BLACKBOOK

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 A PROJECT REPORT ON

Motion Controlled Pick & Place Obstacle Avoider Robotic Vehicle

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (--------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

--------------------------- (---------------------------)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AMITY UNIVERSITY MUMBAI

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting
before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and
knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

______________, Department of ME, our project guide, for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable
suggestions.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either
directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

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DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled ‘Hand Motion Controlled
Robotic Vehicle, being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor
of Engineering Degree in Mechanical Engineering, affiliated to _________
University, is the work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________

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CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1. ABSTRACT 10

2. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 13

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

4. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

4.1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

4.2 MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52/C51)
4.3 PUSH BUTTONS
4.4 MOTOR DRIVER L293D

4.5 DC MOTOR

4.6 ENCODER AND DECODER (HT12E, HT12D)

4.7 MICRO CONTROLLER AT89S52

4.8 BATTERY

4.9 RF MODULE

4.10 BC547

4.11 1N4007

4.12 RESISTOR

4.13 CAPACITOR

5. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS 56

5.1 IDE 57

5.2 CONCEPT OF COMPILER 57

5.3 CONCEPT OF CROSS COMPILER 58

5.4 KEIL C CROSS COMPILER 59

5.5 BUILDING AN APPLICATION IN UVISION2

59

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 5.6 CREATING YOUR OWN APPLICATION IN UVISION2 59

5.7 DEBUGGING AN APPLICATION IN UVISION2 60

5.8 STARTING UVISION2 & CREATING A PROJECT 61

5.9 WINDOWS_ FILES 61

5.10 BUILDING PROJECTS & CREATING HEX FILES 61

5.11 CPU SIMULATION 62

5.12 DATABASE SELECTION 62

5.13 START DEBUGGING 63

5.14 DISASSEMBLY WINDOW 63

5.15 EMBEDDED C 64

6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM 66

6.1 DESCRIPTION 67

7. LAYOUT DIAGRAM 71

8. BILL OF MATERIALS 72

9. CODING 75

9.1 COMPILER 76

9.2 SOURCE CODE 84

10. HARDWARE TESTING 88

10.1 CONTINUITY TEST 88

10.2 POWER ON TEST 89

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 94

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LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.

2(a) EMBEDDED DESIGN CALLS 19

2(b) ‘V’ DIAGRAM 19

3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT

4.1 A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER 26

4.2(a) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE

REGULATOR

4.2(c) RATING OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

4.2(c) PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR 21

4.5(a) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52 24

4.5(b) PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52 25

4.5(c) OSCILLATOR CONNECTIONS 29

4.5(d) EXTERNAL CLOCK DRIVE CONFIG. 30

4.6(a) RELAY

4.6(b) INTERNAL CIRCUIT OF RELAY

4.2.6(c) ULN2003

4.7(a) PUSH ON BUTTON 51

4.7(b) TABLE FOR TYPES OF PUSH BUTTONS

4.8(a) L293D PINDIAGRAM

4.8(b) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF L293D

4.8(c) DC MOTOR

4.10(a) PIN DIAGRAM

4.10(b) BLOCK DIAGRAM

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6 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

7 LAYOUT DIAGRAM

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 ABSTRACT

We have approached the era of robots being used in transport as well as military applications. Pick and place
mechanisms are used in robotic vehicles for goods transport as well as military applications like bomb defusal.
Robots are usually controlled through remotes with joysticks and a buttons. These remotes are not always
comfortable to use and also have a strain on fingers after constant use. So here we use a motion controlled
approach to tackle this issue. We propose a completely hand motion controller robotic vehicle using tilting
motions which does not need a single button press. This allows us to control vehicle motion as well as the pick
and place arm simultaneously. We make use of an atmega based microcontroller circuitry in the transmitter
section to transmit the motion commands sent by accelerometer sensor through rf to the receiver unit. The
receiver unit is equipped with an rf receivers to receive the transmissions parallely from both the transmission
units. We then use an 8051 family microcontroller to convert the received in to motion commands. These
motion commands operate the vehicle as well as the pick and place arm parallely to achieve complete robot
movement without any button press.

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 2. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

What is embedded system?

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,

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autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

Build
Operating Download
Digital Integrated circuit
Electronic designSystems design Debug
Analog
Electronic design Computer Tools
Embedded
Architecture
Sensors and Systems
measurements Software
Engineering
Electric motors
and actuators Control Data
Engineering Communication
Embedded system design calls on many disciplines

Figure 2(a): Embedded system design calls

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

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 System
System
Definiti
Testing
on Hardwa
Rapid re-in-
Prototypi the-
ng Loop
Testing
Targeting
Figuren 2(b) “V Diagram”

Characteristics of Embedded System

• An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer.
• They will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in
addition to those we encounter when we write applications.
– Throughput – Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.
– Response–Our system may need to react to events quickly.
– Testability–Setting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult.
– Debugability–Without a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is
doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem.
– Reliability – embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without
human intervention.
– Memory space – Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make
the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists.
– Program installation – you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems.
– Power consumption – Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power.
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 – Processor hogs – computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem.
– Cost – Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system
projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.

• Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a

serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk
drives.

APPLICATIONS
1) Military and aerospace embedded software applications
2) C o m m u n i c a t i o n A p p l i c a t i o n s
3) I n d u s t r i a l a u t o m a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s c o n t r o l s o f t w a r e
4) Mastering the complexity of applications.
5) Reduction of product design time.
6) Real time processing of ever increasing amounts of data.
7) Intelligent, autonomous sensors.

CLASSIFICATION
 Real Time Systems.
 RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.
 A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer.

RTS CLASSIFICATION
 Hard Real Time Systems
 Soft Real Time System

HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM

 "Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.

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  Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.

SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM

 "Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still must operate very
quickly and repeatable.
 Example: Railway reservation system – takes a few extra seconds the data remains valid.

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3. PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM

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What’s an accelerometer measure? Well, acceleration. You know…how fast something is speeding up or
slowing down. You’ll see acceleration displayed either in units of meters per second squared (m/s2), or G-force
(g), which is about 9.8m/s2 (the exact value depends on your elevation and the mass of the planet you’re on).

Accelerometers are used to sense both static (e.g. gravity) and dynamic (e.g. sudden starts/stops) acceleration.
One of the more widely used applications for accelerometers is tilt-sensing. Because they are affected by the
acceleration of gravity, an accelerometer can tell you how it’s oriented with respect to the Earth’s surface. For
example, Apple’s iPhone has an accelerometer, which lets it know whether it’s being held in portrait or

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landscape mode. An accelerometer can also be used to sense motion. For instance, an accelerometer in
Nintendo’s WiiMote can be used to sense emulated forehands and backhands of a tennis racket, or rolls of a
bowling ball. Finally, an accelerometer can also be used to sense if a device is in a state of free fall. This
feature is implemented in several hard drives: if a drop is sensed, the hard drive is quickly switched off to
protect against data loss.

Now that you know what they do, let’s consider what characteristics you should be looking for when selecting
your accelerometer:

 Range - The upper and lower limits of what the accelerometer can measure is also known as its range.
In most cases, a smaller full-scale range means a more sensitive output; so you can get a more precise
reading out of an accelerometer with a low full-scale range.
You want to select a sensing range that will best fit your project, if your project will only be subjected
to accelerations between +2g and -2g, a ±250g-ranged accelerometer won’t give you much, if any,
precision.
We have a good assortment of accelerometers, with maximum ranges stretching from ±1g to ±250g.
Most of our accelerometers are set to a hard maximum/minimum range, however some of the fancier
accelerometers feature selectable ranges.
 Interface - This is another one of the more important specifications. Accelerometers will have either
an analog, pulse-width modulated (PWM), or digital interface.
o Accelerometers with an analog output will produce a voltage that is directly proportional to
the sensed acceleration. At 0g, the analog output will usually reside at about the middle of the
supplied voltage (e.g. 1.65V for a 3.3V sensor). Generally this interface is the easiest to work
with, as analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are implemented in most microcontrollers.
o Accelerometers with a PWM interface will produce a square wave with a fixed frequency, but
the duty cycle of the pulse will vary with the sensed acceleration. These are pretty rare; we’ve
only got one in our catalog.
o Digital accelerometers usually feature a serial interface be it SPI or I²C. Depending on your
experience, these may be the most difficult to get integrated with your microcontroller. That
said, digital accelerometers are popular because they usually have more features, and are less
susceptible to noise than their analog counterparts.
 Number of axes measured - This one’s very straightforward: out of the three axes possible (x, y, and
z), how many can the accelerometer sense? Three-axis accelerometers are usually the way to go; they
are the most common and they are really no more expensive than equivalently sensitive one or two
axis accelerometers.
 Power Usage - If your project is battery powered, you might want to consider how much power the
accelerometer will consume. The required current consumption will usually be in the 100s of µA
range. Some sensors also feature sleep functionality to conserve energy when the accelerometer isn’t
needed.
 Bonus Features - Many more recently developed accelerometers may have a few nifty features,
beyond just producing acceleration data. These newer accelerometers may include features like
selectable measurement ranges, sleep control, 0-g detection, and tap sensing.

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 4. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

1. BATTERY

2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR

3. MICRO CONTROLLER AT89S8052

4. PUSH BUTTONS

5. L293D

6. DC MOTOR

7. RF MODULE

8. Accelerometer

9. BC547

10. 1N4007

11. RESISTOR

12. CAPACITOR
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19
 4.1 BATTERY

An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert

stored chemical energy into electrical energy. The battery has become a common power source
for many household and industrial applications.

Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in standby power
applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches;
larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

WORKING OF BATTERY:

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It

consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cat ions. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or
negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cat ions
(positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the red ox reaction
that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cat ions at the cathode, while
oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each
other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two half-cells with
different electrolytes. In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is
porous to ions but not the bulk of the electrolytes prevents mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs and, in other
words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither

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charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it would
perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge, and
the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to
the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy
into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by
Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and
industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates
US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth. There are two types of batteries:
primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and
secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used
multiple times. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches;
larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers.

Principle of operation
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a
number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the
electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode;
the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,
cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by

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the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half
cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes have
emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference
between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical driving force or
across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in
volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-
circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage
of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible
internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then
dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on
complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance
increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the
voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the
shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand
the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

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 4.2VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805
Features
• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
Internal Block Diagram

FIG 4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

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24
Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Typical Performance Characteristics

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 FIG 4.2(c): PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF REGULATOR

4.4 MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K

bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density non volatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard
80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non volatile memory programmer. By combining
a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective
solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard
features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers,
three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port,
on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry.

In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero
frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the
CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue
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functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling
all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.

Features:

• Compatible with MCS®-51 Products

• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory

– Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles

• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range

• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz

• Three-level Program Memory Lock

• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

• 32 Programmable I/O Lines

• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

• Eight Interrupt Sources

• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode

• Watchdog Timer

• Dual Data Pointer

• Power-off Flag

• Fast Programming Time

• Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)

• Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option.

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Block Diagram of AT89S52:

FIG 4.5(A): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

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Pin Configurations of AT89S52

FIG 4.5(b): PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

Pin Description:

VCC:
Supply voltage.

GND:
Ground

Port 0:
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink
eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance
inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program
verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.
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Port 1:
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be
configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2
trigger input (P1.1/T2EX).

Port 2:
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory
that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-
ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX
@ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.

Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.

RST:
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The
DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state
of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

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ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address
during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during
Flash programming.
In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and
may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is
skipped during each access to external data memory.

PSEN:
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.

EA/VPP:
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be
strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz

31
crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source,
XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 6.2. There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal
clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high
and low time specifications must be observed.

FIG 4.5(c): Oscillator Connections

FIG 4.5(d): External Clock Drive Configuration

Idle Mode
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals remain active. The
mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions
registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled
interrupt or by a hardware reset.

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Power down Mode
In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power
down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain
their values until the power down mode is terminated. The only exit from power down is a
hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset
should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held
active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize

4.5 PUSH BUTTONS

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism

for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to
return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the
button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

Uses:
In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a mechanical
linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a
stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple
manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the
machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.
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 Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to
facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and
are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large
mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for
their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators
and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the
attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.

The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the
back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when
pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact
designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action
of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start.

In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a
military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.

Push to ON button:

Fig 4.7(a): push on button

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become
connected. This makes the switching operation using the push button.

34
 4.6 MOTOR DRIVER (L293D)

Features:
 Wide supply-voltage range: 4.5V to 36V
 Separate input- logic supply
 Internal ESD protection
 Thermal shutdown
 High-Noise-Immunity input
 Functional Replacements for SGS L293 and SGS L293D
 Output current 1A per channel (600 mA for L293D)
 Peak output current 2 A per channel (1.2 A for L293D)
 Output clamp diodes for Inductive Transient Suppression(L293D)

DESCRIPTION:

L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as
current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current
signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.

L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation,
two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor
operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic
00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start
operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result, the
outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is
low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.

35
Block diagram:

FIG: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF L293D

Pin Diagram:

36
Pin description:

37
 4.7 DC MOTOR

What is DC Motor?

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. In any electric
motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor generates a
magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force
proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As
you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities
attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration
of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying
conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet
or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a
"South" polarization).

Fig.4.8(c) DC motor

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator,
field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors, the external magnetic field is
produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor --
this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor
rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the
windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common
motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

38
 The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that
when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are
misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As
the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the
next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current
through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue
rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very
common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine
how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation
(perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole
motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes
touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste
energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor
is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple".
So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one
via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):

39
 You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but
two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to
the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this
occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the
meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring.

4.8 RF COMMUNICATION

General physics of radio signals

RF communication works by creating electromagnetic waves at a source and being able to pick
up those electromagnetic waves at a particular destination. These electromagnetic waves travel
through the air at near the speed of light. The wavelength of an electromagnetic signal is
inversely proportional to the frequency; the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.

Frequency is measured in Hertz (cycles per second) and radio frequencies are measured in
kilohertz (KHz or thousands of cycles per second), megahertz (MHz or millions of cycles per
second) and gigahertz (GHz or billions of cycles per second). Higher frequencies result in shorter
wavelengths. The wavelength for a 900 MHz device is longer than that of a 2.4 GHz device.

In general, signals with longer wavelengths travel a greater distance and penetrate through, and
around objects better than signals with shorter wavelengths.

How does an RF communication system work?

40
Imagine an RF transmitter wiggling an electron in one location. This wiggling electron causes a
ripple effect, somewhat akin to dropping a pebble in a pond. The effect is an electromagnetic
(EM) wave that travels out from the initial location resulting in electrons wiggling in remote
locations. An RF receiver can detect this remote electron wiggling.

The RF communication system then utilizes this phenomenon by wiggling electrons in a specific
pattern to represent information. The receiver can make this same information available at a
remote location; communicating with no wires.

In most wireless systems, a designer has two overriding constraints: it must operate over a
certain distance (range) and transfer a certain amount of information within a time frame (data
rate). Then the economics of the system must work out (price) along with acquiring government
agency approvals (regulations and licensing).

How is range determined?

In order to accurately compute range – it is essential to understand a few terms:

dB - Decibels

Decibels are logarithmic units that are often used to represent RF power. To convert from watts
to dB: Power in dB = 10* (log x) where x is the power in watts.

Another unit of measure that is encountered often is dBm (dB milliwatts). The conversion
formula for it is Power in dBm = 10* (log x) where x is the power in milliwatts.

Line-of-site (LOS)

Line-of-site when speaking of RF means more than just being able to see the receiving antenna
from the transmitting antenna. In, order to have true line-of-site no objects (including trees,
houses or the ground) can be in the Fresnel zone. The Fresnel zone is the area around the visual
line-of-sight that radio waves spread out into after they leave the antenna. This area must be clear
or else signal strength will weaken.

41
There are essentially two parameters to look at when trying to determine range.

42
Transmit Power

Transmit power refers to the amount of RF power that comes out of the antenna port of the radio.
Transmit power is usually measured in Watts, milliwatts or dBm.

Receiver sensitivity

Receiver sensitivity refers to the minimum level signal the radio can demodulate. It is convenient
to use an example with sound waves; Transmit power is how loud someone is yelling and receive
sensitivity would be how soft a voice someone can hear. Transmit power and receive sensitivity
together constitute what is known as “link budget”. The link budget is the total amount of signal
attenuation you can have between the transmitter and receiver and still have communication
occur.

Example:
Maxstream 9XStream TXPower: 20dBm
Maxstream 9XStream RXSensitivity: -110dBm
Total Link budget: 130dBm.

For line-of-site situations, a mathematical formula can be used to figure out the approximate
range for a given link budget. For non line-of-site applications range calculations are more
complex because of the various ways the signal can be attenuated.

RF communications and data rate

Data rates are usually dictated by the system - how much data must be transferred and how often
does the transfer need to take place. Lower data rates, allow the radio module to have better
receive sensitivity and thus more range. In the XStream modules the 9600 baud module has 3dB
more sensitivity than the 19200 baud module. This means about 30% more distance in line-of-
sight conditions. Higher data rates allow the communication to take place in less time, potentially
using less power to transmit.

43
 RF MODULES

What is RF?
RF itself has become synonymous with wireless and high-frequency signals, describing
anything from AM radio between 535 kHz and 1605 kHz to computer local area networks
(LANs) at 2.4 GHz. However, RF has traditionally defined frequencies from a few kHz to
roughly 1 GHz. If one considers microwave frequencies as RF, this range extends to 300 GHz.
The following two tables outline the various nomenclatures for the frequency bands. The third
table outlines some of the applications at each of the various frequency bands.
Table 1: Frequency Band Designations

Features
 Range in open space(Standard Conditions) : 100 Meters
 RX Receiver Frequency : 433 MHz
 RX Typical Sensitivity : 105 Dbm
 RX Supply Current : 3.5 mA
 RX IF Frequency : 1MHz
 Low Power Consumption
 Easy For Application
 RX Operating Voltage : 5V

44
  TX Frequency Range : 433.92 MHz
 TX Supply Voltage : 3V ~ 6V
 TX Out Put Power : 4 ~ 12 Dbm

RF TRANSMITTER:

Fig 4.9(a): 315/433 MHz TRANSMITTER

General Description:
The ST-TX01-ASK is an ASK Hybrid transmitter module. ST-TX01-ASK is designed by the
Saw Resonator, with an effective low cost, small size, and simple-to-use for designing.
Frequency Range: 315 / 433.92 MHZ.
Supply Voltage: 3~12V.
Output Power: 4~16dBm
Circuit Shape: Saw

PIN Description

45
 Absolute Maximum Ratings
Specification
Parameter Symbol Condition Unit
Min. Typic Max.
al
Operation 3 5 12V V
Voltage V V
315MHz 4 1 16 dBm
DATA 5V 0
Output power Psens Supply 11 2 57 mA
1Kbps Data current 0
Rate 434MHz 4 1 16 dBm
0
Supply 11 2 59 mA
current 2
Tune on Time To Data start out by Vcc turn 10 20 ms
n on

Data Rate 200 1k 3k bps

Input duty Vcc=5V; 1kbps data 40 60 %

rate
Temperature -20 +80 ℃

Applications
*Wireless security systems
*Car Alarm systems
*Remote controls.
*Sensor reporting
*Automation systems

46
RF RECEIVER:

Fig.4.9(b):315/434 MHz ASK RECEIVER

General Description:
The ST-RX02-ASK is an ASK Hybrid receiver module. A effective low cost solution for using at
315/433.92 MHZ. The circuit shape of ST-RX02-ASK is L/C. Receiver Frequency: 315 / 433.92 MHZ
Typical sensitivity: -105dBm

Supply Current: 3.5mA IF Frequency: 1MHz

Features:
 Low power consumption
 Easy for application
 Operation temperature range: ﹣20℃～＋70℃
 Operation voltage: 5 Volts.
 Available frequency at: 315/434 MHz

Pin Description

47
 RF ENCODER AND DECODER

RF ENCODER HT 12E:
Features
 Operating voltage is 2.4V~12V for the HT12E.
 Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology
 Low standby current: 0.1_A (typ.) at VDD=5V
 HT12A with a 38kHz carrier for infrared transmission medium
 Minimum transmission words are Four words for the HT12E
 Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor
 Data code has positive polarity
 Minimal external components
 HT12A/E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package

Applications
 Burglar alarm system
 Smoke and fire alarm system
 Garage door controllers
 Car door controllers
 Car alarm system
 Security system
 Cordless telephones
 Other remote control systems

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The RF encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system m applications.
They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data
bits. Each address/ data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed

48
addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared
transmission medium. Upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger
on the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further enhances the application for
flexibility of the 2^12 series of encoders. The HT12A additionally provides a 38 kHz carrier
for infrared systems.

FIG4.9 (a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HT 12E

49
PIN DIAGRAMS

FIG 4.9(b): PIN DIAGRAM OF HT12E

PIN DESCRIPTION:

FIG4.9(c): PIN DESCRIPTION OF HT12E

50
RF DECODER(HT 12D):
Features
 Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V.
 Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology.
 Low standby current.
 Capable of decoding 12 bits of information.
 Binary address setting.
 Received codes are checked 3 times.
 Address/Data number combination for HT12D: 8 address bits and 4 data bits.
 Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor
 Valid transmission indicator
 Easy interface with an RF or an infrared transmission medium
 Minimal external components
 Pair with Holtek’s 212 series of encoders
 18-pin DIP, 20-pin SOP package

Applications
 Burglar alarm system
 Smoke and fire alarm system
 Garage door controllers
 Car door controllers
 Car alarm system
 Security system
 Cordless telephones
 Other remote control systems

General Description
The 212 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications.
They are paired with Holtek’s 212 series of encoders (refer to the encoder/decoder cross

51
reference table). For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of
addresses and data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from
a programmed 212 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR
transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their
local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found; the input data codes are decoded and
then transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission.
The 212 series of decoders are capable of decoding information that consists of N bits of address
and 12_N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits and 4 data
bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of address information.

FIG4.9 (d): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HT 12D

52
PIN DIAGRAMS:

FIG 4.9(e): PIN DIAGRAM

PIN DESCRIPTION:

FIG 4.9(f): PIN DESCRIPTION

53
 4.9 BC 547

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.

BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However,
this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, (β). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to
the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (α), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the
value of this parameter α is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this
value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

54
An NPN Transistor Configuration

4.10 1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

55
 The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market
are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1
Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used
in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be
used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by
company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes
IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the PN junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must

56
first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction and what happens initially
within the junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper

wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential
of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal
and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron from
the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the current path.
Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the
negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal
of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons
are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the
steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal

4.11 RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by

producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
57
 V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size,
and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be
physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:
58
 Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-
chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices,
and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured

59
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

4.12 CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors

separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated
conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor
of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy
capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

60
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage

61
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges

62
on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q
on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves
the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one
electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the
charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

63
 .
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

64
 5. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO KEIL MICRO VISION (IDE)

Keil an ARM Company makes C compilers, macro assemblers, real-time kernels,

debuggers, simulators, integrated environments, evaluation boards, and emulators for
ARM7/ARM9/Cortex-M3, XC16x/C16x/ST10, 251, and 8051 MCU families.

Keil development tools for the 8051 Microcontroller Architecture support every level of
software developer from the professional applications engineer to the student just learning about
embedded software development. When starting a new project, simply select the microcontroller
you use from the Device Database and the µVision IDE sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and
memory options for you.

Keil is a cross compiler. So first we have to understand the concept of compilers and
cross compilers. After then we shall learn how to work with keil.

65
5.2 CONCEPT OF COMPILER

Compilers are programs used to convert a High Level Language to object code. Desktop
compilers produce an output object code for the underlying microprocessor, but not for other
microprocessors. I.E the programs written in one of the HLL like ‘C’ will compile the code to
run on the system for a particular processor like x86 (underlying microprocessor in the
computer). For example compilers for Dos platform is different from the Compilers for Unix
platform So if one wants to define a compiler then compiler is a program that translates source
code into object code.

The compiler derives its name from the way it works, looking at the entire piece of
source code and collecting and reorganizing the instruction. See there is a bit little difference
between compiler and an interpreter. Interpreter just interprets whole program at a time while
compiler analyses and execute each line of source code in succession, without looking at the
entire program.
The advantage of interpreters is that they can execute a program immediately. Secondly
programs produced by compilers run much faster than the same programs executed by an
interpreter. However compilers require some time before an executable program emerges. Now
as compilers translate source code into object code, which is unique for each type of computer,
many compilers are available for the same language.

5.3 CONCEPT OF CROSS COMPILER

A cross compiler is similar to the compilers but we write a program for the target
processor (like 8051 and its derivatives) on the host processors (like computer of x86). It means
being in one environment you are writing a code for another environment is called cross
development. And the compiler used for cross development is called cross compiler. So the
definition of cross compiler is a compiler that runs on one computer but produces object code for
a different type of computer.

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5.4 KEIL C CROSS COMPILER

Keil is a German based Software development company. It provides several

development tools like
• IDE (Integrated Development environment)
• Project Manager
• Simulator
• Debugger
• C Cross Compiler, Cross Assembler, Locator/Linker

The Keil ARM tool kit includes three main tools, assembler, compiler and linker. An
assembler is used to assemble the ARM assembly program. A compiler is used to compile the C
source code into an object file. A linker is used to create an absolute object module suitable for
our in-circuit emulator.
5.5 Building an Application in µVision2
To build (compile, assemble, and link) an application in µVision2, you must:
1. Select Project –(forexample,166\EXAMPLES\HELLO\HELLO.UV2).
2. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.µVision2 compiles, assembles, and
links the files in your project.

5.6 Creating Your Own Application in µVision2

To create a new project in µVision2, you must:
1. Select Project - New Project.
2. Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.
3. Select Project - Select Device and select an 8051, 251, or C16x/ST10 device from the
Device Database™.
4. Create source files to add to the project.
5. Select Project - Targets, Groups, Files. Add/Files, select Source Group1, and add the
source files to the project.

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 6. Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note when you select the target device
from the Device Database™ all special options are set automatically. You typically only
need to configure the memory map of your target hardware. Default memory model
settings are optimal for most applications.
7. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.

5.7 Debugging an Application in µVision2

To debug an application created using µVision2, you must:
1. Select Debug - Start/Stop Debug Session.
2. Use the Step toolbar buttons to single-step through your program. You may enter G, main
in the Output Window to execute to the main C function.
3. Open the Serial Window using the Serial #1 button on the toolbar.
Debug your program using standard options like Step, Go, Break, and so on.

5.8 Starting µVision2 and Creating a Project

µVision2 is a standard Windows application and started by clicking on the program icon.
To create a new project file select from the µVision2 menu Project – New Project…. This opens
a standard Windows dialog that asks you for the new project file name. We suggest that you use
a separate folder for each project. You can simply use the icon Create New Folder in this dialog
to get a new empty folder. Then select this folder and enter the file name for the new project, i.e.
Project1. µVision2 creates a new project file with the name PROJECT1.UV2 which contains a
default target and file group name. You can see these names in the Project.

5.9 Window – Files.

Now use from the menu Project – Select Device for Target and select a CPU for your
project. The Select Device dialog box shows the µVision2 device data base. Just select the
microcontroller you use. We are using for our examples the Philips 80C51RD+ CPU. This

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selection sets necessary tool Options for the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way the
tool Configuration.

5.10 Building Projects and Creating a HEX Files

Typical, the tool settings under Options – Target are all you need to start a new
application. You may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build
Target toolbar icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, µVision2 will display
errors and warning messages in the Output Window – Build page. A double click on a message
line opens the source file on the correct location in a µVision2 editor window. Once you have
successfully generated your application you can start debugging.

After you have tested your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX file to
download the software into an EPROM programmer or simulator. µVision2 creates HEX files
with each build process when Create HEX files under Options for Target – Output is enabled.
You may start your PROM programming utility after the make process when you specify the
program under the option Run User Program #1.

5.11 CPU Simulation

µVision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be mapped for
read, write, or code execution access. The µVision2 simulator traps
and reports illegal memory accesses. In addition to memory mapping, the simulator also provides
support for the integrated peripherals of the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals of
the CPU you have selected are configured from the Device.

5.12 Database selection

You have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more
Information about selecting a device. You may select and display the on-chip peripheral
components using the Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of each peripheral using the
controls in the dialog boxes.

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5.13 Start Debugging
You start the debug mode of µVision2 with the Debug – Start/Stop Debug
Session Command. Depending on the Options for Target – Debug Configuration, µVision2 will
load the application program and run the startup code µVision2 saves the editor screen layout
and restores the screen layout of the last debug session. If the program execution stops, µVision2
opens an editor window with the source text or shows CPU instructions in the disassembly
window. The next executable statement is marked with a yellow arrow. During debugging, most
editor features are still available.
For example, you can use the find command or correct program errors. Program source
text of your application is shown in the same windows. The µVision2 debug mode differs from
the edit mode in the following aspects:
_ The “Debug Menu and Debug Commands” described on page 28 are available. The additional
debug windows are discussed in the following.
_The project structure or tool parameters cannot be modified. All build commands are disabled.

5.14 Disassembly Window

The Disassembly window shows your target program as mixed source and assembly
program or just assembly code. A trace history of previously executed instructions may be
displayed with Debug – View Trace Records. To enable the trace history, set Debug –
Enable/Disable Trace Recording.

If you select the Disassembly Window as the active window all program step commands
work on CPU instruction level rather than program source lines. You can select a text line and
set or modify code breakpoints using toolbar buttons or the context menu commands.

You may use the dialog Debug – Inline Assembly… to modify the CPU instructions.
That allows you to correct mistakes or to make temporary changes to the target program you are

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debugging. Numerous example programs are included to help you get started with the most
popular embedded 8051 devices.

The Keil µVision Debugger accurately simulates on-chip peripherals (I²C, CAN, UART,
SPI, Interrupts, I/O Ports, A/D Converter, D/A Converter, and PWM Modules) of your 8051
device. Simulation helps you understand hardware configurations and avoids time wasted on
setup problems. Additionally, with simulation, you can write and test applications before target
hardware is available.

5.15 EMBEDDED C
Use of embedded processors in passenger cars, mobile phones, medical equipment,
aerospace systems and defense systems is widespread, and even everyday domestic appliances
such as dish washers, televisions, washing machines and video recorders now include at least one
such device.

Because most embedded projects have severe cost constraints, they tend to use low-cost
processors like the 8051 family of devices considered in this book. These popular chips have
very limited resources available most such devices have around 256 bytes (not megabytes!) of
RAM, and the available processor power is around 1000 times less than that of a desktop
processor. As a result, developing embedded software presents significant new challenges, even
for experienced desktop programmers. If you have some programming experience - in C, C++
or Java - then this book and its accompanying CD will help make your move to the embedded
world as quick and painless as possible.

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Accelerometer

The purpose of the accelerometer

The application of accelerometers extends to multiple disciplines, both academic and consumer-
driven. For example, accelerometers in laptops protect hard drives from damage. If the laptop
were to suddenly drop while in use, the accelerometer would detect the sudden free fall and
immediately turn off the hard drive to avoid hitting the reading heads into the hard drive platter.
Without this, the two would strike and cause scratches to the platter for extensive file and
reading damage. Accelerometers are likewise used in cars as the industry method way of
detecting car crashes and deploying airbags almost instantaneously.

In another example, a dynamic accelerometer measures gravitational pull to determine the

angle at which a device is tilted with respect to the Earth. By sensing the amount of
acceleration, users analyze how the device is moving.

Accelerometers allow the user to understand the surroundings of an item better. With this small
device, you can determine if an object is moving uphill, whether it will fall over if it tilts any more,
or whether it’s flying horizontally or angling downward. For example, smartphones rotate their
display between portrait and landscape mode depending on how you tilt the phone.

How they work

An accelerator looks like a simple circuit for some larger electronic device. Despite its humble
appearance, the accelerometer consists of many different parts and works in many ways, two of
which are the piezoelectric effect and the capacitance sensor. The piezoelectric effect is the
most common form of accelerometer and uses microscopic crystal structures that become
stressed due to accelerative forces. These crystals create a voltage from the stress, and the
accelerometer interprets the voltage to determine velocity and orientation.

The capacitance accelerometer senses changes in capacitance between microstructures

located next to the device. If an accelerative force moves one of these structures, the
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capacitance will change and the accelerometer will translate that capacitance to voltage for
interpretation.

Accelerometers are made up of many different components, and can be purchased as a

separate device. Analog and digital displays are available, though for most technology devices,
these components are integrated into the main technology and accessed using the governing
software or operating system.

Typical accelerometers are made up of multiple axes, two to determine most two-dimensional
movement with the option of a third for 3D positioning. Most smartphones typically make use of
three-axis models, whereas cars simply use only a two-axis to determine the moment of impact.
The sensitivity of these devices is quite high as they’re intended to measure even very minute
shifts in acceleration. The more sensitive the accelerometer, the more easily it can measure
acceleration.

Accelerometers, while actively used in many electronics in today’s world, are also available for
use in custom projects. Whether you’re an engineer or tech geek, the accelerometer plays a
very active role in a wide range of functionalities. In many cases you may not notice the
presence of this simple sensor, but odds are you may already be using a device with it.

This sensor can measure static (earth gravity) or dynamic acceleration in all three axis.
Application of the sensor is in various fields and many applications can be developed using
it. The accelerometer measures level of acceleration where it is mounted, enables us to
measure acceleration/deceleration of an object, or tilt of a platform with respected to earth
axis.

Further, the sensor provides 0G output which detect linear free fall. Technically,
MMA7361LC is a low power, low profile capacitive micromachined accelerometer featuring
signal conditioning, a 1-pole low pass filter, temperature compensation, self test, 0g-Detect
which detects linear freefall, and g-Select which allows for the selection between 2
sensitivities. Zero-g offset and sensitivity are factory set and require no external devices.
The MMA7361LC includes a Sleep Mode that makes it ideal for handheld battery powered
electronics. The module can be directly powered with a 5V dc supply. Note that it can also
be directly powered from any 3.3V ‘clean’ dc supply.

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 Simplified Accelerometer Functional Block Diagram

Features

 Simple to use

 Analog output for each axis

 +5V operation @1ma current

 High Sensitivity (800mV/g @ 1.5g)

 Selectable Sensitivity (+- 1.5g, +- 6g)

 0g detect for free fall detection

 Robust design, high shock survivability

 Low Cost

Applications

 3D Gaming: Tilt and Motion Sensing, Event Recorder

 HDD MP3 Player: Freefall Detection

 Laptop PC: Freefall Detection, Anti-Theft

 Cell Phone: Image Stability, Text Scroll, Motion Dialing, E-Compass

 Pedometer: Motion Sensing / PDA: Text Scroll

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 Navigation and Dead Reckoning: E-Compass Tilt Compensation

 Robotics: Motion Sensing

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

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76
Fig 6: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

6.1 DESCRIPTION

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POWER SUPPLY
This project uses a 6V battery for power supply. A diode is used to get about 5V DC
supply. One LED is connected of this 5V point in series with a resistor of 330Ω to the ground
i.e., negative voltage to indicate 5V power supply availability.

STANDARD CONNECTIONS TO 8051 SERIES MICRO CONTROLLER

ATMEL series of 8051 family of micro controllers need certain standard connections.
The actual number of the Microcontroller could be “89C51” , “89C52”, “89S51”, “89S52”, and
as regards to 20 pin configuration a number of “89C2051”. The 4 set of I/O ports are used based
on the project requirement. Every microcontroller requires a timing reference for its internal
program execution therefore an oscillator needs to be functional with a desired frequency to
obtain the timing reference as t =1/f.
A crystal ranging from 2 to 20 MHz is required to be used at its pin number 18 and 19 for
the internal oscillator. It may be noted here the crystal is not to be understood as crystal oscillator
It is just a crystal, while connected to the appropriate pin of the microcontroller it results in
oscillator function inside the microcontroller. Typically 11.0592 MHz crystal is used in general
for most of the circuits using 8051 series microcontroller. Two small value ceramic capacitors of
33pF each is used as a standard connection for the crystal as shown in the circuit diagram.
RESET
Pin no 9 is provided with an re-set arrangement by a combination of an electrolytic
capacitor and a register forming RC time constant. At the time of switch on, the capacitor gets
charged, and it behaves as a full short circuit from the positive to the pin number 9. After the
capacitor gets fully charged the current stops flowing and pin number 9 goes low which is pulled
down by a 10k resistor to the ground. This arrangement of reset at pin 9 going high initially and
then to logic 0 i.e., low helps the program execution to start from the beginning. In absence of
this the program execution could have taken place arbitrarily anywhere from the program cycle.
A pushbutton switch is connected across the capacitor so that at any given time as desired it can
be pressed such that it discharges the capacitor and while released the capacitor starts charging
again and then pin number 9 goes to high and then back to low, to enable the program execution

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from the beginning. This operation of high to low of the reset pin takes place in fraction of a
second as decided by the time constant R and C.
For example: A 10µF capacitor and a 10kΩ resistor would render a 100ms time to pin number 9
from logic high to low, there after the pin number 9 remains low.
External Access(EA):
Pin no 31 of 40 pin 8051 microcontroller termed as EA¯ is required to be connected to 5V for
accessing the program form the on-chip program memory. If it is connected to ground then the
controller accesses the program from external memory. However as we are using the internal
memory it is always connected to +5V.

L293D MOTOR DRIVER

L293D has 2 set of arrangements where one set has input 1, input 2, output 1
and output 2 and other set has input 3, input 4, output 3 and output 4, according to block
diagram if pin no 2 & 7 are high then pin no 3 & 6 are also high.
If enable 1 and pin number 2 are high leaving pin number 7 as low then the
motor rotates in forward direction.
If enable 2 and pin number 10 are high leaving pin number 15 as low then the
motor rotates in forward direction.
If enable 1 and pin number 2 are low leaving pin number 7 as high then the motor
rotates in reverse direction.
If enable 2 and pin number 15 are high leaving pin number 10 as low then the
motor rotates in forward direction.

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ENCODER AND DECODER

ENCODER IC IS HT12E and DECODER IC IS HT12D. Basically they have operating voltages
from 2.4V to 12V and they are CMOS IC’s. ENCODER HT12E has 8 address / data lines. The
data set on these 12 lines is serially transmitted. When the transmission enable pin i.e. pin 14 is
from high to low and that data appears serially on DOUT. This data is transmitted 4 times in
succession, it consists of different length of +ve and –ve pulses. Two pins 15 and 16 are used for
setting oscillator frequency value of RC time constant here C is internally built and we need to
change R by arranging a Resistance between pins and that will determine oscillators frequency.
The internal oscillator frequency of decoders is 50 times the oscillator frequency of encoder.
In decoder IC we go for a value approximately equal to 51kohms one can chose other values
based on the graph.
The encoder begins with a c1-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission enable TE.
This cycle will repeat itself as long as the transmission enable (TE or D8/D11) is held low. Once
the transmission enable returns high the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops.

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RF MODULES
The RF modules are 433 MHz RF Transmitter and Receiver modules. These are typically
AM/ASK transmitter, receiver (Tx-433)& (Rx-433) amplitude shift keying i.e. ASK or OKK i.e.
off hook keying type RF transmitter and receiver modules. OKK transmitter draws no power
when transmitting “zero” while fully suppressing the carrier frequency thus consume
significantly low power (about 1mA only) in battery operation. When logic “one” is sent carrier
is fully on to about 4.5mA with a 3volts power supply. These are much less than FSK
(Frequency Shift Keying) type.

 Rx receiver frequency: 433MHz

 Rx typical frequency: 105Dbm
 Rx supply current: 3.5mA
 Rx IF frequency: 1MHz
 Low power consumption
 Easy for application
 Rx operating voltage: 5v
 Tx frequency range: 433.92MHz
 Tx supply voltage: 3v ~ 6v
 Tx output power: 4v ~ 12v

OPERATION EXPLANATION

CONNECTIONS:

TRANSMITTER:
The output of the power supply which is 5v is connected to 20 th pin of MC and GND is
connected to its 10th pin. Pin 1-3 of MC is connected to set of push buttons. Pins 7, 8, 9, 3, 12 of
MC are connected to Backward, Stop, Forward, Left, Right push buttons. Pins 19, 18, 16, 15 of
MC are connected to 10,11,12,13 Pins of encoder HT12E. Pins 1 to 9 of HT12E encoder are
connected to GND.

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RECEIVER:,
Pin’s 1 to 4 of MC are connected 13 to 10 of HT12D Decoder. Pin 10 of MC is connected
to 17th pin of HT12D Decoder. 14th pin of HT12D Decoder is connected to DATA pin of
Receiver. Pin’s 28 & 27 of MC are connected to 7 and 2 Pin’s of L293D. Pin’s 26, 23, 28, 21 of
MC are connected to 1, 9, 10, 15 pin’s of L293D Motor Driver. Pin’s 3, 6, 11, 14 of L293D are
given to Motor 1 and 2.

7. LAYOUT
TRNSMITTER:

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RECIEVER:

83
8. BILL OF MATERIALS
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COMPONENT NAME QUANTITY
Resistors
330R 2
10K 1
68K 1
10K SIP 1
33K 1

Capacitors
10uF/63V 1
22pF Ceramic 2
33pF Ceramic 2
104pF Ceramic 2

Integrated Circuits
AT89S52 1
HT12D 1
HT12E 1
L293D 1

IC Bases
40-PIN BASE 1
18-PIN BASE 2
16-PIN BASE 1

Diodes
1N4007 1

Miscellaneous
CELL COVER 1
9V BATTERY (For Remote) 1
BATTERY CLIP FOR 9V BATTERY 1
PENCIL CELL BATTERY (4 X 1.5V) 4
2-PIN FEMALE RELEMENT ONE SIDE 1
CRYSTAL 11.0592MHz 1
LED-RED 1
2-PIN PUSH BUTTON 5
RF MODULE (RX and TX) 1
MALE BURGE 2-PIN 2
MALE RELIMET 2-PIN 1
FEMALE BURGE 2-PIN 2
FEMALE RELEMENT 2-PIN ONE SIDE 1

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CODING

86
87
88
 9.1 PROGRAM CODE

1. Click on the Keil Vision Icon on Desktop

2. The following fig will appear

89
3. Click on the Project menu from the title bar

4. Then Click on New Project

5. Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own folder
sited in either C:\ or D:\

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6. Then Click on Save button above.

7. Select the component for u r project. i.e. Atmel……

8. Click on the + Symbol beside of Atmel

9. Select AT89C51 as shown below

10. Then Click on “OK”

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11. The Following fig will appear

12. Then Click either YES or NO………mostly “NO”.

13. Now your project is ready to USE.

14. Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option “Source group 1” as
shown in next page.

15. Click on the file option from menu bar and select “new”.
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16. The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double
clicking on its blue boarder.

17. Now start writing program in either in “EMBEDDED C” or “ASM”.

18. For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension “. asm” and for
“EMBEDDED C” based program save it with extension “ .C”
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19. Now right click on Source group 1 and click on “Add files to Group Source”.

20. Now you will get another window, on which by default “EMBEDDED C” files will
appear.
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21. Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file

22. Click only one time on option “ADD”.

23. Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.

24. If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously.

25. The new window is as follows

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26. Then Click “OK”.

27. Now click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as shown
in fig below.

28. Drag the port a side and click in the program file.

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 29. Now keep Pressing function key “F11” slowly and observe.

30. You are running your program successfully.

10.HARDWARE TESTING

10.1 CONTINUITY TEST:

In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small voltage
(wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a piezoelectric speaker)
across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken conductors, damaged components,
or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".

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 Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices, generally with a
simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two ends
belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance between the
"right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.

This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has been
completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after the soldering.
Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper soldering, wrong and
rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron, component failures and
presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to perform this test. We keep the
multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground terminal of the multi meter to the ground.
We connect both the terminals across the path that needs to be checked. If there is continuation
then you will hear the beep sound.

10.2 POWER ON TEST:

This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is according to
the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode. First of all check the
voltage across the battery terminal whether it is fully charged or not, the battery used in this
project is 12V, so touch the ‘red terminal’ of battery with ‘red probe’ of multi meter and touch
‘black terminal’ of battery with ‘black probe’ of multi meter, if 12V is being displayed on multi
meter screen then we can proceed for next steps.

Now that the power supply is available, no IC should be inserted in the base, first apply
power and check whether proper voltage is reaching at ‘vcc’ and ‘gnd’ pins of each IC base or

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not. If proper voltages appear at the supply pins of IC bases then insert IC and check the required
output.

Now we have to check whether the LEDs are in working condition or not, Red LED or IR
LED or Photo diode has got one ‘longer leg’ and one ‘shorter leg’. Longer leg is positive
terminal of LED and shorter leg is negative terminal.
Now keep the multi meter in ‘buzzer mode or continuity mode’ and touch ‘red probe’ of multi
meter to the ‘longer leg’ of LED and ‘black probe’ of multi meter to the ‘shorter leg’ of LED, if
LED glows in such case that means it’s working.
Now solder Red LED into PCB, remember ‘longer leg’ of LED should be inserted into
positive marking on PCB and ‘shorter leg’ should be inserted into other hole of LED marking on
PCB. Now after soldering LED with a series resistor apply battery voltage to the board and see
whether the LED is glowing or not.

The black LED is photodiode and white LED is IR diode even these components have
got longer leg and shorter leg, insert longer leg into +ve marking hole on PCB and insert shorter
leg into other hole of LED marking on PCB .

13.BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT BOOKS REFERED:

1. “The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded systems” by Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice

Gillispie Mazidi , Pearson Education.

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2. ATMEL 89S52 Data Sheets.

WEBSITES

 www.atmel.com

 www.beyondlogic.org

 www.wikipedia.org

 www.howstuffworks.com

 www.alldatasheets.com

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