4.

1 Introduction
First law of thermodynamics is based on the conservation principles.
Analysis of CM and CV with respect to conservation of mass and conservation of
energy
4.2 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass
Conservation of Mass:
Total mass of a control mass always remains constant.
Mathematically,
ⅆ𝑚 = 0
For any process 1-2,
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = 0
∴ 𝑚2 = 𝑚1
In terms of rate,
ⅆ𝑚
=0
ⅆ𝑡
Conservation of Energy:

The change in total energy of a control mass is equal to the heat supplied to the
control mass minus the work done by the control mass.
Mathematically,
ⅆ𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊
For any process 1-2,
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
Since 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸, we can write
𝑈 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 2 − 𝑈 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 1 = 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
1 2
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧 + 𝑚𝑉 − 𝑈 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧 + 𝑚𝑉 2 = 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
2 2
2 1
Most common example of a control mass is a piston-cylinder device, and for a
stationary piston-cylinder device, the changes in potential energy and kinetic energy
are negligible in comparison to the change in internal energy.
𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
∴ 𝑄12 = ∆𝑈 12 + 𝑊12
First Law of Thermodynamics for a CM undergoing a Cyclic Process
ⅆ𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊

For a cyclic process, ⅆ𝐸 = 0.

∴ 𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑊
In equivalent form,
𝑄= 𝑊

For a cyclic process as shown in figure,

𝑄12 + 𝑄23 + 𝑄31 = 𝑊12 + 𝑊23 + 𝑊31

Whenever a control mass is taken through a cycle

then the heat transferred to the control mass is equal Power Cycle
to the net work done by the control mass.
OR
Whenever a control mass is taken through a cycle
then the heat rejected by the control mass is equal to Refrigeration Cycle
the net work done on the control mass.
Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics for Non-flow Processes
a) Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process
b) Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process
c) Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process
d) Polytropic Process 𝑄12 = ∆𝑈 12 + 𝑊12

a) Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process

𝑄12 = ∆𝑈 12 ∵ 𝑊12 = 0
Heat transferred to a control mass during a constant volume process is
equal to the increase in internal energy of the control mass.
OR
Heat transferred from a control mass during a constant volume process is
equal to the decrease in internal energy of the control mass.
b) Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process
𝑄12 = ∆𝑈 12 + 𝑊12
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄12 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ∵ 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄12 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄12 = 𝑈2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1
Since 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉, we can write
∴ 𝑄12 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = ∆𝐻 12

Heat transferred to a control mass during a constant pressure process is

equal to the increase in enthalpy of the control mass.
OR
Heat transferred from a control mass during a constant pressure process is
equal to the decrease in enthalpy of the control mass.
Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
Specific Heat at Constant Volume
Heat supplied to an ideal gas during a constant volume process is equal to the
change in internal energy.
Let us start with the state postulate.
𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑇, 𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
ⅆ𝑢 = ⅆ𝑇 + ⅆ𝑣
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
𝜕𝑢
ⅆ𝑢 = ⅆ𝑇
𝜕𝑇 𝑣
In simple form,
ⅆ𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 ⅆ𝑇
where,
𝜕𝑢
𝑐𝑣 =
𝜕𝑇 𝑣
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
Heat supplied to an ideal gas during a constant pressure process is equal to the
change in enthalpy.
Let us start with the state postulate.
ℎ = 𝑓 𝑇, 𝑃
𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
ⅆℎ = ⅆ𝑇 + ⅆ𝑃
𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑇
𝜕ℎ
ⅆℎ = ⅆ𝑇
𝜕𝑇 𝑃
In simple form,
ⅆℎ = 𝑐𝑃 ⅆ𝑇
where,
𝜕ℎ
𝑐𝑃 =
𝜕𝑇 𝑃
c) Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process 𝜕𝑢
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑄12 = ∆𝑈 12 + 𝑊12 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
Since ∆𝑈 12 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 0
𝑉2
and 𝑊12 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln , we can write
𝑉1
𝑉2
∴ 𝑄12 = 𝑊12 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉1

Heat transferred to a control mass during a constant temperature process is

equal to the work done by the control mass.
OR
Heat transferred from a control mass during a constant temperature process
is equal to the work done on the control mass.
d) Polytropic Process
𝑄12 = ∆𝑈 12 + 𝑊12
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄12 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 +
1−𝑛
𝑚𝑅 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄12 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 +
1−𝑛
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑄12 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
1−𝑛
∴ 𝑄12 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
where,
𝑅
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 +
1−𝑛
is called the polytropic specific heat.
4.3 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume
Conservation of Mass:
The change in mass within a control volume is equal to the mass entering the control
volume minus the mass leaving the control volume.
Mathematically, ⅆ𝑚𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
ⅆ𝑚𝐶𝑉
= 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
ⅆ𝑡
where,
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚
𝑖𝑛

𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚
𝑜𝑢𝑡
For example, consider a control volume as shown in figure consisting of two inlets
and three outlets.
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚3 + 𝑚4 + 𝑚5
Expression for Mass Flow Rate
Total mass of fluid crossing the section of length ∆𝐿 is
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴∆𝐿 ∵ 𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝐴∆𝐿
The mass flow rate is
∆𝐿
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
∆𝑡
In terms of specific volume,
𝐴𝑉
𝑚=
𝑣
Conservation of Energy:
The change in total energy of a control volume is equal to the net energy transported
by the fluid into the control volume plus the heat transferred to the control volume
minus the work done by the control volume.
Mathematically,
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉
= 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 + 𝑄 − 𝑊
ⅆ𝑡
Substituting 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 , we get
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉
= 𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄 − 𝑊
ⅆ𝑡
where,
1 2
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑖𝑛
1 2
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑜𝑢𝑡
Heat transfer always occurs due to the difference in temperature between a system
and its surroundings whether it is a control mass or a control volume.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑄 = 𝑄𝐶𝑉
But the total work transfer associated with a control volume includes various modes
of work transfer such as flow work, shaft work, expansion/compression work, etc.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 + 𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
Expression for Flow Work
Energy required for the displacement of fluid is
𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐹∆𝐿 = 𝑃𝐴∆𝐿 = 𝑃𝑉𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡
Specific flow work or flow work per unit mass of the flowing fluid is
𝑤𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑃𝑣
Rate of flow work is
𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚𝑃𝑣
The total work transfer is
𝑊=− 𝑚𝑃𝑣 + 𝑚𝑃𝑣 + 𝑊𝐶𝑉
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
where,
𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 + 𝑊𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
The general energy equation for the control volume finally becomes
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 1
= 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 + 𝑚𝑃𝑣 − 𝑚𝑃𝑣 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉
ⅆ𝑡 2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉
ⅆ𝑡 2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Substituting ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣, we get

ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 1
∴ = 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉
ⅆ𝑡 2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
4.4 Control Volume Analysis

Any CV can be
analyzed with respect
to

space time

Non-
Uniform Steady state Unsteady
uniform
system system state system
system

If the properties of the system at a particular instant of time do not vary with space,
it is called a uniform system.
If the properties of the system at a particular point do not vary with time, it is called
a steady state system.
4.4.1 Steady State Analysis
During the steady state operation of a control volume, its properties (total mass and
total energy) should not change with time.
ⅆ𝑚𝐶𝑉
=0
ⅆ𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
∴ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
Incoming mass should be equal to outgoing mass.
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉
=0
ⅆ𝑡
1 2 1 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 0
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
1 2 1 2
∴ 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑊𝐶𝑉
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Incoming energy should be equal to outgoing energy.
Most common examples of steady state devices are turbine, compressor, pump,
nozzle, diffuser, heat exchanger, etc. These devices have single inlet and single
outlet. If we denote inlet section by 1 and outlet section by 2, i.e.,
Conservation of Mass:
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
Conservation of Energy:
1 2 1 2
𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑉1 + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ2 + 𝑉2 + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑊𝐶𝑉
2 2
1 2
∴ 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉12 + 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
2
4.4.2 Unsteady State Analysis
During the unsteady state operation of a control volume, its properties (total mass
and total energy) change with time.
ⅆ𝑚𝐶𝑉
≠0 𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝐶𝑉 = 𝑓1 𝑡
ⅆ𝑡
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉
≠0 𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝐶𝑉 = 𝑓2 𝑡
ⅆ𝑡
Integrating mass conservation equation, we get
𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2
ⅆ𝑚𝐶𝑉
ⅆ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⅆ𝑡 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⅆ𝑡
ⅆ𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
∴ 𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
Integrating energy conservation equation, we get
𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2
ⅆ𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 2 1 2
ⅆ𝑡 = 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 ⅆ𝑡 − 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 ⅆ𝑡 + 𝑄𝐶𝑉 ⅆ𝑡 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 ⅆ𝑡
ⅆ𝑡 2 2
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡1 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡1
1 1
∴ 𝐸𝐶𝑉 2 − 𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 = 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

4.5 Control Volume Applications

4.5.1 Steady State Work Applications
4.5.2 Steady State Flow Applications
4.5.3 Unsteady State Work Applications
4.5.4 Unsteady State Flow Applications
4.5.1 Steady State Work Applications
Devices which operate under steady state conditions, and either produce or consume
work are called steady state work applications. For example, turbine, compressor,
pump, fan, etc.
Turbine
A turbine is a device which produces power by consuming energy carried by a
fluid. It generally has a single inlet and a single outlet.
For the steady state operation of the turbine,
Mass Conservation Equation:
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
Energy Conservation Equation:
1 2
𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉12 + 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
2
If turbine surface is insulated and heat transfer loss is negligible, it is called an
adiabatic turbine. The energy conservation equation for an adiabatic turbine,
therefore, reduces to
1 2
𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ1 − ℎ2 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉22 + 𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
2
Compressor, Pump and Fan
Compressor, pump and fan increase fluid energy by consuming mechanical work.

Compressor usually increases pressure

energy of the gaseous substance.

Pump increases pressure or potential

energy of the liquid substance.

Fan increases kinetic energy (by

increasing velocity) of the fluid.
For the steady state operation of these devices,
Mass Conservation Equation:
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
Energy Conservation Equation:
1 2
𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉12 + 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
2
If these devices operate under the adiabatic condition, the energy conservation
equation becomes
1 2
𝑊𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ1 − ℎ2 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉22 + 𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
2
4.5.2 Steady State Flow Applications
Devices which operate under steady state conditions, and neither produce nor
consume work are called steady state flow applications. For example, nozzle,
diffuser, heat exchanger, evaporator, condenser, throttling valve, etc.
Nozzle and Diffuser
Nozzle is a device with decreasing cross sectional area which is used to increase
fluid velocity whereas diffuser is a device with increasing cross sectional area
which is used to decrease fluid velocity. These devices have a single inlet and a
single outlet.

For the steady state operation of these devices,

Mass Conservation Equation:
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
Energy Conservation Equation:
1 2
𝑄𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉12 + 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
2
In these devices, change in potential energy is usually negligible in comparison to
change in kinetic energy and change in enthalpy. If these devices operate under
steady state conditions, the energy conservation equation becomes
1 2
ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉12 = 0
2
1 2 1 2
∴ ℎ1 + 𝑉1 = ℎ2 + 𝑉2
2 2
Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger is a device which is used to transfer heat from one fluid to another.
In case of a heat exchanger, changes in potential
energy and kinetic energy are usually negligible
in comparison to change in enthalpy.
The energy conservation equation for the control
volume A is given by
𝑄 = 𝑚ℎ ℎ2ℎ − ℎ1ℎ
The energy conservation equation for the control
volume B is given by
𝑄 = −𝑚𝑐 ℎ2𝑐 − ℎ1𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 ℎ1𝑐 − ℎ2𝑐
The energy conservation equation for the control
volume C is given by
𝑚ℎ ℎ2ℎ − ℎ1ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 ℎ1𝑐 − ℎ2𝑐
∴ 𝑚ℎ ℎ1ℎ + 𝑚𝑐 ℎ1𝑐 = 𝑚ℎ ℎ2ℎ + 𝑚𝑐 ℎ2𝑐
Evaporator and Condenser
Evaporator and condenser are special types of heat exchanger.

Evaporator converts liquid into vapor

by absorbing heat from the surroundings.

Condenser converts vapor into liquid by

rejecting heat to the surroundings.
The energy conservation equation for evaporator or condenser is
𝑄 = 𝑚 ℎ2 − ℎ1
Throttling valve
Throttling valve is a device which reduces the pressure of a fluid without
performing any work.

Heat transfer, change in potential energy and change in kinetic energy are usually
negligible.
The energy conservation equation for the throttling valve is
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 0
∴ ℎ2 = ℎ1
Hence, enthalpy remains constant during a throttling process.
4.5.3 Unsteady State Work Applications
Turbine, compressor, pump, fan, etc. operate at steady state during their normal
operation. But the same devices operate at unsteady state during the startup and
shutdown period.
To have a general idea about unsteady state work application, let us consider the
following example.
Mass Conservation Equation:
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
∴ 𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Energy Conservation Equation:
1 1
𝐸𝐶𝑉 2 − 𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 = 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

In case of a piston-cylinder device, changes in potential energy and kinetic energy

are negligible in comparison to change in internal energy.
1 2
∴ 𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑔𝑧𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
2
4.5.4 Unsteady State Flow Applications
To have a general idea about unsteady state work
application, let us consider a cooking gas cylinder.

Mass Conservation Equation:

𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
∴ 𝑚2 − 𝑚1 = −𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡
Energy Conservation Equation:
1 2 1 2
𝐸𝐶𝑉 2 − 𝐸𝐶𝑉 1 = 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 − 𝑚 ℎ + 𝑉 + 𝑔𝑧 + 𝑄12 − 𝑊12
2 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

In case of a cooking gas cylinder, changes in potential energy and kinetic energy are
negligible in comparison to change in internal energy.
1
2 + 𝑔𝑧
∴ 𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = −𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄12
2
4.6 Other Statements of First Law
a) First Law of Thermodynamics for an Isolated System
First law of thermodynamics for a control mass is
ⅆ𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊
If the control mass is isolated from its surroundings, there is no energy
interaction of any kind (𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑊 = 0).
Then, the energy conservation equation becomes
∴ ⅆ𝐸 = 0
Hence, total energy of an isolated system always remains constant.
b) First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass undergoing an Adiabatic
Process
If the boundary of the control mass is insulated and there is no heat transfer
(𝛿𝑄 = 0), the energy conservation equation becomes
ⅆ𝐸 = −𝛿𝑊
Hence, increase in total energy of a control mass is equal to the total work done
on the control mass.
c) Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind (PMM-I) is not possible.
PMM-I is a hypothetical machine which can continuously produce useful output
energy without any energy input at all. It clearly violates the first law of
thermodynamics. In practice, we cannot take continuous useful output effect
without corresponding supply of input energy.