and last
pages of the article. These references are generally listed alphabetically according to the
last name of the first author in a reference list at the end of the journal article or book.
Where there is more than one reference by the same author or authors, they will be listed
according to the year the work was presented. This is known as the Harvard system or
author–date system. It is described in much more detail later in this part of the book in
the chapters about writing a research report (Chapters 5 and 6). We will cite references
in this way in this book. However, we will cite very few references compared with psy-
chology texts on other subjects, as many of the ideas we are presenting have been previ-
ously summarised by other authors (although usually not in the same way) and have
been generally accepted for many years.
Many of the references cited in lectures or textbooks are to reports of research that
has been carried out to examine a particular question or small set of questions. Research
studies have to be selective and restricted in their scope – it is impossible to design a
study to study everything. As already indicated, the prime location for the publication of
research is journals. Journals consist of volumes which are usually published every year.
Each volume typically comprises a number of issues or parts that come out say every
three months, but this is variable. The papers or articles that make up an issue are prob-
ably no more than 4000 or 5000 words in length, though it is not uncommon to find
some of them 10 000 words long. Their shortness necessitates their being written con-
cisely. As a consequence, they are not always easy to read and often require careful study
in order to master them. An important aim of this book is to provide you with the basic
knowledge which is required to read these papers – and even to write them. Often there
appear to be obstacles in the way of doing the necessary reading. For example, there are
many different psychology journals – too many for individual libraries to stock – so they
subscribe to a limited number of them. If the reference that you are interested in is
important and is not available locally, then you may be able to obtain it from another
library, or it may be worth trying to obtain a copy (usually called offprints) from the
author. Almost invariably, nowadays, university libraries subscribe to digital versions
of journals, so many papers are readily available in electronic files (usually in Portable
Digital Format, pdf) which can be easily accessed via your university library over the
Internet and then even circulated to others as an e-mail attachment. The chapter on
searching the literature (Chapter 7) suggests how you can access publications which are
not held in your own library. The point of this means that often you can download to
your computer articles which otherwise would not be available at your university. This
is remarkably convenient and there are no overdue fines.
One of the positive things about psychology is that you may have questions about a
topic that have not been addressed in lectures or textbooks. For example, you may won-
der whether attraction to someone depends on the nature of the particular attitudes that
are shared. Are some attitudes more important than others and, if so, what are these?
If you begin to ask questions like these while you are reading something then this is
excellent. It is the sort of intellectual curiosity required to become a good researcher.
Furthermore, as you develop through your studies, you probably will want to know
what the latest thinking and research are on the topic. If you are interested in a topic,
then wanting to know what other people are thinking about it is only natural. Your
lecturers will certainly be pleased if you do. There is a great deal to be learnt about how
one goes about finding out what is happening in any academic discipline. Being able to
discover what is currently happening and what has happened in a field of research is a
vitally important skill. The chapter on searching the literature (Chapter 7) discusses how
we go about searching for the current publications on a topic.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
smoothbore, his mother a pair of the famous La Roche dueling
pistols and a prayer book. The family priest gave him a rosary and
cross and enjoined him to pray frequently. Traveling all summer, they
arrived at Lake Winnipeg in the autumn and wintered there. As soon
as the ice went out in the spring the journey was continued and one
afternoon in July, Monroe beheld Mountain Fort, a new post of the
company’s not far from the Rocky Mountains.
“Around about it were encamped thousands of Blackfeet waiting
to trade for the goods the flotilla had brought up and to obtain on
credit ammunition, fukes (trade guns), traps and tobacco. As yet the
company had no Blackfoot interpreter. The factor perceiving that
Monroe was a youth of more than ordinary intelligence at once
detailed him to live and travel with the Piegans (a Blackfoot tribe)
and learn their language, also to see that they returned to Mountain
Fort with their furs the succeeding summer. Word had been received
that, following the course of Lewis and Clarke, American traders
were yearly pushing farther and farther westward and had even
reached the mouth of the Yellowstone. The company feared their
competition. Monroe was to do his best to prevent it.
“‘At last,’ Monroe told me, ‘the day came for our departure, and I
set out with the chiefs and medicine men at the head of the long
procession. There were eight hundred lodges of the Piegans there,
about eight thousand souls. They owned thousands of horses. Oh,
but it was a grand sight to see that long column of riders and pack
animals, and loose horses trooping over the plains. We traveled on
southward all the long day, and about an hour or two before
sundown we came to the rim of a valley through which flowed a
cotton wood-bordered stream. We dismounted at the top of the hill,
and spread our robes intending to sit there until the procession
passed by into the bottom and put up the lodges. A medicine man
produced a large stone pipe, filled it and attempted to light it with flint
and steel and a bit of punk (rotten wood), but somehow he could get
no spark. I motioned him to hand it to me, and drawing my sunglass
from my pocket, I got the proper focus and set the tobacco afire,
drawing several mouthfuls of smoke through the long stem.
 “‘As one man all those round about sprang to their feet and
rushed toward me, shouting and gesticulating as if they had gone
crazy. I also jumped up, terribly frightened, for I thought they were
going to do me harm, perhaps kill me. The pipe was wrenched out of
my grasp by the chief himself, who eagerly began to smoke and
pray. He had drawn but a whiff or two when another seized it, and
from him it was taken by still another. Others turned and harangued
the passing column; men and women sprang from their horses and
joined the group, mothers pressing close and rubbing their babes
against me, praying earnestly meanwhile. I recognized a word that I
had already learned—Natos—Sun—and suddenly the meaning of
the commotion became clear; they thought that I was Great
Medicine; that I had called upon the Sun himself to light the pipe,
and that he had done so. The mere act of holding up my hand above
the pipe was a supplication to their God. They had perhaps not
noticed the glass, or if they had, had thought it some secret charm or
amulet. At all events I had suddenly become a great personage, and
from then on the utmost consideration and kindness was accorded to
me.
“‘When I entered Lone Walker’s lodge that evening—he was the
chief, and my host—I was greeted by deep growls from either side of
the doorway, and was horrified to see two nearly grown grizzly bears
acting as if about to spring upon me. I stopped and stood quite still,
but I believe that my hair was rising; I know that my flesh felt to be
shrinking. I was not kept in suspense. Lone Walker spoke to his pets,
and they immediately lay down, noses between their paws, and I
passed on to the place pointed out to me, the first couch at the
chief’s left hand. It was some time before I became accustomed to
the bears, but we finally came to a sort of understanding with one
another. They ceased growling at me as I passed in and out of the
lodge, but would never allow me to touch them, bristling up and
preparing to fight if I attempted to do so. In the following spring they
disappeared one night and were never seen again.’
“Think how the youth, Rising Wolf, must have felt as he
journeyed southward over the vast plains, and under the shadow of
the giant mountains which lie between the Saskatchewan and the
Missouri, for he knew that he was the first of his race to behold
them.” We were born a little too late!
“Monroe often referred to that first trip with the Piegans as the
happiest time of his life.”
In the moon of falling leaves they came to Pile of Rocks River,
and after three months went on to winter on Yellow River. Next
summer they wandered down the Musselshell, crossed the Big River
and thence westward by way of the Little Rockies and the Bear Paw
Mountains to the Marias. Even paradise has its geography.
“Rifle and pistol were now useless as the last rounds of powder
and ball had been fired. But what mattered that? Had they not their
bows and great sheaves of arrows? In the spring they had planted
on the banks of the Judith a large patch of their own tobacco which
they would harvest in due time.
“One by one young Rising Wolf’s garments were worn out and
cast aside. The women of the lodge tanned deerskins and bighorn
(sheep) and from them Lone Walker himself cut and sewed shirts
and leggings, which he wore in their place. It was not permitted for
women to make men’s clothing. So ere long he was dressed in full
Indian costume, even to the belt and breech-clout, and his hair grew
so that it fell in rippling waves down over his shoulders.” A warrior
never cut his hair, so white men living with Indians followed their
fashion, else they were not admitted to rank as warriors. “He began
to think of braiding it. Ap-ah’-ki, the shy young daughter of the chief,
made his footwear—thin parfleche (arrow-proof)—soled moccasins
(skin-shoes) for summer, beautifully embroidered with colored
porcupine quills; thick, soft warm ones of buffalo robe for winter.
“‘I could not help but notice her,’ he said, ‘on the first night I
stayed in her father’s lodge.... I learned the language easily, quickly,
yet I never spoke to her nor she to me, for, as you know, the
Blackfeet think it unseemly for youths and maidens to do so.
“‘One evening a man came into the lodge and began to praise a
certain youth with whom I had often hunted; spoke of his bravery, his
kindness, his wealth, and ended by saying that the young fellow
presented to Lone Walker thirty horses, and wished, with Ap-ah’-ki,
to set up a lodge of his own. I glanced at the girl and caught her
looking at me; such a look! expressing at once fear, despair and
something else which I dared not believe I interpreted aright. The
chief spoke: “Tell your friend,” he said, “that all you have spoken of
him is true; I know that he is a real man, a good, kind, brave,
generous young man, yet for all that I can not give him my daughter.”
“‘Again I looked at Ap-ah’-ki and she at me. Now she was smiling
and there was happiness in her eyes. But if she smiled I could not. I
had heard him refuse thirty head of horses. What hope had I then,
who did not even own the horse I rode? I, who received for my
services only twenty pounds a year, from which must be deducted
the various articles I bought. Surely the girl was not for me. I
suffered.
“‘It was a little later, perhaps a couple of weeks, that I met her in
the trail, bringing home a bundle of fire-wood. We stopped and
looked at each other in silence for a moment, and then I spoke her
name. Crash went the fuel on the ground, and we embraced and
kissed regardless of those who might be looking.
“‘So, forgetting the bundle of wood, we went hand in hand and
stood before Lone Walker, where he sat smoking his long pipe, out
on the shady side of the lodge.
“‘The chief smiled. “Why, think you, did I refuse the thirty
horses?” he asked, and before I could answer: “Because I wanted
you for my son-in-law, wanted a white man because he is more
cunning, much wiser than the Indian, and I need a counselor. We
have not been blind, neither I nor my women. There is nothing more
to say except this: be good to her.”
“‘That very day they set up a small lodge for us, and stored it
with robes and parfleches of dried meat and berries, gave us one of
their two brass kettles, tanned skins, pack saddles, ropes, all that a
lodge should contain. And, not least, Lone Walker told me to choose
thirty horses from his large herd. In the evening we took possession
of our house and were happy.’
 “Monroe remained in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company
a number of years, raising a large family of boys and girls, most of
whom are alive to-day. The oldest, John, is about seventy-five years
of age, but still young enough to go to the Rockies near his home
every autumn, and kill a few bighorn and elk, and trap a few beavers.
The old man never revisited his home; never saw his parents after
they parted with him at the Montreal docks. He intended to return to
them for a brief visit some time, but kept deferring it, and then came
letters two years old to say that they were both dead. Came also a
letter from an attorney, saying that they had bequeathed him a
considerable property, that he must go to Montreal and sign certain
papers in order to take possession of it. At the time the factor of
Mountain Fort was going to England on leave; to him, in his simple
trustfulness Monroe gave a power of attorney in the matter. The
factor never returned, and by virtue of the papers he had signed the
frontiersman lost his inheritance. But that was a matter of little
moment to him then. Had he not a lodge and family, good horses
and a vast domain actually teeming with game wherein to wander?
What more could one possibly want?
“Leaving the Hudson’s Bay Company, Monroe sometimes
worked for the American Fur Company, but mostly as a free trapper,
wandered from the Saskatchewan to the Yellowstone and from the
Rockies to Lake Winnipeg. The headwaters of the South
Saskatchewan were one of his favorite hunting grounds. Thither in
the early fifties he guided the noted Jesuit Father, De Smet, and at
the foot of the beautiful lakes just south of Chief Mountain they
erected a huge wooden cross and named the two bodies of water
Saint Mary’s Lakes.” Here the Canada and United States boundary
climbs the Rocky Mountains.
“One winter after his sons John and François had married they
were camping there for the season, the three lodges of the family,
when one night a large war party of Assiniboins attacked them. The
daughters Lizzie, Amelia and Mary had been taught to shoot, and
together they made a brave resistance, driving the Indians away just
before daylight, with the loss of five of their number, Lizzie killing one
of them as he was about to let down the bars of the horse corral.
 “Besides other furs, beaver, fisher, marten and wolverine, they
killed more than three hundred wolves that winter by a device so
unique, yet simple, that it is well worth recording. By the banks of the
outlet of the lakes they built a long pen twelve by sixteen feet at the
base, and sloping sharply inward and upward to a height of seven
feet. The top of the pyramid was an opening about two feet six
inches wide by eight feet in length. Whole deer, quarters of buffalo,
any kind of meat handy was thrown into the pen, and the wolves,
scenting the flesh and blood, seeing it plainly through the four to six
inch spaces between the logs would eventually climb to the top and
jump down through the opening. But they could not jump out, and
there morning would find them uneasily pacing around and around in
utter bewilderment.
“You will remember that the old man was a Catholic, yet I know
that he had much faith in the Blackfoot religion, and believed in the
efficiency of the medicine-man’s prayers and mysteries. He used
often to speak of the terrible power possessed by a man named Old
Sun. ‘There was one,’ he would say, ‘who surely talked with the
gods, and was given some of their mysterious power. Sometimes of
a dark night he would invite a few of us to his lodge, when all was
calm and still. After all were seated his wives would bank the fire with
ashes so that it was as dark within as without, and he would begin to
pray. First to the Sun-chief, then to the wind maker, the thunder and
the lightning. As he prayed, entreating them to come and do his will,
first the lodge ears would begin to quiver with the first breath of a
coming breeze, which gradually grew stronger and stronger till the
lodge bent to the blasts, and the lodge poles strained and creaked.
Then thunder began to boom, faint and far away, and lightning dimly
to blaze, and they came nearer and nearer until they seemed to be
just overhead; the crashes deafened us, the flashes blinded us, and
all were terror-stricken. Then this wonderful man would pray them to
go, and the wind would die down, and the thunder and lightning go
on rumbling and flashing into the far distance until we heard and saw
them no more.’”
 LIII
A. D. 1819
SIMON BOLIVAR

ONCE at the stilted court of Spain young Ferdinand, Prince of the

Asturias, had the condescension to play at tennis with a mere
colonial; and the bounder won.
Long afterward, when Don Ferdinand was king, the colonial
challenged him to another ball game, one played with cannon-balls.
This time the stake was the Spanish American empire, but
Ferdinand played Bolivar, and again the bounder won.
“Now tell me,” a lady said once, “what animal reminds one most
of the Señor Bolivar?”
And Bolivar thought he heard some one say “monkey,” whereat
he flew into an awful passion, until the offender claimed that the
word was “sparrow.” He stood five feet six inches, with a bird-like
quickness, and a puckered face with an odd tang of monkey. Rich,
lavish, gaudy, talking mock heroics, vain as a peacock, always on
the strut unless he was on the run, there is no more pathetically
funny figure in history than tragical Bolivar; who heard liberty, as he
thought, knocking at the door of South America, and opened—to let
in chaos.
“I don’t know,” drawled a Spaniard of that time, “to what class of
beasts these South Americans belong.”
They were dogs, these Spanish colonials, treated as dogs,
behaving as dogs. When they wanted a university Spain said they
were only provided by Providence to labor in the mines. If they had
opinions the Inquisition cured them of their errors. They were not
allowed to hold any office or learn the arts of war and government.
Spain sent officials to ease them of their surplus cash, and keep
them out of mischief. Thanks to Spain they were no more fit for
public affairs than a lot of Bengali baboos.
They were loyal as beaten dogs until Napoleon stole the Spanish
crown for brother Joseph, and French armies promenaded all over
Spain closely pursued by the British. There was no Spain left to love,
but the colonials were not Napoleon’s dogs. Napoleon’s envoys to
Venezuela were nearly torn to pieces before they escaped to sea,
where a little British frigate came and gobbled them up. The sea
belonged to the British, and so the colonials sent ambassadors,
Bolivar and another gentleman, to King George. Please would he
help them to gain their liberty? George had just chased Napoleon out
of Spain, and said he would do his best with his allies, the
Spaniards.
In London Bolivar unearthed a countryman who loved liberty and
had fought for Napoleon, a real professional soldier. General
Miranda was able and willing to lead the armies of freedom, until he
actually saw the Venezuelan troops. Then he shied hard. He really
must draw the line somewhere. Yes, he would take command of the
rabble on one condition, that he got rid of Bolivar. To get away from
Bolivar he would go anywhere and do anything. So he led his rabble
and found them stout fighters, and drove the Spaniards out of the
central provinces.
The politicians were sitting down to draft the first of many comic-
opera constitutions when an awful sound, louder than any thunder,
swept out of the eastern Andes, the earth rolled like a sea in a storm,
and the five cities of the new republic crashed down in heaps of ruin.
The barracks buried the garrisons, the marching troops were totally
destroyed, the politicians were killed, and in all one hundred twenty
thousand people perished. The only thing left standing in one church
was a pillar bearing the arms of Spain; the only districts not wrecked
were those still loyal to the Spanish government. The clergy pointed
the moral, the ruined people repented their rebellion, and the
Spanish forces took heart and closed in from every side upon the
lost republic. Simon Bolivar generously surrendered General
Miranda in chains to the victorious Spaniards.
So far one sees only, as poor Miranda did, that this man was a
sickening cad. But he was something more. He stuck to the cause
for which he had given his life, joined the rebels in what is now
Colombia, was given a small garrison command and ordered to stay
in his fort. In defiance of orders, he swept the Spaniards out of the
Magdalena Valley, raised a large force, liberated the country, then
marched into Venezuela, defeated the Spanish forces in a score of
brilliant actions, and was proclaimed liberator with absolute power in
both Colombia and Venezuela. One begins to marvel at this heroic
leader until the cad looms out. “Spaniards and Canary islanders!” he
wrote, “reckon on death even if you are neutral, unless you will work
actively for the liberty of America. Americans! count on life even if
you are culpable.”
Bolivar’s pet hobbies were three in number: Resigning his job as
liberator; writing proclamations; committing massacres. “I order you,”
he wrote to the governor of La Guayra, “to shoot all the prisoners in
those dungeons, and in the hospital, without any exception
whatever.”
So the prisoners of war were set to work building a funeral pyre.
When this was ready eight hundred of them were brought up in
batches, butchered with axes, bayonets and knives, and their bodies
thrown on the flames. Meanwhile Bolivar, in his office, refreshed
himself by writing a proclamation to denounce the atrocities of the
Spaniards.
Southward of the Orinoco River there are vast level prairies
called Llanos, a cattle country, handled by wild horsemen known as
the Llaneros. In Bolivar’s time their leader called himself Boves, and
he had as second in command Morales. Boves said that Morales
was “atrocious.” Morales said that “Boves was a man of merit, but
too blood-thirsty.” The Spaniards called their command “The Infernal
Division.” At first they fought for the Revolution, afterward for Spain,
but they were really quite impartial and spared neither age nor sex.
This was the “Spanish” army which swept away the second
Venezuelan republic, slaughtering the whole population save some
few poor starving camps of fugitives. Then Boves reported to the
Spanish general, “I have recovered the arms, ammunition, and the
honor of the Spanish flag, which your excellency lost at Carabobo.”
From this time onward the situation was rather like a dog fight,
with the republican dog somewhere underneath in the middle. At
times Bolivar ran like a rabbit, at times he was granted a triumph, but
whenever he had time to come up and breathe he fired off volleys of
proclamations. In sixteen years a painstaking Colombian counted six
hundred ninety-six battles, which makes an average of one every
ninth day, not to mention massacres; but for all his puny body and
feeble health Bolivar was always to be found in the very thick of the
scrimmage.
Europe had entered on the peace of Waterloo, but the ghouls
who stripped the dead after Napoleon’s battles had uniforms to sell
which went to clothe the fantastic mobs, republican and royalist, who
drenched all Spanish America with blood. There were soldiers, too,
whose trade of war was at an end in Europe, who gladly listened to
Bolivar’s agents, who offered gorgeous uniforms and promised
splendid wages—never paid—and who came to join in the war for
“liberty.” Three hundred Germans and nearly six thousand British
veterans joined Bolivar’s colors to fight for the freedom of America,
and nearly all of them perished in battle or by disease. Bolivar was
never without British officers, preferred British troops to all others,
and in his later years really earned the loyal love they gave him,
while they taught the liberator how to behave like a white man.
It was in 1819 that Bolivar led a force of two thousand five
hundred men across a flooded prairie. For a week they were up to
their knees, at times to their necks in water under a tropic deluge of
rain, swimming a dozen rivers beset by alligators. The climate and
starvation bore very heavily upon the British troops. Beyond the flood
they climbed the eastern Andes and crossed the Paramo at a height
of thirteen thousand feet, swept by an icy wind in blinding fog—hard
going for Venezuelans.
 An Irishman, Colonel Rook, commanded the British contingent.
“All,” he reported, “was quite well with his corps, which had had quite
a pleasant march” through the awful gorges and over the freezing
Paramo. A Venezuelan officer remarked here that one-fourth of the
men had perished.
“It was true,” said Rook, “but it really was a very good thing, for
the men who had dropped out were all the wastrels and weaklings of
the force.”
Great was the astonishment of the royalists when Bolivar
dropped on them out of the clouds, and in the battle of Boyacá they
were put to rout. Next day Colonel Rook had his arm cut off by the
surgeons, chaffing them about the beautiful limb he was losing. He
died of the operation, but the British legion went on from victory to
victory, melting away like snow until at the end negroes and Indians
filled its illustrious companies. Colombia, Venezuela and Equador,
Peru and Bolivia were freed from the Spanish yoke and, in the main,
released by Bolivar’s tireless, unfailing and undaunted courage. But
they could not stand his braggart proclamations, would not have him
or any man for master, began a series of squabbles and revolutions
that have lasted ever since, and proved themselves unfit for the
freedom Bolivar gave. He knew at the end that he had given his life
for a myth. On the eighth December, 1830, he dictated his final
proclamation and on the tenth received the last rites of the church,
being still his old braggart self. “Colombians! my last wishes are for
the welfare of the fatherland. If my death contributes to the cessation
of party strife, and to the consolidation of the Union, I shall descend
in peace to the grave.” On the seventeenth his troubled spirit
passed.
 LIV
A. D. 1812
THE ALMIRANTE COCHRANE

WHEN Lieutenant Lord Thomas Cochrane commanded the brig of

war Speedy, he used to carry about a whole broadside of her
cannon-balls in his pocket. He had fifty-four men when he laid his toy
boat alongside a Spanish frigate with thirty-two heavy guns and
three hundred nineteen men, but the Spaniard could not fire down
into his decks, whereas he blasted her with his treble-shotted pop-
guns. Leaving only the doctor on board he boarded that Spaniard,
got more than he bargained for, and would have been wiped out, but
that a detachment of his sailors dressed to resemble black demons,
charged down from the forecastle head. The Spaniards were so
shocked that they surrendered.
For thirteen months the Speedy romped about, capturing in all
fifty ships, one hundred and twenty-two guns, five hundred prisoners.
Then she gave chase to three French battle-ships by mistake, and
met with a dreadful end.
In 1809, Cochrane, being a bit of a chemist, and a first-rate
mechanic, was allowed to make fireworks hulks loaded with
explosives—with which he attacked a French fleet in the anchorage
at Aix. The fleet got into a panic and destroyed itself.
And all his battles read like fairy tales, for this long-legged, red-
haired Scot, rivaled Lord Nelson himself in genius and daring. At war
he was the hero and idol of the fleet, but in peace a demon, restless,
fractious, fiendish in humor, deadly in rage, playing schoolboy jokes
on the admiralty and the parliament. He could not be happy without
making swarms of powerful enemies, and those enemies waited
their chance.
In February, 1814, a French officer landed at Dover with tidings
that the Emperor Napoleon had been slain by Cossacks. The
messenger’s progress became a triumphal procession, and amid
public rejoicings he entered London to deliver his papers at the
admiralty. Bells pealed, cannon thundered, the stock exchange went
mad with the rise of prices, while the messenger—a Mr. Berenger—
sneaked to the lodgings of an acquaintance, Lord Cochrane, and
borrowed civilian clothes.
His news was false, his despatch a forgery, he had been hired by
Cochrane’s uncle, a stock-exchange speculator, to contrive the
whole blackguardly hoax. Cochrane knew nothing of the plot, but for
the mere lending of that suit of clothes, he was sentenced to the
pillory, a year’s imprisonment, and a fine of a thousand pounds. He
was struck from the rolls of the navy, expelled from the house of
commons, his banner as a Knight of the Bath torn down and thrown
from the doors of Henry VII’s Chapel at Westminster. In the end he
was driven to disgraceful exile and hopeless ruin.
Four years later Cochrane, commanding the Chilian navy, sailed
from Valparaiso to fight the Spanish fleet. Running away from his
mother, a son of his—Tom Cochrane, junior—aged five, contrived to
sail with the admiral, and in his first engagement, was spattered with
the blood and brains of a marine.
“I’m not hurt, papa,” said the imp, “the shot didn’t touch me. Jack
says that the ball is not made that will hurt mama’s boy.” Jack proved
to be right, but it was in that engagement that Cochrane earned his
Spanish title, “The Devil.” Three times he attempted to take Callao
from the Spaniards, then in disgusted failure dispersed his useless
squadron, and went off with his flag ship to Valdivia. For lack of
officers, he kept the deck himself until he dropped. When he went
below for a nap, the lieutenant left a middy in command, but the
middy went to sleep and the ship was cast away.
Cochrane got her afloat; then, with all his gunpowder wet, went
off with his sinking wreck to attack Valdivia. The place was a Spanish
stronghold with fifteen forts and one hundred and fifteen guns.
Cochrane, preferring to depend on cold steel, left the muskets
behind, wrecked his boats in the surf, let his men swim, led them
straight at the Spaniards, stormed the batteries, and seized the city.
So he found some nice new ships, and an arsenal to equip them, for
his next attack on Callao.
He had a fancy for the frigate, Esmeralda, which lay in Callao—
thought she would suit him for a cruiser. She happened to be
protected by a Spanish fleet, and batteries mounting three hundred
guns, but Cochrane did not mind. El Diablo first eased the minds of
the Spaniards by sending away two out of his three small vessels,
but kept the bulk of their men, and all their boats, a detail not
observed by the weary enemy. His boarding party, two hundred and
forty strong, stole into the anchorage at midnight, and sorely
surprised the Esmeralda. Cochrane, first on board, was felled with
the butt end of a musket, and thrown back into his boat grievously
hurt, in addition to which he had a bullet through his thigh before he
took possession of the frigate. The fleet and batteries had opened
fire, but El Diablo noticed that two neutral ships protected
themselves with a display of lanterns arranged as a signal, “Please
don’t hit me.” “That’s good enough for me,” said Cochrane and
copied those lights which protected the neutrals. When the
bewildered Spaniards saw his lanterns also, they promptly attacked
the neutrals. So Cochrane stole away with his prize.
Although the great sailor delivered Chili and Peru from the
Spaniards, the patriots ungratefully despoiled him of all his pay and
rewards. Cochrane has been described as “a destroying angel with a
limited income and a turn for politics.” Anyway he was
misunderstood, and left Chili disgusted, to attend to the liberation of
Brazil from the Portuguese. But if the Chilians were thieves, the
Brazilians proved to be both thieves and cowards. Reporting to the
Brazilian government that all their cartridges, fuses, guns, powder,
spars and sails, were alike rotten, and all their men an encumbrance,
he dismantled a squadron to find equipment for a single ship, the
Pedro Primeiro. This he manned with British and Yankee
adventurers. He had two other small but fairly effective ships when
he commenced to threaten Bahia. There lay thirteen Portuguese
war-ships, mounting four hundred and eighteen guns, seventy
merchant ships, and a garrison of several thousand men. El Diablo’s
blockade reduced the whole to starvation, the threat of his fireworks
sent them into convulsions, and their leaders resolved on flight to
Portugal. So the troops were embarked, the rich people took ship
with their treasure, and the squadron escorted them to sea, where
Cochrane grinned in the offing. For fifteen days he hung in the rear
of that fleet, cutting off ships as they straggled. He had not a man to
spare for charge of his prizes, but when he caught a ship he staved
her water casks, disabled her rigging so that she could only run
before the wind back to Bahia, and threw every weapon overboard.
He captured seventy odd ships, half the troops, all the treasure,
fought and out-maneuvered the war fleet so that he could not be
caught, and only let thirteen wretched vessels escape to Lisbon.
Such a deed of war has never been matched in the world’s annals,
and Cochrane followed it by forcing the whole of Northern Brazil to
an abject surrender.
Like the patriots of Chili and Peru, the Brazilians gratefully
rewarded their liberator by cheating him out of his pay; so next he
turned to deliver Greece from the Turks. Very soon he found that
even the Brazilians were perfect gentlemen compared with the
Greek patriots, and the heart-sick man went home.
England was sorry for the way she had treated her hero, gave
back his naval rank and made him admiral with command-in-chief of
a British fleet at sea, restored his banner as a Knight of the Bath in
Henry VII’s chapel, granted a pension, and at the end, found him a
resting-place in the Abbey. On his father’s death, he succeeded to
the earldom of Dundonald, and down to 1860, when the old man
went to his rest, his life was devoted to untiring service. He was
among the first inventors to apply coal gas to light English streets
and homes; he designed the boilers long in use by the English navy;
made a bitumen concrete for paving; and offered plans for the
reduction of Sebastopol which would have averted all the horrors of
the siege. Yet even to his eightieth year he was apt to shock and
terrify all official persons, and when he was buried in the nave of the
Abbey, Lord Brougham pronounced his strange obituary. “What,” he
exclaimed at the grave side, “no cabinet minister, no officer of state
to grace this great man’s funeral!” Perhaps they were still scared of
the poor old hero.
 LV
A.D. 1823
THE SOUTH SEA CANNIBALS

FAR back in the long ago time New Zealand was a crowded happy
land. Big Maori fortress villages crowned the hilltops, broad farms
covered the hillsides; the chiefs kept a good table, cooking was
excellent, and especially when prisoners were in season, the people
feasted between sleeps, or, should provisions fail, sacked the next
parish for a supply of meat. So many parishes were sacked and
eaten, that in the course of time the chiefs led their tribes to quite a
distance before they could find a nice fat edible village, but still the
individual citizen felt crowded after meals, and all was well.
Then came the Pakehas, the white men, trading, with muskets
for sale, and the tribe that failed to get a trader to deal with was very
soon wiped out. A musket cost a ton of flax, and to pile up enough to
buy one a whole tribe must leave its hill fortress to camp in
unwholesome flax swamps. The people worked themselves thin to
buy guns, powder and iron tools for farming, but they cherished their
Pakeha as a priceless treasure in special charge of the chief, and if a
white man was eaten, it was clear proof that he was entirely useless
alive, or a quite detestable character. The good Pakehas became
Maori warriors, a little particular as to their meat being really pig, but
otherwise well mannered and popular.
Now of these Pakeha Maoris, one has left a book. He omitted his
name from the book of Old New Zealand, and never mentioned
dates, but tradition says he was Mr. F. C. Maning, and that he lived
as a Maori and trader for forty years, from 1823 to 1863 when the
work was published.
 In the days when Mr. Maning reached the North Island a trader
was valued at twenty times his weight in muskets, equivalent say, to
the sum total of the British National Debt. Runaway sailors however,
were quite cheap. “Two men of this description were hospitably
entertained one night by a chief, a very particular friend of mine,
who, to pay himself for his trouble and outlay, ate one of them next
morning.”
Maning came ashore on the back of a warrior by the name of
Melons, who capsized in an ebb tide running like a sluice, at which
the white man, displeased, held the native’s head under water by
way of punishment. When they got ashore Melons wanted to get
even, so challenged the Pakeha to a wrestling match. Both were in
the pink of condition, the Maori, twenty-five years of age, and a
heavy-weight, the other a boy full of animal spirits and tough as
leather. After the battle Melons sat up rather dazed, offered his hand,
and venting his entire stock of English, said “How do you do?”
But then came a powerful chief, by name Relation-eater. “Pretty
work this,” he began, “good work. I won’t stand this not at all! not at
all! not at all!” (The last sentence took three jumps, a step and a turn
round, to keep correct time.) “Who killed the Pakeha? It was Melons.
You are a nice man, killing my Pakeha ... we shall be called the
‘Pakeha killkillers’; I shall be sick with shame; the Pakeha will run
away; what if you had killed him dead, or broken his bones”.... (Here
poor Melones burst out crying like an infant). “Where is the hat?
Where the shoes? The Pakeha is robbed! he is murdered!” Here a
wild howl from Melons.
The local trader took Mr. Maning to live with him, but it was
known to the tribes that the newcomer really and truly belonged to
Relation-eater. Not long had he been settled when there occurred a
meeting between his tribe and another, a game of bluff, when the
warriors of both sides danced the splendid Haka, most blood-
curdling, hair-lifting of all ceremonials. Afterward old Relation-eater
singled out the horrible savage who had begun the war-dance, and
these two tender-hearted individuals for a full half-hour, seated on
the ground hanging on each other’s necks, gave vent to a chorus of
skilfully modulated howling. “So there was peace,” and during the
ceremonies Maning came upon a circle of what seemed to be Maori
chiefs, until drawing near he found that their nodding heads had
nobody underneath. Raw heads had been stuck on slender rods,
with cross sticks to carry the robes, “Looking at the ’eds, sir?” asked
an English sailor. “’Eds was werry scarce—they had to tattoo a slave
a bit ago, and the villain ran away, tattooin’ and all!”
“What!”
“Bolted before he was fit to kill,” said the sailor, mournful to think
how dishonest people could be.
Once the head chief, having need to punish a rebellious vassal,
sent Relation-eater, who plundered and burned the offending village.
The vassal decamped with his tribe.
“Well, about three months after this, about daylight I was
aroused by a great uproar.... Out I ran at once and perceived that M
—’s premises were being sacked by the rebellious vassal who ...
was taking this means of revenging himself for the rough handling he
had received from our chief. Men were rushing in mad haste through
the smashed windows and doors, loaded with everything they could
lay hands upon.... A large canoe was floating near to the house, and
was being rapidly filled with plunder. I saw a fat old Maori woman
who was washerwoman, being dragged along the ground by a huge
fellow who was trying to tear from her grasp one of my shirts, to
which she clung with perfect desperation. I perceived at a glance
that the faithful old creature would probably save a sleeve.
“An old man-of-war’s man defending his washing, called out, ‘Hit
out, sir! ... our mob will be here in five minutes!’
“The odds were terrible, but ... I at once floored a native who was
rushing by me.... I then perceived that he was one of our own people
... so to balance things I knocked down another! and then felt myself
seized round the waist from behind.
“The old sailor was down now but fighting three men at once,
while his striped shirt and canvas trousers still hung proudly on the
fence.
“Then came our mob to the rescue and the assailants fled.
 “Some time after this a little incident worth noting happened at
my friend M—’s place. Our chief had for some time back a sort of
dispute with another magnate.... The question was at last brought to
a fair hearing at my friend’s house. The arguments on both sides
were very forcible; so much so that in the course of the arbitration
our chief and thirty of his principal witnesses were shot dead in a
heap before my friend’s door, and sixty others badly wounded, and
my friend’s house and store blown up and burnt to ashes.
“My friend was, however, consoled by hundreds of friends who
came in large parties to condole with him, and who, as was quite
correct in such cases, shot and ate all his stock, sheep, pigs, ducks,
geese, fowls, etc., all in high compliment to himself; he felt proud....
He did not, however, survive these honors long.”
Mr. Maning took this poor gentleman’s place as trader, and
earnestly studied native etiquette, on which his comments are
always deliciously funny. Two young Australians were his guests
when there arrived one day a Maori desperado who wanted
blankets; and “to explain his views more clearly knocked both my
friends down, threatened to kill them both with his tomahawk, then
rushed into the bedroom, dragged out all the bedclothes, and burnt
them on the kitchen fire.”
A few weeks later, Mr. Maning being alone, and reading a year-
old Sydney paper, the desperado called. “‘Friend,’ said I; ‘my advice
to you is to be off.’
“He made no answer but a scowl of defiance. ‘I am thinking,
friend, that this is my house,’ said I, and springing upon him I placed
my foot to his shoulder, and gave him a shove which would have
sent most people heels over head.... But quick as lightning ... he
bounded from the ground, flung his mat away over his head, and
struck a furious blow at my head with his tomahawk. I caught the
tomahawk in full descent; the edge grazed my hand; but my arm,
stiffened like a bar of iron, arrested the blow. He made one furious,
but ineffectual attempt to wrest the tomahawk from my grasp; and
then we seized one another round the middle, and struggled like
maniacs in the endeavor to dash each other against the boarded